Name: cantilever bending of murine femoral necks
Uploaded: 2022-01-05T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cantilever Bending of Murine Femoral Necks at JoVE.com

The study was supported by the NIH P30AR069655 and R01AR070613 (H. A. A.).

Animal studies were approved by The University of Rochester Committee of Animal Resources. The mice used in this study were C57BL/6 males and females ranging from age 24-29 weeks of age. Mice were housed in standard conditions with food and water ad libitum. Upon euthanasia via carbon dioxide inhalation, followed by cervical dislocation, 20 right femurs (10 male and 10 female) were harvested and frozen at -20 &#176;C until tested.
1. Creation of custom 3D printed mounting guides...

<ol>
	<li>Reports of the Surgeon General. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Health+and+Osteoporosis:+A+Report+of+the+Surgeon+General.">Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of the Surgeon General.</a> Reports of the Surgeon General. , (2004).</li><li>Veronese, N., Maggi, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Epidemiology+and+social+costs+of+hip+fracture.">Epidemiology and social costs of hip fracture.</a> Injury. 49 (8), 1458-1460 (2018).</li><li>Gurumurthy, C. B., Lloyd, K. C. 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B., Bruel, A., Thomsen, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=PTH+(1-34)+and+growth+hormone+in+prevention+of+disuse+osteopenia+andsarcopenia+in+rats.">PTH (1-34) and growth hormone in prevention of disuse osteopenia andsarcopenia in rats.</a> Bone. 110, 244-253 (2018).</li><li>Bromer, F. D., Brent, M. B., Pedersen, M., Thomsen, J. S., Bruel, A., Foldager, C. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+normobaric+intermittent+hypoxia+therapy+on+bone+in+normal+and+disuse+osteopenic+mice.">The effect of normobaric intermittent hypoxia therapy on bone in normal and disuse osteopenic mice.</a> High Altitude Medicine and Biology. 22 (2), 225-234 (2021).</li><li>Vegger, J. B., Bruel, A., Brent, M. B., Thomsen, J. 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This protocol outlines a reliable cantilever bending test for murine femoral necks. The natural cantilever flexure scenario that occurs at the femoral neck is typically not represented in standard 3- and 4-point bending tests5. This testing method is better and more reliably replicates the type of femoral neck fractures experienced by bone fragility patients. The main focus when performing this protocol is eliminating the variability due to inconsistent potting of the femoral shaft. Critically, cl...

Fracture risk is a serious medical concern associated with osteoporosis. Over 1.5 million fragility fractures are reported each year in the United States alone, with fractures occurring in the hip, specifically the femoral neck, as the leading fracture type1. It is estimated that 18% of women and 6% of men will experience a femoral neck fracture in their lifetime2, and the mortality rate at 1 year following the fracture is greater than 20%1. Therefore, mouse models that allow biomechanical testing of the femoral neck can be suitable for studying fragility fractures. Mouse models also offer powerful tools to elucidate translatable cellular and molecular events involved in osteoporosis potentially. This is due to the availability of genetic reporters, gain and loss of function models, and the expansive library of molecular techniques and reagents. Mechanical testing of mouse bones can provide necessary outcome measures to determine bone health, genotypic and phenotypic variations that could explain the etiology of the disease, and assess therapies based on outcome measures of the quality of the bone and the risk of fracture3.
The anatomy of the femoral neck creates unique mechanical loading scenarios, which typically lead to flexural (bending) fractures. The femoral head is loaded in the acetabular socket at the proximal end of the femur. This creates a cantilever bending scenario on the femoral neck, which is rigidly attached to the femoral shaft distally4. This differs from traditional 3- or 4-point bending tests on the femoral mid-diaphysis. While these tests are helpful, they do not replicate the loading that typically leads to fragility fractures in osteopenic and osteoporotic individuals in terms of fracture location or the loading scenario.
To better assess fragility fracture risk in mice, it was sought to improve the reproducibility of cantilever bending tests of murine femoral necks. As theoretically predicted, the loading angle on the femoral head relative to the femoral shaft has been shown to significantly affect the outcome measures5, thereby creating a challenge for reliability and reproducibility of reported outcomes. To ensure proper and consistent alignment of the femurs during sample preparation, guides were designed, and 3D printed based on anatomic measurements made on &#181;CT scans of C57BL/6 mouse femurs. The guides were designed to aid in consistently potting the samples such that the femoral shaft is maintained at ~20&#176; from the vertical loading direction. This angle was chosen because it maximizes the stiffness while minimizing the maximal bending moment along the femoral shaft, which increases the likelihood of femoral neck fractures and leads to more consistent and reproducible testing5. Guides were 3D printed in various sizes to accommodate anatomical differences between samples and used to hold samples in a stable position while potting in acrylic bone cement. The stiffness, maximum force, yield force, and maximum energy were calculated from the force-displacement graphs. This testing method showed consistent results for the aforementioned biomechanical outcome. With practice and the aid of the 3D printed guide, measurement errors due to misalignment can be minimized, resulting in reliable outcome measures.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#188;&#8221; x &#188;&#8221; square aluminum tubing</td>
			<td>Grainger</td>
			<td>48KU67</td>
			<td>Cut to lengths of 1/2&#34; to 1&#34; lengths</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1 kN load cell</td>
			<td>Instron</td>
			<td>2527-130</td>
			<td>Any load cell with sub 1 N resolution can be used.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3.5x-45x Zoom Stereo Boom Microscope</td>
			<td>Omano</td>
			<td>OM2300S-GX4</td>
			<td>Microscope used to precisely line up samples with loading platen.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3D printed guides</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Angled slots at 73.13&#176;, with diameters between 1.9 mm and 2.2 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3D printed mount</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Tapped with M10 threads to fit the mount attachment and with 2 M4 threaded holes adjacent sides to hold the aluminum tubing with sample in place.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acrylic Base Plate Material Kit</td>
			<td>Keystone Industries</td>
			<td>921392</td>
			<td>Mix 3.5 g of powder with 2 mL of liquid. This will be enough for approximately 8 samples, and will begin to harden quickly.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amira</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used to compile &#181;CT scans</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biaxial stage</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Used to center femoral head of sample under the loading platen.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BioMed Amber Resin</td>
			<td>formlabs</td>
			<td>RS-F2-BMAM-01</td>
			<td>Any resin from formlabs could be used for this project.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bluehill 3</td>
			<td>Instron</td>
			<td>V3.66</td>
			<td>Software used to set up loading protocol and collect load, displacement and time data.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ElectroPuls 10000</td>
			<td>Instron</td>
			<td>E10000</td>
			<td>Mechanical testing system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Faxitron UltraFocus</td>
			<td>Faxitron BioOptics</td>
			<td>2327A40311</td>
			<td>X-ray imaging system</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Form 2</td>
			<td>formlabs</td>
			<td>F2</td>
			<td>Used to print the mount and guides</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Form 2 Resin Tank LT</td>
			<td>formlabs</td>
			<td>RT-F2-02</td>
			<td>LT Tank was used to be compatible with the BioMed Resin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td>Used to assess &#181;CT and X-ray images</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laxco iLED Series LED Light Source</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AMPSILED30W</td>
			<td>Light source used in conjugtion with microscope.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Loading platen</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>This can be any metal rod that is tapered to a diameter of approximately 2.5 mm. We used an M6 screw that was tapered on a lathe.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mount attachment</td>
			<td>Custom made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>To secure the 3D printed mount to the load cell. We used a M10/M6 threaded rod</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffer Saline (PBS)</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10010031</td>
			<td>Need to rehydrate the samples once acrylic base plate material has set.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plumber&#39;s putty</td>
			<td>Oatey</td>
			<td>31174</td>
			<td>Used to seal the end of the aluminum tubing when pouring acrylic base plate material in. Any clay or putty could be used.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PreForm</td>
			<td>formlabs</td>
			<td>Preform 3.15.2</td>
			<td>Formlabs software</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue Culture Dish</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>353003</td>
			<td>Samples can be laid flat in culture dish and covered in PBS to rehydrate.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>vivaCT 40</td>
			<td>Scanco</td>
			<td>&#181;CT 40</td>
			<td>Representative set or actual samples can be scanned prior to printing of guides to calculate femoral shaft angle and diameter.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

cantilever bending of murine femoral necks

Fractures in the femoral neck are a common occurrence in individuals with osteoporosis. Many mouse models have been developed to assess disease states and therapies, with biomechanical testing as a primary outcome measure. However, traditional biomechanical testing focuses on torsion or bending tests applied to the midshaft of the long bones. This is not typically the site of high-risk fractures in osteoporotic individuals. Therefore, a biomechanical testing protocol was developed that tests the femoral necks of murine femurs in cantilever bending loading to replicate better the types of fractures experienced by osteoporosis patients. Since the biomechanical outcomes are highly dependent on the flexural loading direction relative to the femoral neck, 3D printed guides were created to maintain a femoral shaft at an angle of 20&#176; relative to the loading direction. The new protocol streamlined the testing by reducing variability in alignment (21.6&#176; &plusmn; 1.5&#176;, COV = 7.1%, n = 20) and improved reproducibility in the measured biomechanical outcomes (average COV = 26.7%). The new approach using the 3D printed guides for reliable specimen alignment improves rigor and reproducibility by reducing the measurement errors due to specimen misalignment, which should minimize sample sizes in mouse studies of osteoporosis.

When potted with the aid of the guide, the femoral shafts were aligned at 21.6&#176; &#177; 1.5&#176;. While this represents &#60;10% deviation from the intended angle of 20&#176;, the coefficients of variation (COV) of the potting angle across all samples tested were 7.6% and 6.5% for male and female mice, respectively (n = 10 per group) as verified by pre-test planar x-rays (Figure 5). Additionally, the post-testing X-rays should be used to assess the mode in which the samples failed. Fail...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cantilever Bending of Murine Femoral Necks at JoVE.com

Cantilever Bending of Murine Femoral Necks

The present protocol describes the development of a reproducible testing platform for murine femoral necks in a cantilever bending set-up. Custom 3D printed guides were used to consistently and rigidly fix the femurs in optimal alignment.

Fractures in the femoral neck are a common occurrence in individuals with osteoporosis. Many mouse models have been developed to assess disease states and ...

The cantilever bending setup outlined in this protocol creates a reproducible approach for generating femoral neck fractures, which are more clinically relevant and can be utilized in murine studies to look at osteoporosis. This protocol creates a testing platform that improves reproducibility, leading to decreased coefficient of variation in outcome measures. Therefore, it minimizes the sample size needed for robust studies.Begin by cutting tubing sections of length 1/2-inch to 1-inch using 1/4-inch by 1/4-inch square aluminum tubing. Label each aluminum segment with the sample IDs with an etching tool. Fill half of the tubing segments with putty and place them into a fixture to hold them upright.Place the clean femurs flat on the benchtop so the anterior surface is facing up. Then, place the 3D-printed guide directly below the third trochanter, where the shaft diameter becomes consistent. Hold the proximal and distal ends with one hand.Firmly press the femur onto the workbench, and using the other hand, place the 3D-printed guide on the midshaft of the femur to prevent the femur from rotating to the lateral or medial side. Then, place them in front of the corresponding aluminum segments. Fill the aluminum segments with bone cement until almost full, leaving a little room for displacement.Place the femurs with guides in the correct aluminum segment and allow the bone cement to set. After the bone cement has hardened, place the samples in a Petri dish with room temperature PBS and allow them to rehydrate for two hours. Use a mechanical testing system to attach and calibrate a load cell with the resolution less than 1 Newton.Attach a fixture with a square slot to firmly hold the aluminum segments with the samples. Attach set screws to the two sides of the holding fixture to firmly hold samples in place. Then, attach a loading platen into the actuator.Place a stereo microscope on a surface directly in front of the MTS. Place light sources around the system if additional lighting is needed to see the setup through the microscope. In the MTS software, begin the creation of a new flexural protocol.Ensure that the protocol will operate in displacement control. Set the loading rate of the protocol to 0.5 millimeters per second. If the software has a setting for soft keys, add the soft keys Balance and Zero Extension to the protocol.Ensure that the software program will record the time in seconds, load in Newtons, and extension or displacement in millimeters at a minimum sampling rate of 100 hertz. Save the new protocol and return to the main screen of the software program to begin the testing of a new sample set. Obtain an X-ray image of the samples in the aluminum pots.Multiple samples can be imaged at once. Ensure that the anterior view of samples is captured to allow for verification measurements of potting angle. Place an aluminum segment with sample into the holding fixture and tighten the set screws.Lower the actuator until it is within a few millimeters of the femoral head. Use the stereo microscope to adjust the biaxial stage to align the position of the femoral head directly underneath the loading platen. Lock the biaxial stage in place.In the MTS software, zero the position of the actuator and balance the load cell using the added soft keys Balance and Zero Extension. Then, begin the loading protocol. Depending on how much space was left between the loading platen and the sample, testing will only take 10 to 30 seconds.After testing, capture another anterior X-ray of the sample. This will be used to discern and document the mode of fracture. The coefficients of variation, or COV, from measured flexural properties of mouse femoral necks are presented here.COV represents the ratio of the standard deviation and mean of a data set, and its decrease indicates a tighter grouping of the individual data points around the mean. This protocol decreased the COV for maximum load compared to other publications performing similar testing. A representative force displacement curve displaying a 0.2%offset linear fit is used to derive the stiffness and yield point.Selected outcome measures are plotted, displaying mean and standard deviation, including maximum load at failure, stiffness, maximum displacement at failure, and and work to failure. Asterisks indicate significant differences determined using a one-tailed unpaired t-test. Femoral necks for male mice were significantly stronger and stiffer than specimens from female mice.In addition, the female femoral necks experienced more significant deformations and work to failure compared to specimens from male mice. This is consistent with the lower bone mineral density in females and underscores the sensitivity of the test to detect physiologically-relevant differences. Biomechanical outcome measures, including maximum load, stiffness, maximum displacement, and work to failure, were plotted against the potting angle and correlated using a simple linear regression for the male cohort, female cohort, and all samples grouped together.Solid black lines show linear regression of group samples, and dotted lines indicate confidence intervals. Variability in the potting angle did not significantly affect the maximum load, maximum displacement, or failure work. However, as the potting angle increased, the stiffness increased.The most important thing to remember while attempting this protocol is to keep the potting procedure and loading rates the same to better compare your results to previously published data. If using an alternative to bone cement, such as a bismuth alloy that can be softened to remove the sample after testing, samples can undergo other procedures, such as Raman spectroscopy, DEXA, or three-point bending, to elucidate additional mechanical, chemical, and structural properties.

cantilever-bending-of-murine-femoral-necks

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Tissue Engineering of the Intestine in a Murine Model

Tissue-engineered small intestine (TESI) has successfully been used to rescue Lewis rats after massive small bowel resection, resulting in return to preoperative weights within 40 days.1 In humans, massive small bowel resection can result in short bowel syndrome, a functional malabsorptive state that confers significant morbidity, mortality, and healthcare costs including parenteral nutrition dependence, liver failure and cirrhosis, and the need for multivisceral organ transplantation.2 In this paper, we describe and document our protocol for creating tissue-engineered intestine in a mouse model with a multicellular organoid units-on-scaffold approach. Organoid units are multicellular aggregates derived from the intestine that contain both mucosal and mesenchymal elements,3 the relationship between which preserves the intestinal stem cell niche.4 In ongoing and future research, the transition of our technique into the mouse will allow for investigation of the processes involved during TESI formation by utilizing the transgenic tools available in this species.5The availability of immunocompromised mouse strains will also permit us to apply the technique to human intestinal tissue and optimize the formation of human TESI as a mouse xenograft before its transition into humans. Our method employs good manufacturing practice (GMP) reagents and materials that have already been approved for use in human patients, and therefore offers a significant advantage over approaches that rely upon decellularized animal tissues. The ultimate goal of this method is its translation to humans as a regenerative medicine therapeutic strategy for short bowel syndrome.

This article and the accompanying video present our protocol for generating tissue-engineered intestine in the mouse, using an organoid units-on-scaffold approach.

Tissue-engineered small intestine (TESI) has successfully been used to rescue Lewis rats after massive small bowel resection, resulting in return to ...

Method and Instrumented Fixture for Femoral Fracture Testing in a Sideways Fall-on-the-Hip Position

Mechanical testing of femora brings valuable insights into understanding the contribution of clinically-measureable variables such as bone mineral density distribution and geometry on the femoral mechanical properties. Currently, there is no standard protocol for mechanical testing of such geometrically complex bones to measure strength, and stiffness. To address this gap we have developed a protocol to test cadaveric femora to fracture and to measure their biomechanical parameters. This protocol describes a set of adaptable fixtures to accommodate the various load magnitudes and directions accounting for possible bone orientations in a fall on the hip configuration, test speed, bone size, and left leg-right leg variations. The femora were prepared for testing by cleaning, cutting, scanning, and potting the distal end and greater trochanter contact surfaces in poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA) as presented in a different protocol. The prepared specimens were placed in the testing fixture in a position mimicking a sideways fall on the hip and loaded to fracture. During testing, two load cells measured vertical forces applied to the femoral head and greater trochanter, a six-axis load cell measured forces and moments at the distal femoral shaft, and a displacement sensor measured differential displacement between the femoral head and trochanter contact supports. High speed video cameras were used to synchronously record the sequence of fracture events during testing. The reduction of this data allowed us to characterize the strength, stiffness, and fracture energy for nearly 200 osteoporotic, osteopenic, and normal cadaveric femora for further development of engineering-based diagnostic tools for osteoporosis research.

In this manuscript, we present a protocol to fracture test cadaveric proximal femora in a sideways fall on the hip configuration using instrumented fixtures mounted on a standard servo hydraulic frame. Nine digitized signals comprising forces, moments, and displacement along with two high speed video streams are acquired during testing.

Mechanical testing of femora brings valuable insights into understanding the contribution of clinically-measureable variables such as bone mineral density ...

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and dampen loads in the spine. The IVD consists of a proteoglycan-rich nucleus pulposus (NP) and a collagen-rich annulus fibrosis (AF) sandwiched by cartilaginous end-plates. Together with the adjacent vertebrae, the vertebrae-IVD structure forms a functional spine unit (FSU). These microstructures contain unique cell types as well as unique extracellular matrices. Whole organ culture of the FSU preserves the native extracellular matrix, cell differentiation phenotypes, and cellular-matrix interactions. Thus, organ culture techniques are particularly useful for investigating the complex biological mechanisms of the IVD. Here, we describe a high-throughput approach for culturing whole lumbar mouse FSUs that provides an ideal platform for studying disease mechanisms and therapies for the IVD. Furthermore, we describe several applications that utilize this organ culture method to conduct further studies including contrast-enhanced microCT imaging and three-dimensional high-resolution finite element modeling of the IVD.

An In Vitro Organ Culture Model of the Murine Intervertebral Disc

Whole organ culture of the intervertebral disc (IVD) preserves the native extracellular matrix, cell phenotypes, and cellular-matrix interactions. Here we describe an IVD culture system using mouse lumbar and caudal IVDs in their functional spinal units and several applications utilizing this system.

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a significant contributor to low back pain. The IVD is a fibrocartilaginous joint that serves to transmit and ...

Isolation of Primary Murine Retinal Ganglion Cells (RGCs) by Flow Cytometry

Neurodegenerative diseases often have a devastating impact on those affected. Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss is implicated in an array of diseases, including diabetic retinopathy and glaucoma, in addition to normal aging. Despite their importance, RGCs have been extremely difficult to study until now due in part to the fact that they comprise only a small percentage of the wide variety of cells in the retina. In addition, current isolation methods use intracellular markers to identify RGCs, which produce non-viable cells. These techniques also involve lengthy isolation protocols, so there is a lack of practical, standardized, and dependable methods to obtain and isolate RGCs. This work describes an efficient, comprehensive, and reliable method to isolate primary RGCs from mice retinae using a protocol based on both positive and negative selection criteria. The presented methods allow for the future study of RGCs, with the goal of better understanding the major decline in visual acuity that results from the loss of functional RGCs in neurodegenerative diseases.

Isolation of Primary Murine Retinal Ganglion Cells RGCs by Flow Cytometry

Millions of people suffer from retinal degenerative diseases that result in irreversible blindness. A common element of many of these diseases is the loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). This detailed protocol describes the isolation of primary murine RGCs by positive and negative selection with flow cytometry.

Neurodegenerative diseases often have a devastating impact on those affected. Retinal ganglion cell (RGC) loss is implicated in an array of diseases, ...

Retroductal Nanoparticle Injection to the Murine Submandibular Gland

Two common goals of salivary gland therapeutics are prevention and cure of tissue dysfunction following either autoimmune or radiation injury. By locally delivering bioactive compounds to the salivary glands, greater tissue concentrations can be safely achieved versus systemic administration. Furthermore, off target tissue effects from extra-glandular accumulation of material can be dramatically reduced. In this regard, retroductal injection is a widely used method for investigating both salivary gland biology and pathophysiology. Retroductal administration of growth factors, primary cells, adenoviral vectors, and small molecule drugs has been shown to support gland function in the setting of injury. We have previously shown the efficacy of a retroductally injected nanoparticle-siRNA strategy to maintain gland function following irradiation. Here, a highly effective and reproducible method to administer nanomaterials to the murine submandibular gland through Wharton's duct is detailed (Figure 1). We describe accessing the oral cavity and outline the steps necessary to cannulate Wharton's duct, with further observations serving as quality checks throughout the procedure.

Local drug delivery to the submandibular glands is of interest in understanding salivary gland biology and for the development of novel therapeutics. We present an updated and detailed retroductal injection protocol, designed to improve delivery accuracy and experimental reproducibility. The application presented herein is the delivery of polymeric nanoparticles.

Two common goals of salivary gland therapeutics are prevention and cure of tissue dysfunction following either autoimmune or radiation injury. By locally ...

Light-sheet Fluorescence Microscopy for the Study of the Murine Heart

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has been widely used for rapid image acquisition with a high axial resolution from micrometer to millimeter scale. Traditional light-sheet techniques involve the use of a single illumination beam directed orthogonally at sample tissue. Images of large samples that are produced using a single illumination beam contain stripes or artifacts and suffer from a reduced resolution due to the scattering and absorption of light by the tissue. This study uses a dual-sided illumination beam and a simplified CLARITY optical clearing technique for the murine heart. These techniques allow for deeper imaging by removing lipids from the heart and produce a large field of imaging, greater than 10 x 10 x 10 mm3. As a result, this strategy enables us to quantify the ventricular dimensions, track the cardiac lineage, and localize the spatial distribution of cardiac-specific proteins and ion-channels from the post-natal to adult mouse hearts with sufficient contrast and resolution.

This study uses a dual-sided illumination light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) technique combined with optical clearing to study the murine heart.

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has been widely used for rapid image acquisition with a high axial resolution from micrometer to millimeter scale. ...

A Reliable and Reproducible Critical-Sized Segmental Femoral Defect Model in Rats Stabilized with a Custom External Fixator

Orthopedic research relies heavily on animal models to study mechanisms of bone healing in vivo as well as investigate the new treatment techniques. Critical-sized segmental defects are challenging to treat clinically, and research efforts could benefit from a reliable, ambulatory small animal model of a segmental femoral defect. In this study, we present an optimized surgical protocol for the consistent and reproducible creation of a 5 mm critical diaphyseal defect in a rat femur stabilized with an external fixator. The diaphyseal ostectomy was performed using a custom jig to place 4 Kirschner wires bicortically, which were stabilized with an adapted external fixator device. An oscillating bone saw was used to create the defect. Either a collagen sponge alone or a collagen sponge soaked in rhBMP-2 was implanted into the defect, and the bone healing was monitored over 12 weeks using radiographs. After 12 weeks, rats were sacrificed, and histological analysis was performed on the excised control and treated femurs. Bone defects containing only collagen sponge resulted in non-union, while rhBMP-2 treatment yielded the formation of a periosteal callous and new bone remodeling. Animals recovered well after implantation, and external fixation proved successful in stabilizing the femoral defects over 12 weeks. This streamlined surgical model could be readily applied to study bone healing and test new orthopedic biomaterials and regenerative therapies in vivo.

In vivo mammalian models of critical-sized bone defects are essential for researchers studying healing mechanisms and orthopedic therapies. Here, we introduce a protocol for the creation of reproducible, segmental, femoral defects in rats stabilized using external fixation.

Orthopedic research relies heavily on animal models to study mechanisms of bone healing in vivo as well as investigate the new treatment techniques. ...

Optical Imaging of Isolated Murine Ventricular Myocytes

The ability to isolate adult cardiac myocytes has permitted researchers to study a variety of cardiac pathologies at the single cell level. While advances in calcium sensitive dyes have permitted the robust optical recording of single cell calcium dynamics, recording of robust transmembrane optical voltage signals has remained difficult. Arguably, this is because of the low single to noise ratio, phototoxicity, and photobleaching of traditional potentiometric dyes. Therefore, single cell voltage measurements have long been confined to the patch clamp technique which while the gold standard, is technically demanding and low throughput. However, with the development of novel potentiometric dyes, large, fast optical responses to changes in voltage can be obtained with little to no phototoxicity and photobleaching. This protocol describes in detail how to isolate adult murine myocytes which can be used for cellular shortening, calcium, and optical voltage measurements. Specifically, the protocol describes how to use a ratiometric calcium dye, a single-excitation calcium dye, and a single excitation voltage dye. This approach can be used to assess the cardiotoxicity and arrhythmogenicity of various chemical agents. While phototoxicity is still an issue at the single cell level, methodology is discussed on how to reduce it.

We present the methodology for the isolation of murine myocytes and how to obtain voltage or calcium traces simultaneously with sarcomere shortening traces using fluorescence photometry with simultaneous digital cell geometry measurements.

The ability to isolate adult cardiac myocytes has permitted researchers to study a variety of cardiac pathologies at the single cell level. While advances ...

Biomechanical Testing of Murine Tendons

Tendon disorders are common, affect people of all ages, and are often debilitating. Standard treatments, such as anti-inflammatory drugs, rehabilitation, and surgical repair, often fail. In order to define tendon function and demonstrate efficacy of new treatments, the mechanical properties of tendons from animal models must be accurately determined. Murine animal models are now widely used to study tendon disorders and evaluate novel treatments for tendinopathies; however, determining the mechanical properties of mouse tendons has been challenging. In this study, a new system was developed for tendon mechanical testing that includes 3D-printed fixtures that exactly match the anatomies of the humerus and calcaneus to mechanically test supraspinatus tendons and Achilles tendons, respectively. These fixtures were developed using 3D reconstructions of native bone anatomy, solid modeling, and additive manufacturing. The new approach eliminated artifactual gripping failures (e.g., failure at the growth plate failure rather than in the tendon), decreased overall testing time, and increased reproducibility. Furthermore, this new method is readily adaptable for testing other murine tendons and tendons from other animals.

The protocol describes efficient and reproducible tensile biomechanical testing methods for murine tendons through the use of custom-fit 3D printed fixtures.

Tendon disorders are common, affect people of all ages, and are often debilitating. Standard treatments, such as anti-inflammatory drugs, rehabilitation, ...

Transplantation of a 3D Bioprinted Patch in a Murine Model of Myocardial Infarction

Testing regenerative properties of 3D bioprinted cardiac patches in vivo using murine models of heart failure via permanent left anterior descending (LAD) ligation is a challenging procedure and has a high mortality rate due to its nature. We developed a method to consistently transplant bioprinted patches of cells and hydrogels onto the epicardium of an infarcted mouse heart to test their regenerative properties in a robust and feasible way. First, a deeply anesthetized mouse is carefully intubated and ventilated. Following left lateral thoracotomy (surgical opening of the chest), the exposed LAD is permanently ligated and the bioprinted patch transplanted onto the epicardium. The mouse quickly recovers from the procedure after chest closure. The advantages of this robust and quick approach include a predicted 28-day mortality rate of up to 30% (lower than the 44% reported by other studies using a similar model of permanent LAD ligation in mice). Moreover, the approach described in this protocol is versatile and could be adapted to test bioprinted patches using different cell types or hydrogels where high numbers of animals are needed to optimally power studies. Overall, we present this as an advantageous approach which may change preclinical testing in future studies for the field of cardiac regeneration and tissue engineering.

This protocol aims to transplant a 3D bioprinted patch onto the epicardium of infarcted mice modeling heart failure. It includes details regarding anesthesia, the surgical chest opening, permanent ligation of the left anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery and application of a bioprinted patch onto the infarcted area of the heart.

Testing regenerative properties of 3D bioprinted cardiac patches in vivo using murine models of heart failure via permanent left anterior descending (LAD) ...