We thank Melissa Griffin and Jenna Rozacky for their expert fish care. PDM thanks EGN for writing assistance, generosity, and patience. This work was supported by NIH/NIDCR R01DE020884 to JKE.

1. Animal Husbandry and Mutant Alleles
<ol>
	<li>Raise and breed zebrafish as described21.</li>
	<li>Zebrafish mutant alleles used in this study were pdgfra b1059 16, smad5 b1100 22, and smob577 23. Sources for these zebrafish strains include ZIRC.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of Solutions and Implements
Note: All solutions and implements can be made in advance and stored for future use.
<ol>
	<li>Make embryo media (EM) as previously described21.</li>
	<li>Make 4 g/L MS-222 (Tricaine). Dissolve 4 g disodium phosphate (Na2HPO4) in 450 ml sterile water. Add 2 g MS-222 to the solution. Adjust pH to within 7.0-7.2. Add sterile water to a total volume of 500 ml.</li>
	<li>Optional: Make 4 g/L clove oil. Weigh 0.2 g pure clove oil in a 50 ml conical tube. Add EM to a total volume of 50 ml. Store at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Make 3% methylcellulose. Bring 50 ml of EM + 0.1 M HEPES to a boil. Remove from heat. Stir in 1.5 g methylcellulose until the solution is homogeneous. Store at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Make 0.2% agarose. Add 0.1 g agarose to 50 ml EM. Bring EM to a boil in the microwave or on a hotplate and verify that the agarose has dissolved. Aliquot into 500 &#956;l volumes in microcentrifuge tubes and store at 4 &#176;C. Note: Volumes can be adjusted as needed.</li>
	<li>Make capillary pokers. Place a drop of super glue inside a 0.9 mm ID capillary tube. Insert a 4-5 cm length of 6 lb test monofilament fishing line inside the capillary tube such that approximately 3-4 mm of line extends beyond the end of the tube.</li>
	<li>Make two bridged coverslips per specimen. Super-glue 22 x 22-1 cover glass onto each end of a 24 x 60-1 cover glass leaving the middle free. Make singles (1 small cover glass per end) for embryos less than a day old, doubles (2 small cover glasses on top of each other per end) for embryos one to four days old, or triples (3 small cover glasses on top of each other per end) for embryos five days or older.</li>
	<li>Fill a 10 ml syringe with high vacuum grease. Note: Vacuum grease serves as a sealant to prevent dehydration of specimens over long periods of time, and has low potential for toxicity compared to more volatile sealants.</li>
</ol>
3. Mounting Zebrafish Embryos for Confocal Microscopy (See Figure 1)
<ol>
	<li>Prepare anesthetic medium. Melt an aliquot of 0.2% agarose by microwaving in 20&#160;sec intervals until completely liquid. Mix 8 &#181;l of MS-222 into 192 &#181;l of 0.2% agarose or 5 &#181;l of 4 g/L clove oil into 195 &#181;l of 0.2% agarose. Maintain in a 42 &#176;C heating block. Note: Long exposure to MS-222 causes stronger developmental delays than clove oil does in embryonic zebrafish24.</li>
	<li>If necessary: Manually dechorionate unhatched transgenic embryos to be analyzed just prior to analysis. Using forceps, slowly tear the chorion open until the embryo is freed.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the zebrafish embryos. Add 1 ml of a 4 g/L stock of MS-222 to 24 ml of embryo media. Alternatively, add 390 &#181;l of 4 g/L clove oil to 24 ml of fish water24. Note: Clove oil acts slowly so perform this step at least 15-20 min before time-lapse microscopy.</li>
	<li>Place a bead of vacuum grease around the center space of an upward-facing bridged coverslip. Slowly push the vacuum grease out of the syringe, making a smooth, continuous bead that is adjacent to and inside of the bridges and the edge of the coverslip.</li>
	<li>Spread a circle of 4% methylcellulose in the middle of the bridged coverslip using a wooden applicator.</li>
	<li>Transfer the embryo to be imaged. When the embryo is anesthetized draw it up into a glass pipette. Hold the pipette up vertically to allow the embryo to sink to the bottom of the liquid in the pipette. Move the pipette into the agarose solution and allow the embryo to drop into the agarose. Do not expel the liquid.</li>
	<li>Place the specimen. Draw some agarose solution and the embryo into the pipette. Expel the embryo in a drop of agarose solution on top of the methylcellulose. Use a capillary poker to push the embryo downward onto the methylcellulose and orient the embryo as desired for imaging.</li>
	<li>Seal the specimen.
	<ol>
		<li>Place one bridged coverslip on top of the mounted one, facing downward. Apply even pressure to both sides of the sandwiched coverslips until the bridges make direct contact and the agarose drop seals to both coverslips. Verify that the embryo is properly oriented.</li>
		<li>Rub a wooden applicator along the glass to smooth out cracks and gaps in the vacuum grease bead. Wipe away excess grease from the edges.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Time-lapse Confocal Imaging of Transgenic Zebrafish Embryos
(This protocol has been optimized for a Zeiss LSM 710 confocal microscope using ZEN imaging software, and can be modified for use with other systems.)
<ol>
	<li>Activate equipment. Turn on the confocal microscope and any external laser devices. Turn on the computer connected to the confocal microscope. Open confocal imaging software and select &#34;Start System&#34; to activate image acquisition controls.</li>
	<li>Prepare heated stage. Lower the staging platform of the confocal microscope and move the objective lenses out of position. Replace the default stage with an electronic heated stage. Turn on the controller for the heated stage and set the temperature for 29.5 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Position the specimen in the field of view. Place the mounted specimen on the stage. Move the 20X&#160;objective lens into position and raise the staging platform. Activate the visible light emitter and look through the eyepieces. Center the embryo&#39;s head in the field of view.</li>
	<li>Define experiment settings.
	<ol>
		<li>Activate fluorescence channels by selecting the fluorescent wavelength to be detected and choose color lookup tables (LUT) for each channel. If necessary, use manual controls in the software to turn on the requisite lasers (e.g.&#160;561 nm for RFP). For each fluorescence channel, set the laser intensity to 10.0 and the photomultiplier voltage (HV or gain) between 600-700. Set the averaging to 4 and the bit depth to 16 bit.</li>
		<li>Activate the Z-stack and time series modules. Set the pinhole for a 5 &#181;m or smaller Z-resolution, and set the Z-interval to the suggested optimal distance. 
		Note: Generally, 5 &#181;m Z-resolution allows each Z-stack image to be collected quickly enough for a &#34;snapshot&#34; of the embryo at a particular time point while also resolving individual cells. Lowering the averaging also reduces the amount of time per image.</li>
		<li>Define the desired time interval between images (usually 10-20 min) and the total length of the experiment.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Set positional information.
	<ol>
		<li>Turn the camera to live mode. Adjust focus and increase laser intensity if necessary to see fluorescence. Set the digital zoom to 0.6 for a wider view, if desired.</li>
		<li>Position the stage such that all structures of interest are visible and there is room in the field of view for outgrowth dorsally and anteriorly. Focus through the embryo to the upper and lower limits of fluorescence. Set the first and last Z-stack slice positions at least 100 &#181;m or more beyond these limits.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Optimize fluorescence intensity.
	<ol>
		<li>Set the display LUT to range indicator. Fluorescent structures should now appear white, and the rest of the field of view should be blue (no detection) or black.</li>
		<li>Increase HV/gain to a level just below where saturated (red) pixels appear. If necessary, adjust offset so a majority of the background is not detected (blue). Note: Smaller pinhole diameter and increased laser intensity both improve image definition, but laser intensity must be kept low to preserve living tissues. Increased HV/gain and pinhole diameter (&#60;5 &#181;m) are generally preferable to increased laser intensity.</li>
		<li>Keep the pinhole diameter wide enough to collect images in a timely fashion, averaging sets to 4. The Z-interval should always be set to the suggested optimal distance for the pinhole diameter. Perform short scans (averaging = 1) with different settings, and use the minimum laser intensity that achieves desired resolution.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Run the experiment for the desired length of time. Afterward, remove embryo from the heated stage and slowly separate the coverslips. Submerge the coverslip and embryo in EM in a 30 mm Petri dish. Using a glass pipette gently wash the embryo off of the coverslip and remove the coverslip from the Petri dish. Place the embryo into a 28.5 &#176;C incubator to continue to develop.</li>
	<li>Compare growth. At the end of the experiment, take individual Z-stack images of agarose-mounted sibling embryos that were similarly staged to the specimen at the beginning of the experiment, but were raised in EM in a 28.5 &#176;C incubator.</li>
	<li>Measure pharyngeal arches, as needed. Measurements can be performed in some confocal software suites. Measurements found here were performed using Fiji25 by importing and Z-projecting .lsm files of individual frames.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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Genet. 14, 357-360 (1996).</li><li>Jeong, J., Mao, J., Tenzen, T., Kottmann, A. H., McMahon, A. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hedgehog+signaling+in+the+neural+crest+cells+regulates+the+patterning+and+growth+of+facial+primordia.">Hedgehog signaling in the neural crest cells regulates the patterning and growth of facial primordia.</a> Genes Dev. 18, 937-951 (2004).</li><li>Hu, D., Marcucio, R. 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A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cyclopia+and+defective+axial+patterning+in+mice+lacking+Sonic+hedgehog+gene+function.">Cyclopia and defective axial patterning in mice lacking Sonic hedgehog gene function.</a> Nature. 383, 3 (1996).</li><li>Moore-Scott, B. A., Manley, N. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+expression+of+Sonic+hedgehog+along+the+anterior-posterior+axis+regulates+patterning+of+pharyngeal+pouch+endoderm+and+pharyngeal+endoderm-derived+organs.">Differential expression of Sonic hedgehog along the anterior-posterior axis regulates patterning of pharyngeal pouch endoderm and pharyngeal endoderm-derived organs.</a> Dev. Biol. 278, 323-335 (2005).</li><li>Swartz, M. E., Nguyen, V., McCarthy, N. Q., Eberhart, J. 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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

Time-lapse confocal microscopy is a powerful tool for the analysis of development. Here, we demonstrate the method&#39;s usefulness in studying pharyngeal arch morphogenesis in zebrafish that are mutant for important signaling pathways using a transgenic that labels neural crest cells. In addition to tissue-level analyses, time lapse analyses are also applicable to analyses at a cellular scale28. Many widely used zebrafish methods can also be incorporated into time-lapse microscopy experiments, including micro...

Craniofacial morphogenesis is a complex multi-step process that requires coordinated interactions between multiple cell types. The majority of the craniofacial skeleton is derived from neural crest cells, many of which must migrate from the dorsal neural tube into transient structures called pharyngeal arches1. As with many tissues, morphogenesis of the craniofacial skeleton is more complicated than can be understood by static images of embryos at specific developmental time points. Although it is time-consuming to perform, in vivo time-lapse microscopy provides a continuous look at a developing embryo&#39;s cells and tissues. Each image in a time-lapse series lends context to the others, and helps an investigator move toward deducing why a phenomenon occurs rather than deducing what is occurring at that time.
In vivo imaging is thus a powerful descriptive tool for experimental approaches to deconstruct the pathways that guide morphogenesis. The zebrafish Danio rerio is a popular genetic model of vertebrate embryonic development, and is particularly well suited for in vivo imaging of morphogenesis. Modern, convenient methods for transgenesis and genomic modification are rapidly advancing the number of tools available to zebrafish researchers. These tools enhance already robust methods for genetic manipulation and microscopy. In vivo imaging of almost any tissue in almost any desired genetic context is closer to reality than fantasy.
Morphogenetic movements of the pharyngeal arches are guided by signaling interactions between the neural crest and the adjacent epithelia, both ectoderm and endoderm. There are numerous signaling molecules expressed by the epithelia that are necessary to drive the morphogenesis of craniofacial skeletal elements. Among these signaling molecules, Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) is critically important for craniofacial development2-8. Shh is expressed by both the oral ectoderm and pharyngeal endoderm2,6,9,10. The expression of Shh in the endoderm regulates morphogenetic movements of the arches10, patterning of neural crest within the arches10, and growth of the craniofacial skeleton11.
Bmp signaling is also critically important for craniofacial development12 and may alter morphogenesis of the pharyngeal arches. Bmp signaling regulates dorsal/ventral patterning of crest within the pharyngeal arches13,14. Disruption of smad5 in zebrafish causes severe palatal defects and a failure of the Meckel&#39;s cartilages to fuse appropriately at the midline15. In addition, the mutants also display reductions and fusion in the ventral cartilage elements, with the 2nd, 3rd, and sometimes 4th pharyngeal arch elements fused at the midline15. These fusions strongly suggest that Bmp signaling directs the morphogenesis of these pharyngeal elements.
Pdgf signaling is necessary for craniofacial development, but has unknown roles in pharyngeal arch morphogenesis. Both mouse and zebrafish Pdgfra mutants have profound midfacial clefting16-18. At least in zebrafish this midfacial clefting is due to a failure of proper neural crest cell migration16. Neural crest cells continue to express pdgfra after they have entered the pharyngeal arches. Additionally, Pdgf ligands are expressed by facial epithelia and within the pharyngeal arches16,19,20, thus Pdgf signaling could also play a role in morphogenesis of the pharyngeal arches following migration. However, analyses of the morphogenesis of the pharyngeal arches in pdgfra mutants have not been performed.
Here, we demonstrate in vivo confocal microscopy of pharyngula-stage transgenic zebrafish and describe the morphogenesis of the pharyngeal arches within this period. We further demonstrate tissue behaviors that are affected by mutations that disrupt the Bmp, Pdgf, and Shh signaling pathways.

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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">6 lb. test monofilament line</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Cortland Line Company</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">SLB16</td>
			<td style="width:220px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Agarose I</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Amresco</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">0710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Argon laser</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">LASOS Lasertechnik GmbH</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">LGN 3001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Calcium chloride</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">C8106</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Capillary tubing, 100 mm, 0.9 mm ID</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">FHC</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">30-31-0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Clove oil</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Hilltech Canada, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">HB-102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">High vacuum grease</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Dow Corning</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">2021846-0807</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Isotemp dry-bath incubator</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">2050FS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Laser scanning microscope</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Carl Zeiss AG</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">LSM 710</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Magnesium sulfate hexahydrate</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">230391</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Microscope cover glass, 22x22-1</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">12-542-B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Microscope cover glass, 24x60-1</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">12-545-M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Potassium chloride</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">M-11321</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Potassium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">P3786</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Sodium chloride</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">M-11624</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Sodium phosphate dibasic</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:185px;">S7907</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">TempController 2000-2</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">PeCon GmbH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:243px;">Tricaine-S</td>
			<td style="width:189px;">Western Chemical, Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:185px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

analyzing craniofacial morphogenesis in zebrafish using 4d confocal microscopy

Time-lapse imaging is a technique that allows for the direct observation of the process of morphogenesis, or the generation of shape. Due to their optical clarity and amenability to genetic manipulation, the zebrafish embryo has become a popular model organism with which to perform time-lapse analysis of morphogenesis in living embryos. Confocal imaging of a live zebrafish embryo requires that a tissue of interest is persistently labeled with a fluorescent marker, such as a transgene or injected dye. The process demands that the embryo is anesthetized and held in place in such a way that healthy development proceeds normally. Parameters for imaging must be set to account for three-dimensional growth and to balance the demands of resolving individual cells while getting quick snapshots of development. Our results demonstrate the ability to perform long-term in vivo imaging of fluorescence-labeled zebrafish embryos and to detect varied tissue behaviors in the cranial neural crest that cause craniofacial abnormalities. Developmental delays caused by anesthesia and mounting are minimal, and embryos are unharmed by the process. Time-lapse imaged embryos can be returned to liquid medium and subsequently imaged or fixed at later points in development. With an increasing abundance of transgenic zebrafish lines and well-characterized fate mapping and transplantation techniques, imaging any desired tissue is possible. As such, time-lapse in vivo imaging combines powerfully with zebrafish genetic methods, including analyses of mutant and microinjected embryos.

In wild-type embryos, following neural crest population, the pharyngeal arches elongate along the anterior/posterior and dorsal/ventral axes while moving in a rostral direction (Movie 1). At 30 hours post-fertilization (hpf), the anterior/posterior length of the first pharyngeal arch is between 1.8-1.9 times its dorsal/ventral height. Dorsal/ventral elongation proceeds steadily, faster than anterior/posterior extension until 36.5 hpf. From here, dorsal/ventral height plateaus around 104 &#181;m through 4...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Analyzing Craniofacial Morphogenesis in Zebrafish Using 4D Confocal Microscopy at JoVE.com

Analyzing Craniofacial Morphogenesis in Zebrafish Using 4D Confocal Microscopy

Time-lapse confocal imaging is a powerful technique useful for characterizing embryonic development. Here, we describe the methodology and characterize craniofacial morphogenesis in wild-type, as well as pdgfra, smad5, and smo mutant embryos.

Time-lapse imaging is a technique that allows for the direct observation of the process of morphogenesis, or the generation of shape. Due to their optical ...

analyzing-craniofacial-morphogenesis-zebrafish-using-4d-confocal

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JoVE Journal

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10.9K Views.  The University of Texas at Austin. Time-lapse confocal imaging is a powerful technique useful for characterizing embryonic development. Here, we describe the methodology and characterize craniofacial morphogenesis in wild-type, as well as pdgfra, smad5, and smo mutant embryos.

Video: Analyzing Craniofacial Morphogenesis in Zebrafish Using 4D Confocal Microscopy

Two-photon axotomy and time-lapse confocal imaging in live zebrafish embryos

Zebrafish have long been utilized to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of development by time-lapse imaging of the living transparent embryo. Here we describe a method to mount zebrafish embryos for long-term imaging and demonstrate how to automate the capture of time-lapse images using a confocal microscope. We also describe a method to create controlled, precise damage to individual branches of peripheral sensory axons in zebrafish using the focused power of a femtosecond laser mounted on a two-photon microscope. The parameters for successful two-photon axotomy must be optimized for each microscope. We will demonstrate two-photon axotomy on both a custom built two-photon microscope and a Zeiss 510 confocal/two-photon to provide two examples.

Zebrafish trigeminal sensory neurons can be visualized in a transgenic line expressing GFP driven by a sensory neuron specific promoter 1. We have adapted this zebrafish trigeminal model to directly observe sensory axon regeneration in living zebrafish embryos. Embryos are anesthetized with tricaine and positioned within a drop of agarose as it solidifies. Immobilized embryos are sealed within an imaging chamber filled with phenylthiourea (PTU) Ringers. We have found that embryos can be continuously imaged in these chambers for 12-48 hours. A single confocal image is then captured to determine the desired site of axotomy. The region of interest is located on the two-photon microscope by imaging the sensory axons under low, non-damaging power. After zooming in on the desired site of axotomy, the power is increased and a single scan of that defined region is sufficient to sever the axon. Multiple location time-lapse imaging is then set up on a confocal microscope to directly observe axonal recovery from injury.

Here we describe a method for mounting zebrafish embryos for long-term imaging, two-photon imaging and tissue-damage techniques, and time-lapse confocal imaging.

Zebrafish have long been utilized to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms of development by time-lapse imaging of the living transparent embryo.  ...

Live Imaging of the Zebrafish Embryonic Brain by Confocal Microscopy

In this video, we demonstrate the method our lab has developed to analyze the cell shape changes and rearrangements required to bend and fold the developing zebrafish brain (Gutzman et al, 2008). Such analysis affords a new understanding of the underlying cell biology required for development of the 3D structure of the vertebrate brain, and significantly increases our ability to study neural tube morphogenesis. The embryonic zebrafish brain is shaped beginning at 18 hours post fertilization (hpf) as the ventricles within the neuroepithelium inflate. By 24 hpf, the initial steps of neural tube morphogenesis are complete. Using the method described here, embryos at the one cell stage are injected with mRNA encoding membrane-targeted green fluorescent protein (memGFP). After injection and incubation, the embryo, now between 18 and 24 hpf, is mounted, inverted, in agarose and imaged by confocal microscopy. Notably, the zebrafish embryo is transparent making it an ideal system for fluorescent imaging. While our analyses have focused on the midbrain-hindbrain boundary and the hindbrain, this method could be extended for analysis of any region in the zebrafish to a depth of 
80-100 &mu;m.

In this video, we demonstrate a method by which to analyze the developing vertebrate brain in live zebrafish embryos at single cell resolution by confocal microscopy. This includes the method by which we inject the single-cell zebrafish embryo and subsequently mount and image the developing brain.

In this video, we demonstrate the method our lab has developed to analyze the cell shape changes and rearrangements required to bend and fold the ...

Electroporation of Craniofacial Mesenchyme

Electroporation is an efficient method of delivering DNA and other charged macromolecules into tissues at precise time points and in precise locations. For example, electroporation has been used with great success to study neural and retinal development in Xenopus, chicken and mouse 1-10. However, it is important to note that in all of these studies, investigators were not targeting soft tissues. Because we are interested in craniofacial development, we adapted a method to target facial mesenchyme.
When we searched the literature, we found, to our surprise, very few reports of successful gene transfer into cartilaginous tissue. The majority of these studies were gene therapy studies, such as siRNA or protein delivery into chondrogenic cell lines, or, animal models of arthritis 11-13. In other systems, such as chicken or mouse, electroporation of facial mesenchyme has been challenging (personal communications, Dept of Craniofacial Development, KCL). We hypothesized that electroporation into procartilaginous and cartilaginous tissues in Xenopus might work better. In our studies, we show that gene transfer into the facial cartilages occurs efficiently at early stages (28), when the facial primordium is still comprised of soft tissue prior to cartilage differentiation.
Xenopus is a very accessible vertebrate system for analysis of craniofacial development. Craniofacial structures are more readily visible in Xenopus than in any other vertebrate model, primarily because Xenopus embryos are fertilized externally, allowing analyses of the earliest stages, and facilitating live imaging at single cell resolution, as well as reuse of the mothers 14. Among vertebrate models developing externally, Xenopus is more useful for craniofacial analysis than zebrafish, as Xenopus larvae are larger and easier to dissect, and the developing facial region is more accessible to imaging than the equivalent region in fish. In addition, Xenopus is evolutionarily closer to humans than zebrafish (&tilde;100 million years closer) 15. Finally, at these stages, Xenopus tadpoles are transparent, and concurrent expression of fluorescent proteins or molecules will allow easy visualization of the developing cartilages. We anticipate that this approach will allow us to rapidly and efficiently test candidate molecules in an in vivo model system.

Craniofacial cartilages develop in close contact with other tissues and are difficult to manipulate in live animals. We are using electroporation to deliver molecular tools during growth of the craniofacial skeleton while bypassing early embryonic effects. This approach will allow us to efficiently test candidate molecules in vivo.

Electroporation is an efficient method of delivering DNA and other charged macromolecules into tissues at precise time points and in precise locations. ...

Fluorescence-based Measurement of Store-operated Calcium Entry in Live Cells: from Cultured Cancer Cell to Skeletal Muscle Fiber

Store operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE), earlier termed capacitative Ca2+ entry, is a tightly regulated mechanism for influx of extracellular Ca2+ into cells to replenish depleted endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+ stores1,2. Since Ca2+ is a ubiquitous second messenger, it is not surprising to see that SOCE plays important roles in a variety of cellular processes, including proliferation, apoptosis, gene transcription and motility. Due to its wide occurrence in nearly all cell types, including epithelial cells and skeletal muscles, this pathway has received great interest3,4. However, the heterogeneity of SOCE characteristics in different cell types and the physiological function are still not clear5-7.
The functional channel properties of SOCE can be revealed by patch-clamp studies, whereas a large body of knowledge about this pathway has been gained by fluorescence-based intracellular Ca2+ measurements because of its convenience and feasibility for high-throughput screening. The objective of this report is to summarize a few fluorescence-based methods to measure the activation of SOCE in monolayer cells, suspended cells and muscle fibers5,8-10. The most commonly used of these fluorescence methods is to directly monitor the dynamics of intracellular Ca2+ using the ratio of F340nm and F380nm (510 nm for emission wavelength) of the ratiometric Ca2+ indicator Fura-2. To isolate the activity of unidirectional SOCE from intracellular Ca2+ release and Ca2+ extrusion, a Mn2+ quenching assay is frequently used. Mn2+ is known to be able to permeate into cells via SOCE while it is impervious to the surface membrane extrusion processes or to ER uptake by Ca2+ pumps due to its very high affinity with Fura-2. As a result, the quenching of Fura-2 fluorescence induced by the entry of extracellular Mn2+ into the cells represents a measurement of activity of SOCE9. Ratiometric measurement and the Mn+2 quenching assays can be performed on a cuvette-based spectrofluorometer in a cell population mode or in a microscope-based system to visualize single cells. The advantage of single cell measurements is that individual cells subjected to gene manipulations can be selected using GFP or RFP reporters, allowing studies in genetically modified or mutated cells. The spatiotemporal characteristics of SOCE in structurally specialized skeletal muscle can be achieved in skinned muscle fibers by simultaneously monitoring the fluorescence of two low affinity Ca2+ indicators targeted to specific compartments of the muscle fiber, such as Fluo-5N in the SR and Rhod-5N in the transverse tubules9,11,12.

The extent of store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE) can be monitored using fluorescent Ca2+ indicators. Mn2+ quenching of such indicators assays SOCE in cultured cells and skeletal muscle fibers. A technique allowing spatial and temporal resolution of SOCE by confocal imaging of mechanically skinned muscle fibers is also described.

Store operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE), earlier termed capacitative Ca2+ entry, is a tightly regulated mechanism for influx of extracellular Ca2+ into cells to ...

Visualization of Craniofacial Development in the sox10: kaede Transgenic Zebrafish Line Using Time-lapse Confocal Microscopy

Vertebrate palatogenesis is a highly choreographed and complex developmental process, which involves migration of cranial neural crest (CNC) cells, convergence and extension of facial prominences, and maturation of the craniofacial skeleton. To study the contribution of the cranial neural crest to specific regions of the zebrafish palate a sox10: kaede transgenic zebrafish line was generated. Sox10 provides lineage restriction of the kaede reporter protein to the neural crest, thereby making the cell labeling a more precise process than traditional dye or reporter mRNA injection. Kaede is a photo-convertible protein that turns from green to red after photo activation and makes it possible to follow cells precisely. The sox10: kaede transgenic line was used to perform lineage analysis to delineate CNC cell populations that give rise to maxillary versus mandibular elements and illustrate homology of facial prominences to amniotes. This protocol describes the steps to generate a live time-lapse video of a sox10: kaede zebrafish embryo. Development of the ethmoid plate will serve as a practical example. This protocol can be applied to making a time-lapse confocal recording of any kaede or similar photoconvertible reporter protein in transgenic zebrafish. Furthermore, it can be used to capture not only normal, but also abnormal development of craniofacial structures in the zebrafish mutants.

Visualization of experimental data has become a key element in presenting results to the scientific community. Generation of live time-lapse recording of growing embryos contributes to better presentation and understanding of complex developmental processes. This protocol is a step-by-step guide to cell labeling via photoconversion of kaede protein in zebrafish.

Vertebrate palatogenesis is a highly choreographed and complex developmental process, which involves migration of cranial neural crest (CNC) cells, ...

Simultaneous pH Measurement in Endocytic and Cytosolic Compartments in Living Cells using Confocal Microscopy

Intracellular pH is tightly regulated and differences in pH between the cytoplasm and organelles have been reported1. Regulation of cellular pH is crucial for homeostatic control of physiological processes that include: protein, DNA and RNA synthesis, vesicular trafficking, cell growth and cell division. Alterations in cellular pH homeostasis can lead to detrimental functional changes and promote progression of various diseases2. Various methods are available for measuring intracellular pH but very few of these allow simultaneous measurement of pH in the cytoplasm and in organelles. Here, we describe in detail a rapid and accurate method for the simultaneous measurement of cytoplasmic and organellar pH by using confocal microscopy on living cells3. This goal is achieved with the use of two pH-sensing ratiometric dyes that possess selective cellular compartment partitioning. For instance, SNARF-1 is compartmentalized inside the cytoplasm whereas HPTS is compartmentalized inside endosomal/lysosomal organelles. Although HPTS is commonly used as a cytoplasmic pH indicator, this dye can specifically label vesicles along the endosomal-lysosomal pathway after being taken up by pinocytosis3,4. Using these pH-sensing probes, it is possible to simultaneously measure pH within the endocytic and cytoplasmic compartments. The optimal excitation wavelength of HPTS varies depending on the pH while for SNARF-1, it is the optimal emission wavelength that varies. Following loading with SNARF-1 and HPTS, cells are cultured in different pH-calibrated solutions to construct a pH standard curve for each probe. Cell imaging by confocal microscopy allows elimination of artifacts and background noise. Because of the spectral properties of HPTS, this probe is better suited for measurement of the mildly acidic endosomal compartment or to demonstrate alkalinization of the endosomal/lysosomal organelles. This method simplifies data analysis, improves accuracy of pH measurements and can be used to address fundamental questions related to pH modulation during cell responses to external challenges.

Several methods are available for measuring intracellular pH but very few of these allow simultaneous measurement of cytoplasmic and organellar pH. Here, we describe in detail a rapid and accurate methodology to simultaneously measure cytoplasmic and vesicular pH by ratiometric imaging of living cells.

Intracellular pH is tightly regulated and differences in pH between the cytoplasm and organelles have been reported1. Regulation of cellular pH is crucial ...

In vivo Clonal Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells Marked by Five Fluorescent Proteins using Confocal and Multiphoton Microscopy

We developed and validated a fluorescent marking methodology for clonal tracking of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) with high spatial and temporal resolution to study in vivo hematopoiesis using the murine bone marrow transplant experimental model. Genetic combinatorial marking using lentiviral vectors encoding fluorescent proteins (FPs) enabled cell fate mapping through advanced microscopy imaging. Vectors encoding five different FPs: Cerulean, EGFP, Venus, tdTomato, and mCherry were used to concurrently transduce HSPCs, creating a diverse palette of color marked cells. Imaging using confocal/two-photon hybrid microscopy enables simultaneous high resolution assessment of uniquely marked cells and their progeny in conjunction with structural components of the tissues. Volumetric analyses over large areas reveal that spectrally coded HSPC-derived cells can be detected non-invasively in various intact tissues, including the bone marrow (BM), for extensive periods of time following transplantation. Live studies combining video-rate multiphoton and confocal time-lapse imaging in 4D demonstrate the possibility of dynamic cellular and clonal tracking in a quantitative manner.

In vivo Clonal Tracking of Hematopoietic Stem and Progenitor Cells Marked by Five Fluorescent Proteins using Confocal and Multiphoton Microscopy

Combinatorial 5 fluorescent proteins marking of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells allows in vivo clonal tracking via confocal and two-photon microscopy, providing insights into bone marrow hematopoietic architecture during regeneration. This method allows non-invasive fate mapping of spectrally-coded HSPCs-derived cells in intact tissues for extensive periods of time following transplantation.

We developed and validated a fluorescent marking methodology for clonal tracking of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) with high spatial and ...

4D Microscopy of Yeast

The goal of this protocol is to characterize how membrane compartments form and transform in live cells of budding yeast. Many intracellular compartments in yeast are dynamic, and a full understanding of their properties requires time-lapse imaging. Multi-color 4D confocal fluorescence microscopy is a powerful method for tracking the behavior and composition of an intracellular compartment on a time scale of 5-15 min. Rigorous analysis of compartment dynamics requires the capture of thousands of optical sections. To achieve this aim, photobleaching and phototoxicity are minimized by scanning rapidly at very low laser power, and the pixel dimensions and Z-step intervals are set to the largest values that are compatible with sampling the image at full resolution. The resulting 4D data sets are noisy but can be smoothed by deconvolution. Even with high quality data, the analysis phase is challenging because intracellular structures are often numerous, heterogeneous, and mobile. To meet this need, custom ImageJ plugins were written to array 4D data on a computer screen, identify structures of interest, edit the data to isolate individual structures, quantify the fluorescence time courses, and make movies of the projected Z-stacks. 4D movies are particularly useful for distinguishing stable compartments from transient compartments that turn over by maturation. Such movies can also be used to characterize events such as compartment fusion, and to test the effects of specific mutations or other perturbations.

This protocol describes the analysis of fluorescently labeled intracellular compartments in budding yeast using multi-color 4D (time-lapse 3D) confocal microscopy. The imaging parameters are chosen to capture adequate signals while limiting photodamage. Custom ImageJ plugins allow labeled structures to be tracked and quantitatively analyzed.

The goal of this protocol is to characterize how membrane compartments form and transform in live cells of budding yeast. Many intracellular compartments ...

Visualizing Lymph Node Structure and Cellular Localization using Ex-Vivo Confocal Microscopy

Lymph nodes (LNs) are organs spread within the body, where the innate immune responses can connect with the adaptive immunity. In fact, LNs are strategically interposed in the path of the lymphatic vessels, allowing intimate contact of tissue antigens with all resident immune cells in the LN. Thus, understanding the cellular composition, distribution, location and interaction using ex vivo whole LN imaging will add to the knowledge on how the body coordinates local and systemic immune responses. This protocol shows an ex vivo imaging strategy following an in vivo administration of fluorescent-labeled antibodies that allows a very reproducible and easy-to-perform methodology by using conventional confocal microscopes and stock reagents. Through subcutaneous injection of antibodies, it is possible to label different cell populations in draining LNs without affecting tissue structures that can be potentially damaged by a conventional immunofluorescence microscopy technique.

This protocol describes a technique to image different cell populations in draining lymph nodes without alterations in the organ structure.

Lymph nodes (LNs) are organs spread within the body, where the innate immune responses can connect with the adaptive immunity. In fact, LNs are ...

Analyzing the &alpha;-Actinin Network in Human iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes Using Single Molecule Localization Microscopy

The maturation of iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes is a critical issue for their application in regenerative therapy, drug testing and disease modeling. Despite the development of multiple differentiation protocols, the generation of iPSC cardiomyocytes resembling an adult-like phenotype remains challenging. One major aspect of cardiomyocytes maturation involves the formation of a well-organized sarcomere network to ensure high contraction capacity. Here, we present a super resolution-based approach for semi-quantitative analysis of the &#945;-actinin network in cardiomyocytes. Using photoactivated localization microscopy a comparison of sarcomere length and z-disc thickness of iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes and cardiac cells isolated from neonatal tissue was performed. At the same time, we demonstrate the importance of proper imaging conditions to obtain reliable data. Our results show that this method is suitable to quantitatively monitor the structural maturity of cardiac cells with high spatial resolution, enabling the detection of even subtle changes of sarcomere organization.

Analyzing the &amp;#945;-Actinin Network in Human iPSC-Derived Cardiomyocytes Using Single Molecule Localization Microscopy

The formation of a proper sarcomere network is important for the maturation of iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes. We present a super resolution-based approach that allows for the quantitative evaluation of the structural maturation of stem cell derived cardiomyocytes, to improve culture conditions promoting cardiac development.

The maturation of iPSC-derived cardiomyocytes is a critical issue for their application in regenerative therapy, drug testing and disease modeling. ...