Name: morphological and compositional analysis of neutrophil extracellular traps induced by microbial and chemical stimuli
Uploaded: 2022-11-04T14:10:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Morphological and Compositional Analysis of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Induced by Microbial and Chemical Stimuli at JoVE.com

This work was supported by a basic science grant (#285480) from CONACyT and by the Department of Clinical Immunology Research of the Biochemical Sciences Faculty, Universidad Aut&#243;noma &#39;Benito Ju&#225;rez&#39; de Oaxaca. A.A.A, S.A.S.L, and W.J.R.R. have doctoral fellowships of CONACyT numbers #799779, #660793, and #827788, respectively.

The blood samples were obtained as donations from clinically healthy participants after informed consent. All experiments were performed with the permission of the Human Research Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Biochemical Sciences, Universidad Aut&#243;noma &#39;Benito Ju&#225;rez&#39; of Oaxaca.
NOTE: The inclusion criteria in the study were indistinct sex and age, and clinically healthy according to participant responses to a questionnaire prior to taking a blood sample. A hematological ...

<ol>
	<li>De Buhr, N., Maren, K. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=How+neutrophil+extracellular+traps+become+visible.">How neutrophil extracellular traps become visible.</a> Journal of Immunology Research. 2016, 4604713 (2016).</li><li>Karlsson, A., Nixon, J. B., McPhail, L. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phorbol+myristate+acetate+induces+neutrophil+NADPH-oxidase+activity+by+two+separate+signal+transduction+pathways:+dependent+or+independent+of+phosphatidylinositol+3-kinase.">Phorbol myristate acetate induces neutrophil NADPH-oxidase activity by two separate signal transduction pathways: dependent or independent of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase.</a> Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 67 (3), 396-404 (2000).</li><li>Takei, H., Araki, A., Watanabe, H., Ichinose, A., Sendo, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+killing+of+human+neutrophils+by+the+potent+activator+phorbol+12-myristate+13-acetate+(PMA)+accompanied+by+changes+different+from+typical+apoptosis+or+necrosis.">Rapid killing of human neutrophils by the potent activator phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) accompanied by changes different from typical apoptosis or necrosis.</a> Journal of Leukocyte Biology. 59 (2), 229-240 (1996).</li><li>Brinkmann, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+extracellular+traps+kill+bacteria.">Neutrophil extracellular traps kill bacteria.</a> Science. 303 (5663), 1532-1535 (2004).</li><li>Kenny, E. F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Diverse+stimuli+engage+different+neutrophil+extracellular+trap+pathways.">Diverse stimuli engage different neutrophil extracellular trap pathways.</a> eLife. 6, 24437 (2017).</li><li>Schultz, B. M., Acevedo, O. A., Kalergis, A. M., Bueno, S. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+extracellular+trap+release+during+bacterial+and+viral+infection.">Role of extracellular trap release during bacterial and viral infection.</a> Frontiers in Microbiology. 13, 798853 (2022).</li><li>Papayannopoulos, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+extracellular+traps+in+immunity+and+disease.">Neutrophil extracellular traps in immunity and disease.</a> Nature Reviews Immunology. 18 (2), 134-147 (2018).</li><li>Delgado-Rizo, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+extracellular+traps+and+its+implications+in+inflammation:+An+overview.">Neutrophil extracellular traps and its implications in inflammation: An overview.</a> Frontiers in Immunology. 8, 81 (2017).</li><li>Petretto, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+extracellular+traps+(NET)+induced+by+different+stimuli:+A+comparative+proteomic+analysis.">Neutrophil extracellular traps (NET) induced by different stimuli: A comparative proteomic analysis.</a> PLoS One. 14 (7), 0218946 (2019).</li><li>Neumann, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+role+of+the+antimicrobial+peptide+LL-37+in+the+protection+of+neutrophil+extracellular+traps+against+degradation+by+bacterial+nucleases.">Novel role of the antimicrobial peptide LL-37 in the protection of neutrophil extracellular traps against degradation by bacterial nucleases.</a> Journal of Innate Immunity. 6 (6), 860-868 (2014).</li><li>Hakkim, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Activation+of+the+Raf-MEK-ERK+pathway+is+required+for+neutrophil+extracellular+trap+formation.">Activation of the Raf-MEK-ERK pathway is required for neutrophil extracellular trap formation.</a> Nature Chemical Biology. 7 (2), 75-77 (2011).</li><li>Sabbatini, M., Magnelli, V., Ren&#242;, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NETosis+in+wound+healing:+When+enough+Is+enough.">NETosis in wound healing: When enough Is enough.</a> Cells. 10 (3), 494 (2021).</li><li>Metzler, K. D., Goosmann, C., Lubojemska, A., Zychlinsky, A., Papayannopoulos, V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+myeloperoxidase-containing+complex+regulates+neutrophil+elastase+release+and+actin+dynamics+during+NETosis.">A myeloperoxidase-containing complex regulates neutrophil elastase release and actin dynamics during NETosis.</a> Cell Reports. 8 (3), 883-896 (2014).</li><li>Clark, S. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Platelet+TLR4+activates+neutrophil+extracellular+traps+to+ensnare+bacteria+in+septic+blood.">Platelet TLR4 activates neutrophil extracellular traps to ensnare bacteria in septic blood.</a> Nature Medicine. 13 (4), 463-469 (2007).</li><li>Pilsczek, F. 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C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization,+quantification,+and+visualization+of+neutrophil+extracellular+traps.">Characterization, quantification, and visualization of neutrophil extracellular traps.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1537, 481-497 (2017).</li><li>Boeltz, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=To+NET+or+not+to+NET:+current+opinions+and+state+of+the+science+regarding+the+formation+of+neutrophil+extracellular+traps.">To NET or not to NET: current opinions and state of the science regarding the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps.</a> Cell Death and Differentiation. 26 (3), 395-408 (2019).</li><li>Yousefi, S., Mihalache, C., Kozlowski, E., Schmid, I., Simon, H. U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Viable+neutrophils+release+mitochondrial+DNA+to+form+neutrophil+extracellular+traps.">Viable neutrophils release mitochondrial DNA to form neutrophil extracellular traps.</a> Cell Death and Differentiation. 16 (11), 1438-1444 (2009).</li><li>Brinkmann, V., Zychlinsky, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neutrophil+extracellular+traps:+is+immunity+the+second+function+of+chromatin.">Neutrophil extracellular traps: is immunity the second function of chromatin.</a> The Journal of Cell Biology. 198 (5), 773-783 (2012).</li></ol>

A highly pure population of viable neutrophils must be obtained to induce the release of NETs since these cells have a limited ex vivo lifetime of 8 h on average, a period within which all the experiments must be performed. To this end, the ideal methodology is the double-density gradient to optimize the purification time by isolating nonactivated cells more responsive to exogenous stimulation, in contrast to Ficoll-Histopaque gradient or Dextran sedimentation techniques17. Another advant...

Neutrophils are the most abundant leukocytes in the bloodstream, playing an essential role during the clearance of pathogenic agents by several mechanisms, including the release of large chromatin structures composed of DNA and several nuclear, cytoplasmic, and granular antibacterial proteins1,2. The direct antecedent describing this antimicrobial role of neutrophils was made by Takei et al.3 in 1996. These authors reported a new form of death different from apoptosis and necroptosis in neutrophils, showed morphological changes exhibiting nuclear rupture, followed by spilling out of the nucleoplasm into the cytoplasm, and an increase in membrane permeability from 3 h of incubation with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)2,3. However, it was not until 2004 that the term &#34;neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs)&#34; was used4.
NET formation has been observed in various conditions, such as bacterial, fungal5, viral6, and parasitic infections, for neutralizing, killing, and preventing microbial dissemination7. Other studies show that it can also occur in non-pathogenic conditions by sterile stimuli, such as cytokines, monosodium uric acid or cholesterol crystals, autoantibodies, immune complexes, and activated platelets7. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS), interleukin-8 (IL-8), and PMA were among the first in vitro stimuli described as NET inducers, and the in vivo NET involvement in pathogenic processes was demonstrated in two models of acute inflammation: experimental dysentery and spontaneous human appendicitis4. DNA is an essential NET component. Its appropriate structure and composition are necessary for the sequestration and killing of microorganisms by delivering a high local concentration of antimicrobial molecules toward the caught microbes, as demonstrated by a brief deoxyribonuclease (DNase) treatment that disintegrates NETs and their microbicidal properties4. Besides DNA, NETs comprise attached proteins such as histones, neutrophil elastase (NE), cathepsin G (CG), proteinase 3, lactoferrin, gelatinase, myeloperoxidase (MPO), and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) such as the cationic pro-inflammatory peptide cathelicidin LL-37 among others8,9. Such aggregates may form larger threads with diameters up to 50 nm. These factors can disrupt the microbial virulence factors or the integrity of the pathogen cell membrane; additionally, the AMPs can stabilize the NET-derived DNA against degradation by bacterial nucleases10.
The specific mechanisms regulating NET formation have not yet been completely clarified. The best-characterized pathway leading to NET release is through ERK signaling, which leads to NADPH oxidase activation and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, as well as increased intracellular calcium that triggers activation of the MPO pathway. This in turn transforms hydrogen peroxide into hypochlorous acid, activating NE by oxidation11,12. NE is responsible for degrading the actin filaments of the cytoskeleton to block phagocytosis and translocating them to the nucleus for processing by proteolytic cleavage and deamination by PAD4 that drive the desensitization of chromatin fibers, which associate with granule and cytoplasmic proteins, and are then released extracellularly7. These proteases include those released from the azurosome complex of the azurophil granules and other proteases such as cathepsin G13.
Depending on the morphological changes in neutrophils, NETs are classified into two types: suicidal or lytic NET formation leading to cell death4, and vital or non-lytic NET formation produced by viable cells mediated by a vesicular release of nuclear or mitochondrial DNA, with a remnant of an anucleated cytoplast with phagocytic capability14,15. Generally, NETs composed of mitochondrial DNA present an elongated fiber14 morphology, while those structured of nuclear DNA have a cloud-like appearance3. However, it is not known how the neutrophil chooses its DNA origin. Contrary to previous studies that described the canonical pathways of NETs as requiring several hours, the vital pathway is rapidly activated in just 5-60 min15.
Despite these advances, the NET composition varies depending on the stimulus; for example, different mucoid and non-mucoid strains of P. aeruginosa induce the formation of NETs containing 33 common proteins and up to 50 variable proteins7. Thus, it is necessary to homogenize techniques that allow the generation of objective conclusions in research groups. This paper describes a protocol with various techniques that allow comparison and evaluation of the composition, structure, and morphology of NETs induced with different microorganisms: Staphylococcus aureus (gram-positive bacterium), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (gram-negative bacterium), and Candida albicans (fungus), as well as chemical stimuli (PMA, HOCl) in human neutrophils from healthy individuals. The representative results demonstrate the heterogeneity of NETs depending on their inducing stimulus under comparable in vitro conditions, characterized by DNA-DAPI staining, immunostaining for LL37, and quantification of enzymatic activity (NE, CG, and MPO).

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	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>24 Well plate for cell culture</td>
			<td>Corning&#160;</td>
			<td>3526</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>7-aminoactinomycin D (7-AAD)</td>
			<td>BD Pharmingen</td>
			<td>51-668981E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>96 Well plate for cell culture</td>
			<td>Costar</td>
			<td>3596</td>
			<td>Flat bottom</td>
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		<tr>
			<td>Agitator</td>
			<td>CRM Globe</td>
			<td>CRM-OS1&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibody LL37&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology&#160;</td>
			<td>sc-166770</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Blood collection tubes</td>
			<td>BD VACUTAINER</td>
			<td>368171</td>
			<td>K2 EDTA 7.2 mg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>21878</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Hettich</td>
			<td>1406-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coverslip</td>
			<td>Madesa</td>
			<td>M03-CUB-22X22</td>
			<td>22 mm x 22 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#180;s phosphate-buffered saline (DPBS)</td>
			<td>Caisson</td>
			<td>1201022</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon tubes 50 mL</td>
			<td>CORNING&#160;</td>
			<td>430829</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Flow Cytometry Tubes</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotec&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>5 mL - Without caps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>FlowJo Software</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Analyze flow cytometry data</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescence microscope</td>
			<td>DM 2000&#160;</td>
			<td>LEICA&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluoroshield with DAPI&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich&#160;</td>
			<td>F6057&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Incubator&#160;</td>
			<td>NUAIRE</td>
			<td>UN-4750</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MACSQuant Analyzer</td>
			<td>Miltenyi Biotec&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Flow cytometer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microplate reader photometer&#160;</td>
			<td>Clarkson Laboratory - CL&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtubes 1.5 mL</td>
			<td>Zhejiang Runlab Tech</td>
			<td>35200N</td>
			<td>wire snap&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Minitab Software</td>
			<td>Minitab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Statistical analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needles</td>
			<td>BD VACUTAINER</td>
			<td>301746</td>
			<td>Diameter 1.34 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical microscope</td>
			<td>VELAB</td>
			<td>VE-B50</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Percoll</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>17-0891-01</td>
			<td>Solution for density gradient</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline (10x)</td>
			<td>Caisson</td>
			<td>PBL07-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pyrex culture tubes</td>
			<td>CORNING&#160;</td>
			<td>CLS982025</td>
			<td>N&#176;9820</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPMI 1640 1x</td>
			<td>Corning&#160;</td>
			<td>10-104-CV</td>
			<td>contains Glutagro</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Slides</td>
			<td>Madesa</td>
			<td>PDI257550</td>
			<td>22 mm x 75 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypan Blue solution 0.4%</td>
			<td>SIGMA</td>
			<td>T8154-100ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

morphological and compositional analysis of neutrophil extracellular traps induced by microbial and chemical stimuli

Neutrophils function as the first line of cellular defense in an innate immune response by employing diverse mechanisms, such as the formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). This study analyzes the morphological and compositional changes in NETs induced by microbial and chemical stimuli using standardized in vitro methodologies for NET induction and characterization with human cells. The procedures described here allow the analysis of NET morphology (lytic or non-lytic) and composition (DNA-protein structures and enzymatic activity), and the effect of soluble factors or cellular contact on such characteristics. Additionally, the techniques described here could be modified to evaluate the effect of exogenous soluble factors or cellular contact on NET composition.
The applied techniques include the purification of polymorphonuclear cells from human peripheral blood using a double density gradient (1.079-1.098 g/mL), guaranteeing optimal purity and viability (&#8805; 95%) as demonstrated by Wright's staining, trypan blue exclusion, and flow cytometry, including FSC versus SSC analysis and 7AAD staining. NET formation is induced with microbial (Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, and Candida albicans) and chemical (phorbol myristate acetate, HOCl) stimuli, and the NETs are characterized by DNA-DAPI staining, immunostaining for the antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin (LL37), and quantification of enzymatic activity (neutrophil elastase, cathepsin G, and myeloperoxidase). The images are acquired through fluorescence microscopy and analyzed with ImageJ.

Purity and viability of neutrophils 
The dynamic cellular phases are visualized in the tube from the double-density gradient purification. Within these layers, the layer corresponding to granulocytes is above the 1.079 g/mL density layer, distinguished from the phases of peripheral blood mononucleocytes (PBMCs) and erythrocytes (Figure 1A). The morphology of the purified cells was verified with Wright&#39;s staining by observing cells with segmented nuclei connected wit...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Morphological and Compositional Analysis of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Induced by Microbial and Chemical Stimuli at JoVE.com

Morphological and Compositional Analysis of Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Induced by Microbial and Chemical Stimuli

Presented here is a protocol for the induction and analysis of in vitro neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). Quantification of DNA, cathelicidin (LL37), and enzyme activity yielded data that show the variability in the composition and morphology of NETs induced by microbial and chemical stimuli under similar controlled conditions.

Neutrophils function as the first line of cellular defense in an innate immune response by employing diverse mechanisms, such as the formation of ...

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