This work was funded by King&#x2019;s College London and the Royal Society.

<ol>
 <li>First place a drop of PBS onto a Sylgard dish under a dissecting microscope. </li>
 <li>Next remove several wandering third instar larvae from a vial or bottle using a spatula and place them in the PBS.</li>
 <li>To begin the dissection use your left hand tweezers (if you are right handed) to grasp a larva two thirds of the way towards the posterior and then use the other pair to hold the dark colored mouth hooks at the anterior end. </li>
 <li>Now gently pull the larva apart by moving both pairs of tweezers away from each other. The mouthparts should come away from the rest of the body with the eye/brain complex attached.</li>
 <li>To stain the eye discs for immunofluorescence fix the discs at this point by placing them in 4% paraformaldehyde/PBS solution for 30-45 minutes on ice. Then wash the discs four times with PBST and stain then with appropriate antibodies.</li>
 <li>It is easiest to dissect the eye discs directly on a slide. Place a drop of PBS on a slide and move the discs to the drop of PBS by holding the mouthparts.</li>
 <li>The imaginal tissues are translucent and so at first the eye discs are difficult to identify. To make it easier to identify them use a dissecting microscope with fluorescence capability. Using the eye-RFP reporter line the eye discs can be clearly seen as red fluorescent tissue overlaying the spherical optic lobes (Figure 1).</li>
 <li>If you are using a fiber optic cold light source direct the light at an oblique angle to the slide, as this will give the discs greater contrast. The eye/antennal discs are attached to the optic lobes via the optic stalk at the posterior and to the mouthparts via a stalk coming from the antennal disc at the anterior.</li>
 <li>To dissect the eye discs hold the mouthparts using one pair of tweezers and use the other pair to separate the eye discs from the larval brain. Next separate the eye discs from the mouthparts. Finally remove the mouthparts from the slide as these can prevent the coverslip from lying flat.</li>
 <li>When you have dissected all the eye discs gently tilt the slide and dry off the excess PBS. Then add a drop of Vectashield and gently place a coverslip on top.</li>
 <li>The discs are now ready to be imaged by either epifluorescence or confocal microscopy (Figure 2).</li>
 </ol>
Representative Results
When dissected correctly the eye/antennal disc should lie flat on the slide clear of any extraneous tissue such as the brain. The dorsal and ventral poles of the eye disc are curved and so tend to fold, but this can be avoided by taking a Z-series on a confocal microscope and omitting these sections from the projection. Although the disc is a monolayer epithelium the variable positions of the nuclei require a Z-series projection to get an overall picture of the disc. A projection of a typical eye-RFP eye/antennal disc taken on a confocal microscope is shown in Figure 2. We typically take 1 &mu;m sections through the disc using a 20x or 40x lens. The eye-RFP reporter is nuclear localized and so the pattern seen in Figure 2 represents the nuclei of the cells expressing RFP.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1617/1617fig1.jpg" alt="figure 1" /> Figure 1. Initial dissection of the eye/brain complex from an eye-RFP third instar Drosophila larva. The eye/antennal imaginal disc (outlined) can be seen attached to the mouthparts (MP) and overlaying the optic lobe (OL) of the brain. The image was taken using a fluorescence dissecting microscope to show the RFP expression in the eye disc. Anterior is to the left. Scale bar: 300 &mu;m.
<img src="/files/ftp_upload/1617/1617fig2.jpg" alt="figure 2" /> Figure 2. Expression of the eye-RFP reporter in the eye imaginal disc. A third instar eye (ED)/antennal disc (AD) dissected from an eye-RFP larva showing RFP expression (red). The disc was stained with phalloidin (green), which stains apical cell surfaces and shows the morphogenetic furrow (arrowhead). RFP is expressed in precursor cells around the MF, in photoreceptors 1,6,7 and in cone cells. Anterior is to the left. Scale bar: 25 &mu;m.

<ol>
	<li>Doroquez, D. B., Rebay, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol. 41 (6), 339-339 (2006).</li><li>Kaul, A. K., Craig, G. M., McNeill, H., Bateman, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> , .</li><li>Barolo, S., Castro, B., Posakony, J. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Biotechniques. 36 (3), 436-436 (2004).</li></ol>

Dissection of the Drosophila eye imaginal disc is straightforward, but can take time to master. The critical steps are the identification of the eye disc and its dissection away from the larval brain. Identification of the eye disc is made easier using the eye-RFP line described here. Possible modifications are to remove the antennal disc or the peripodial membrane, or to leave the optic lobe attached to visualize the PR axons entering the brain.
The eye-RFP line was generated by clo...

a novel rfp reporter to aid in the visualization of the eye imaginal disc in drosophila

The Drosophila eye is a powerful model system for studying areas such as neurogenesis, signal transduction and neurodegeneration. Many of the discoveries made using this system have taken advantage of the spatiotemporal nature of photoreceptor differentiation in the developing eye imaginal disc. To use this system it is first necessary for the researcher to learn to identify and dissect the eye disc. We describe a novel RFP reporter to aid in the identification of the eye disc and the visualization of specific cell types in the developing eye. We detail a methodology for dissection of the eye imaginal disc from third instar larvae and describe how the eye-RFP reporter can aid in this dissection. This eye-RFP reporter is only expressed in the eye and can be visualized using fluorescence microscopy either in live tissue or after fixation without the need for signal amplification. We also show how this reporter can be used to identify specific cells types within the eye disc. This protocol and the use of the eye-RFP reporter will aid researchers using the Drosophila eye to address fundamentally important biological questions.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel RFP Reporter to Aid in the Visualization of the Eye Imaginal Disc in Drosophila at JoVE.com

A Novel RFP Reporter to Aid in the Visualization of the Eye Imaginal Disc in Drosophila

We describe a novel red fluorescent protein (RFP) reporter that is expressed specifically in the Drosophila eye. We detail a methodology for dissection of the eye imaginal disc and how this reporter can be used to aid in the dissection and identification of specific cell types in the developing eye.

A Novel RFP Reporter to Aid in the Visualization of the Eye Imaginal Disc in Drosophila

The Drosophila eye is a powerful model system for studying areas such as neurogenesis, signal transduction and neurodegeneration. Many of the discoveries ...

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10.4K Views.  King's College London. We describe a novel red fluorescent protein (RFP) reporter that is expressed specifically in the Drosophila eye. We detail a methodology for dissection of the eye imaginal disc and how this reporter can be used to aid in the dissection and identification of specific cell types in the developing eye.

Video: A Novel RFP Reporter to Aid in the Visualization of the Eye Imaginal Disc in Drosophila

Dissection of Imaginal Discs from 3rd Instar Drosophila Larvae

This protocol demonstrates the dissection technique used for isolating imaginal discs from drosophila larvae at the 3rd instar stage. Methods for fixing the tissue after saying and removing the wing, leg, and eye discs are demonstrated directly on a microscope slide for subsequent visualization.

Live Imaging of Glial Cell Migration in the Drosophila Eye Imaginal Disc

Glial cells of both vertebrate and invertebrate organisms must migrate to final target regions in order to ensheath and support associated neurons. While recent progress has been made to describe the live migration of glial cells in the developing pupal wing (1), studies of Drosophila glial cell migration have typically involved the examination of fixed tissue. Live microscopic analysis of motile cells offers the ability to examine cellular behavior throughout the migratory process, including determining the rate of and changes in direction of growth. Paired with use of genetic tools, live imaging can be used to determine more precise roles for specific genes in the process of development. Previous work by Silies et al. (2) has described the migration of glia originating from the optic stalk, a structure that connects the developing eye and brain, into the eye imaginal disc in fixed tissue. Here we outline a protocol for examining the live migration of glial cells into the Drosophila eye imaginal disc. We take advantage of a Drosophila line that expresses GFP in developing glia to follow glial cell progression in wild type and in mutant animals.

Here we describe a protocol to examine the migration of glial cells into the developing Drosophila eye using live microscopic analysis paired with GFP tagged glial cells.

Glial cells of both vertebrate and invertebrate organisms must migrate to final target regions in order to ensheath and support associated neurons.  While ...

The Gateway to the Brain: Dissecting the Primate Eye

The visual system in humans is considered the gateway to the world and plays a principal role in the plethora of sensory, perceptual and cognitive processes. It is therefore not surprising that quality of vision is tied to quality of life . Despite widespread clinical and basic research surrounding the causes of visual disorders, many forms of visual impairments, such as retinitis pigmentosa and macular degeneration, lack effective treatments. Non-human primates have the closest general features of eye development to that of humans. Not only do they have a similar vascular anatomy, but amongst other mammals, primates have the unique characteristic of having a region in the temporal retina specialized for high visual acuity, the fovea1. Here we describe a general technique for dissecting the primate retina to provide tissue for retinal histology, immunohistochemistry, laser capture microdissection, as well as light and electron microscopy. With the extended use of the non-human primate as a translational model, our hope is that improved understanding of the retina will provide insights into effective approaches towards attenuating or reversing the negative impact of visual disorders on the quality of life of affected individuals.

The non-human primate is an important translational species for our understanding of development and aging. The anatomical organization of the primate retina may provide important insights into normal and pathological conditions in humans.

The visual system in humans is considered the  gateway  to the world and plays a principal role in the plethora of sensory, perceptual and cognitive ...

Laser Microdissection Applied to Gene Expression Profiling of Subset of Cells from the Drosophila Wing Disc

Heterogeneous nature of tissues has proven to be a limiting factor in the amount of information that can be generated from biological samples, compromising downstream analyses. Considering the complex and dynamic cellular associations existing within many tissues, in order to recapitulate the in vivo interactions thorough molecular analysis one must be able to analyze specific cell populations within their native context. Laser-mediated microdissection can achieve this goal, allowing unambiguous identification and successful harvest of cells of interest under direct microscopic visualization while maintaining molecular integrity. We have applied this technology to analyse gene expression within defined areas of the developing Drosophila wing disc, which represents an advantageous model system to study growth control, cell differentiation and organogenesis. Larval imaginal discs are precociously subdivided into anterior and posterior, dorsal and ventral compartments by lineage restriction boundaries. Making use of the inducible GAL4-UAS binary expression system, each of these compartments can be specifically labelled in transgenic flies expressing an UAS-GFP transgene under the control of the appropriate GAL4-driver construct. In the transgenic discs, gene expression profiling of discrete subsets of cells can precisely be determined after laser-mediated microdissection, using the fluorescent GFP signal to guide laser cut. 
Among the variety of downstream applications, we focused on RNA transcript profiling after localised RNA interference (RNAi). With the advent of RNAi technology, GFP labelling can be coupled with localised knockdown of a given gene, allowing to determinate the transcriptional response of a discrete cell population to the specific gene silencing. To validate this approach, we dissected equivalent areas of the disc from the posterior (labelled by GFP expression), and the anterior (unlabelled) compartment upon regional silencing in the P compartment of an otherwise ubiquitously expressed gene. RNA was extracted from microdissected silenced and unsilenced areas and comparative gene expression profiling determined by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. We show that this method can effectively be applied for accurate transcriptomics of subsets of cells within the Drosophila imaginal discs. Indeed, while massive disc preparation as source of RNA generally assumes cell homogeneity, it is well known that transcriptional expression can vary greatly within these structures in consequence of positional information. Using localized fluorescent GFP signal to guide laser cut, more accurate transcriptional analyses can be performed and profitably applied to disparate applications, including transcript profiling of distinct cell lineages within their native context.

Laser Microdissection Applied to Gene Expression Profiling of Subset of Cells from the Drosophila Wing Disc

Laser microdissection was applied to analyse gene expression profiling in specific compartments of Drosophila wing disc subjected to localised RNAi in vivo. RNA extracted from equivalent areas of silenced and unsilenced compartments was analysed by quantitative RT-PCR to determine comparative gene expression profiling within the context of native tissue microecology.

Heterogeneous nature of tissues has proven to be a limiting factor in the amount of information that can be generated from biological samples, ...

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

The proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal development in all metazoan organisms. Apoptotic cell clearance is a highly dynamic process intimately associated with cell death; unengulfed apoptotic cells are barely seen in vivo under normal conditions. In order to understand the different steps of apoptotic cell clearance and to compare 'professional' phagocytes - macrophages and dendritic cells to 'non-professional' - tissue-resident neighboring cells, in vivo live imaging of the process is extremely valuable. Here we describe a protocol for studying apoptotic cell clearance in live Drosophila embryos. To follow the dynamics of different steps in phagocytosis we use specific markers for apoptotic cells and phagocytes. In addition, we can monitor two phagocyte systems in parallel: 'professional' macrophages and 'semi-professional' glia in the developing central nervous system (CNS). The method described here employs the Drosophila embryo as an excellent model for real time studies of apoptotic cell clearance.

Live Imaging of Apoptotic Cell Clearance during Drosophila Embryogenesis

Here we describe an effective method for studying dynamics of apoptotic cell clearance in vivo. This method employs live Drosophila embryos as a powerful model for monitoring phagocytosis of apoptotic cells using specific labeling of apoptotic cells and phagocytes.

The  proper elimination of unwanted or aberrant cells through apoptosis and  subsequent phagocytosis (apoptotic cell clearance) is crucial for normal  ...

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for using FISH to quantify the number of mRNAs in single yeast cells. Cells can be grown in any condition of interest and then fixed and made permeable. Subsequently, multiple single-stranded deoxyoligonucleotides conjugated to fluorescent dyes are used to label and visualize mRNAs. Diffraction-limited fluorescence from single mRNA molecules is quantified using a spot-detection algorithm to identify and count the number of mRNAs per cell. While the more standard quantification methods of northern blots, RT-PCR and gene expression microarrays provide information on average mRNAs in the bulk population, FISH facilitates both the counting and localization of these mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

Visualization and Analysis of mRNA Molecules Using Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This protocol describes an experimental procedure for performing Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) for counting mRNAs in single cells at single-molecule resolution.

The Fluorescence in situ Hybridization (FISH) method allows one to detect nucleic acids in the native cellular environment. Here we provide a protocol for ...

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the function and regulation of protein folding was studied in vitro, in isolated tissue culture cells and in unicellular organisms. Recent studies have uncovered links between protein homeostasis (proteostasis), metabolism, development, aging, and temperature-sensing. These findings have led to the development of new tools for monitoring protein folding in the model metazoan organism Caenorhabditis elegans. In our laboratory, we combine behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical approaches using temperature-sensitive or naturally occurring metastable proteins as sensors of the folding environment to monitor protein misfolding. Behavioral assays that are associated with the misfolding of a specific protein provide a simple and powerful readout for protein folding, allowing for the fast screening of genes and conditions that modulate folding. Likewise, such misfolding can be associated with protein mislocalization in the cell. Monitoring protein localization can, therefore, highlight changes in cellular folding capacity occurring in different tissues, at various stages of development and in the face of changing conditions. Finally, using biochemical tools ex vivo, we can directly monitor protein stability and conformation. Thus, by combining behavioral assays, imaging and biochemical techniques, we are able to monitor protein misfolding at the resolution of the organism, the cell, and the protein, respectively.

Using Caenorhabditis elegans as a Model System to Study Protein Homeostasis in a Multicellular Organism

To study the relationship between protein homeostasis, stress and aging, we monitored changes in protein folding by following protein dysfunction, protein localization in the cell and protein stability at the organismal, cellular and protein levels, using the genetically tractable metazoan Caenorhabditis elegans as a model system.

The folding and assembly of proteins is essential for protein function, the long-term health of the cell, and longevity of the organism. Historically, the ...

High-resolution Time-lapse Imaging and Automated Analysis of Microtubule Dynamics in Living Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells

The physiological process by which new vasculature forms from existing vasculature requires specific signaling events that trigger morphological changes within individual endothelial cells (ECs). These processes are critical for homeostatic maintenance such as wound healing, and are also crucial in promoting tumor growth and metastasis. EC morphology is defined by the organization of the cytoskeleton, a tightly regulated system of actin and microtubule (MT) dynamics that is known to control EC branching, polarity and directional migration, essential components of angiogenesis. To study MT dynamics, we used high-resolution fluorescence microscopy coupled with computational image analysis of fluorescently-labeled MT plus-ends to investigate MT growth dynamics and the regulation of EC branching morphology and directional migration. Time-lapse imaging of living Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cells (HUVECs) was performed following transfection with fluorescently-labeled MT End Binding protein 3 (EB3) and Mitotic Centromere Associated Kinesin (MCAK)-specific cDNA constructs to evaluate effects on MT dynamics. PlusTipTracker software was used to track EB3-labeled MT plus ends in order to measure MT growth speeds and MT growth lifetimes in time-lapse images. This methodology allows for the study of MT dynamics and the identification of how localized regulation of MT dynamics within sub-cellular regions contributes to the angiogenic processes of EC branching and migration.

Protocols for Human Umbilical Vein Endothelial Cell (HUVEC) culture, transient transfection of fluorescently-labeled markers of microtubule growth, live-cell imaging and automated analysis of interphase microtubule growth dynamics are detailed.

The physiological process by which new vasculature forms from existing vasculature requires specific signaling events that trigger morphological changes ...

The Assembly and Application of 'Shear Rings': A Novel Endothelial Model for Orbital, Unidirectional and Periodic Fluid Flow and Shear Stress

Deviations from normal levels and patterns of vascular fluid shear play important roles in vascular physiology and pathophysiology by inducing adaptive as well as pathological changes in endothelial phenotype and gene expression. In particular, maladaptive effects of periodic, unidirectional flow induced shear stress can trigger a variety of effects on several vascular cell types, particularly endothelial cells. While by now endothelial cells from diverse anatomic origins have been cultured, in-depth analyses of their responses to fluid shear have been hampered by the relative complexity of shear models (e.g., parallel plate flow chamber, cone and plate flow model). While these all represent excellent approaches, such models are technically complicated and suffer from drawbacks including relatively lengthy and complex setup time, low surface areas, requirements for pumps and pressurization often requiring sealants and gaskets, creating challenges to both maintenance of sterility and an inability to run multiple experiments. However, if higher throughput models of flow and shear were available, greater progress on vascular endothelial shear responses, particularly periodic shear research at the molecular level, might be more rapidly advanced. Here, we describe the construction and use of shear rings: a novel, simple-to-assemble, and inexpensive tissue culture model with a relatively large surface area that easily allows for a high number of experimental replicates in unidirectional, periodic shear stress studies on endothelial cells.

The Assembly and Application of &#039;Shear Rings&#039;: A Novel Endothelial Model for Orbital, Unidirectional and Periodic Fluid Flow and Shear Stress

Different levels and patterns of fluid shear are known to modulate endothelial gene expression, phenotype and susceptibility to disease. We discuss the assembly and use of 'shear rings': a model that produces unidirectional, periodic shear stress patterns. Shear rings are simple to assemble, economical and can produce high cell yields.

Deviations from normal levels and patterns of vascular fluid shear play important roles in vascular physiology and pathophysiology by inducing adaptive as ...

Optical Sectioning and Visualization of the Intervertebral Disc from Embryonic Development to Degeneration

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a leading cause of low back pain and it entails a high degree of impairment for the affected individuals. To decode disc degeneration and to be able to develop regenerative approaches a thorough understanding of the cellular biology of the IVD is essential. One aspect of this biology that still remains unanswered is the question of how cells are spatially arranged in a physiological state and during degeneration. The biological properties of the IVD and its availability make this tissue difficult to analyze. The present study investigates spatial chondrocyte organization in the anulus fibrosus from early embryonic development to end-stage degeneration. An optical sectioning method (Apotome) is applied to perform high resolution staining analyses using bovine embryonic tissue as an animal model and human disc tissue obtained from patients undergoing spine surgery. From a very high chondrocyte density in the early embryonic bovine disc, the number of cells decreases during gestation, growth, and maturation. In human discs, an increase in cellular density accompanied the progression of tissue degeneration. As had already been demonstrated in articular cartilage, cluster formation represents a characteristic feature of advanced disc degeneration.

We present a method to investigate spatial chondrocyte organization in the anulus fibrosus of the intervertebral disc using an optical sectioning method.

Intervertebral disc (IVD) degeneration is a leading cause of low back pain and it entails a high degree of impairment for the affected individuals. To ...