Name: recording single neurons' action potentials from freely moving pigeons across three stages of learning
Uploaded: 2014-06-02T13:45:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Recording Single Neurons' Action Potentials from Freely Moving Pigeons Across Three Stages of Learning at JoVE.com

This research was supported by grants from the German Research Foundation (DFG) to MCS (FOR 1581, STU 544/1-1) and OG (FOR 1581, SFB 874). The website of the DFG is http://www.dfg.de/en/index.jsp. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.The authors thank Thomas Seidenbecher for providing us with the gold-plating protocol as well as Tobias Otto for help with setting up the electrophysiological recording equipment.

Ethics Statement
All experiments were conducted in accordance with the German guidelines for the care and use of animals in science. Procedures were approved by a national ethics committee of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.
System overview
Operant Testing Chamber
The operant chamber (Figure 1) measures 34 cm x 34 cm x 50 cm. Three translucent response keys (4 cm x&#...

<ol>
	<li>Bingman, V. P., Gasser, B. A., Colombo, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Responses+of+pigeon+(Columba+livia)+wulst+neurons+during+acquisition+and+reversal+of+a+visual+discrimination+task.">Responses of pigeon (Columba livia) wulst neurons during acquisition and reversal of a visual discrimination task.</a> Behav Neurosci. 122, 1139-1147 (2008).</li><li>Herry, C., Ciocchi, S., Senn, V., Demmou, L., M&#252;ller, C., L&#252;thi, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Switching+on+and+off+fear+by+distinct+neuronal+circuits.">Switching on and off fear by distinct neuronal circuits.</a> Nature. 454, 600-606 (2008).</li><li>Quirk, G. J., Repa, C., LeDoux, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fear+conditioning+enhances+short-latency+auditory+responses+of+lateral+amygdala+neurons:+parallel+recordings+in+the+freely+behaving+rat.">Fear conditioning enhances short-latency auditory responses of lateral amygdala neurons: parallel recordings in the freely behaving rat.</a> Neuron. 15, 1029-1039 (1995).</li><li>Quirk, G. J., Armony, J. L., Ledoux, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Components+of+Tone-Evoked+Spike+Trains+in+Auditory+Cortex+and+Lateral+Amygdala.">Components of Tone-Evoked Spike Trains in Auditory Cortex and Lateral Amygdala.</a> Neuron. 19, 613-624 (1997).</li><li>Maren, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auditory+fear+conditioning+increases+CS-elicited+spike+firing+in+lateral+amygdala+neurons+even+after+extensive+overtraining.">Auditory fear conditioning increases CS-elicited spike firing in lateral amygdala neurons even after extensive overtraining.</a> Eur J Neurosci. 12, 4047-4054 (2000).</li><li>Milad, M. R., Quirk, G. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurons+in+medial+prefrontal+cortex+signal+memory+for+fear+extinction.">Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction.</a> Nature. 420, 713-717 (2002).</li><li>Hobin, J. A., Goosens, K. A., Maren, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Context-dependent+neuronal+activity+in+the+lateral+amygdala+represents+fear+memories+after+extinction.">Context-dependent neuronal activity in the lateral amygdala represents fear memories after extinction.</a> J Neurosci. 23, 8410-8416 (2003).</li><li>Maren, S., Hobin, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hippocampal+regulation+of+context-dependent+neuronal+activity+in+the+lateral+amygdala.">Hippocampal regulation of context-dependent neuronal activity in the lateral amygdala.</a> Learn Mem. 14, 318-324 (2007).</li><li>Knapska, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+involvement+of+the+central+amygdala+in+appetitive+versus+aversive+learning.">Differential involvement of the central amygdala in appetitive versus aversive learning.</a> Learn Mem. 13, 192-200 (2006).</li><li>Harloe, J. P., Thorpe, A. J., Lichtman, A. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+endocannabinoid+regulation+of+extinction+in+appetitive+and+aversive+Barnes+maze+tasks.">Differential endocannabinoid regulation of extinction in appetitive and aversive Barnes maze tasks.</a> Learn Mem. 15, 806-809 (2008).</li><li>Gray, C. M., Maldonado, P. E., Wilson, M., McNaughton, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tetrodes+markedly+improve+the+reliability+and+yield+of+multiple+single-unit+isolation+from+multi-unit+recordings+in+cat+striate+cortex.">Tetrodes markedly improve the reliability and yield of multiple single-unit isolation from multi-unit recordings in cat striate cortex.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 63, 43-54 (1995).</li><li>Lewicki, M. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+review+of+methods+for+spike+sorting:+the+detection+and+classification+of+neural+action+potentials.">A review of methods for spike sorting: the detection and classification of neural action potentials.</a> Network. 9, (1998).</li><li>Skinner, B. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=34;Superstition&amp;#34;+in+the+pigeon.">34;Superstition&amp;#34; in the pigeon.</a> J Exp Psychol. 121, 273-274 (1948).</li><li>Herrnstein, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Relative+and+absolute+strength+of+response+as+a+function+of+frequency+of+reinforcement.">Relative and absolute strength of response as a function of frequency of reinforcement.</a> J Exp Anal Behav. 4, 267-272 (1961).</li><li>Brown, P. L., Jenkins, H. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auto-shaping+of+the+pigeon's+key-peck.">Auto-shaping of the pigeon's key-peck.</a> J Exp Anal Behav. 11, 1-8 (1968).</li><li>Epstein, R., Kirshnit, C. E., Lanza, R. P., Rubin, L. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=34;Insight&amp;#34;+in+the+pigeon:+antecedents+and+determinants+of+an+intelligent+performance.">34;Insight&amp;#34; in the pigeon: antecedents and determinants of an intelligent performance.</a> Nature. 308, 61-62 (1984).</li><li>Mazur, J. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Varying+initial-link+and+terminal-link+durations+in+concurrent-chains+schedules:+a+comparison+of+three+models.">Varying initial-link and terminal-link durations in concurrent-chains schedules: a comparison of three models.</a> Behav Processes. 66, 189-200 (2004).</li><li>Herrnstein, R. J., Loveland, D. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Complex+visual+concept+in+the+pigeon.">Complex visual concept in the pigeon.</a> Science. 146, 549-551 (1964).</li><li>St&#252;ttgen, M. C., Yildiz, A., G&#252;nt&#252;rk&#252;n, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Adaptive+criterion+setting+in+perceptual+decision+making.">Adaptive criterion setting in perceptual decision making.</a> J Exp Anal Behav. 96, 155-176 (2011).</li><li>St&#252;ttgen, M. C., Kasties, N., Lengersdorf, D., Starosta, S., G&#252;nt&#252;rk&#252;n, O., J&#228;kel, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Suboptimal+criterion+setting+in+a+perceptual+choice+task+with+asymmetric+reinforcement.">Suboptimal criterion setting in a perceptual choice task with asymmetric reinforcement.</a> Behav Processes. 96, 59-70 (2013).</li><li>Rose, J., Otto, T., Dittrich, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Biopsychology-Toolbox:+a+free,+open-source+Matlab-toolbox+for+the+control+of+behavioral+experiments.">The Biopsychology-Toolbox: a free, open-source Matlab-toolbox for the control of behavioral experiments.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 175, (2008).</li><li>Bilkey, D. K., Muir, G. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+low+cost,+high+precision+subminiature+microdrive+for+extracellular+unit+recording+in+behaving+animals.">A low cost, high precision subminiature microdrive for extracellular unit recording in behaving animals.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 92, 87-90 (1999).</li><li>Bilkey, D. K., Russell, N., Colombo, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+lightweight+microdrive+for+single-unit+recording+in+freely+moving+rats+and+pigeons.">A lightweight microdrive for single-unit recording in freely moving rats and pigeons.</a> Methods. 30, 152-158 (2003).</li><li>Gallistel, C. R., Gibbon, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Time,+rate,+and+conditioning.">Time, rate, and conditioning.</a> Psychol Rev. 107, 289-344 (1993).</li><li>Starosta, S., G&#252;nt&#252;rk&#252;n, O., St&#252;ttgen, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stimulus-response-outcome+coding+in+the+pigeon+nidopallium+caudolaterale.">Stimulus-response-outcome coding in the pigeon nidopallium caudolaterale.</a> PLoS One. 8, (2013).</li><li>McNaughton, B. L., O'Keefe, J., Barnes, C. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+stereotrode:+a+new+technique+for+simultaneous+isolation+of+several+single+units+in+the+central+nervous+system+from+multiple+unit+records.">The stereotrode: a new technique for simultaneous isolation of several single units in the central nervous system from multiple unit records.</a> J Neurosci Methods. 8, 391-397 (1983).</li><li>Hill, D. N., Mehta, S. B., Kleinfeld, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quality+metrics+to+accompany+spike+sorting+of+extracellular+signals.">Quality metrics to accompany spike sorting of extracellular signals.</a> J Neurosci. 31, 8699-8705 (2011).</li></ol>

This protocol describes a complex behavioral task suitable for concurrent single-unit recordings. We have described the SIFC task for pigeons, but it can be easily adapted to rodents&#160;by requiring nose pokes or lever pressing rather than key pecks, and substituting visual by olfactory, auditory, or tactile stimuli.
Perhaps the most critical steps during the training procedure are 1) gradual reduction of reward probability and 2) increase in trial number. Regarding intermittent reinforcemen...

Learning new stimulus-response-outcome associations engages a wide range of neural plasticity processes. These processes are ultimately reflected in the changing spike output of individual neurons. Arguably, one of the most frequently employed learning paradigms is Pavlovian fear conditioning conducted with rodents. In this setting, the acquisition and extinction of a conditioned response take place within a few dozen trials2. The rapid development of conditioned fear can be advantageous because it allows running a large number of animals within a short time. Also, acquisition and extinction can be observed within a few tens of trials on a single day in naive animals3,4 or spread across 2&#160;to 3&#160;days2,5-8. However, the insights gained about the changes of neural activity during learning in these experiments do not necessarily apply outside the domain of fear conditioning. For example, goal-directed behavior driven by positive reinforcement is more adequately modeled by operant rather than Pavlovian conditioning procedures, and may in part depend on different neural substrates9,10. Also, fear conditioning develops so rapidly that neural responses to the CS can only be observed for a few dozen trials, placing severe limits on the analysis of changes of neural activity during learning.
Unfortunately, the acquisition and extinction of operant responding usually takes many days. This is detrimental for neurophysiological investigations, because it is notoriously difficult to record the activity of single cells over more than a few hours. Due to the high similarity of the waveforms of extracellularly recorded action potentials, it is problematic to claim that spikes recorded on one day are generated from the same cell as spikes with similar waveforms recorded on the next11,12, especially in areas with a high cell density such as the hippocampus.
To address these issues, we developed a novel behavioral paradigm utilizing 3&#160;learning conditions within one experimental session on a single day. This requires that the experimental animal is willing to perform hundreds of trials under varying conditions on a thin schedule of reinforcement. Homing pigeons (Columbia livia forma domestica) are classic model organisms in experimental psychology13-17. These birds are able to perform complex visual discriminations18, can flexibly adapt behavior to changing reinforcement contingencies19,20, and are uniquely avid workers, performing 1,000 trials with minimal amount of reinforcement. These characteristics make them especially suitable for the experiments described below.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1379px;" width="1377">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:277px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:471px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Resistance wire (for use as electrodes)</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">California Fine Wire, Grover Beach (CA), USA</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Stablohm 675; formvar-coated nichrome wires (outer diameter 25 &#181;m)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Microconnectors</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Ginder Scientific, Nepean, Ontario, Canada</td>
			<td style="width:325px;"></td>
			<td>GS18PLG-220 (plug) &#38; GS18SKT-220 (socket to build headstage)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Cannulae</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Henke Sass Wolf, Tuttlingen, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:325px;"></td>
			<td>0.4x20mm/ 27Gx3/4&#34;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Gold solution for plating</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Neuralynx, Bozeman (MT), USA</td>
			<td style="width:325px;"></td>
			<td>SIFCO Process Gold Non-Cyanide, Code 5355</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Solution for ultrasonic bath</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Alconox, Inc., New York, USA</td>
			<td style="width:325px;">1304</td>
			<td>Tergazyme</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Conductive glue</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Henkel Loctite</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>LOCTITE 3888 Silver filled, conductive, adhesive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Stainless steel screws</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">J.I. Morris, Southbridge (MA), USA</td>
			<td style="width:325px;"></td>
			<td>F0CE125 self-tapping miniature screws, body length 1/8 inches</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Light-curing dental cement</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">van der Ven Dental, Duisburg, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:325px;"></td>
			<td>Omniceram Evo Flow A2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Light-curing unit</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">van der Ven Dental, Duisburg, Germany</td>
			<td style="width:325px;"></td>
			<td>Jovident Excelled 215 Curing Light (wireless LED light curing unit)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Filter amplifiers</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">npi electronic GmbH, Germany</td>
			<td>DPA-2FS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">A/D converter</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Cambridge Electronic Design, Cambridge, UK</td>
			<td>power 1401</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Spike2 software</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">Cambridge Electronic Design, Cambridge, UK</td>
			<td style="width:325px;"></td>
			<td>Version 7.06a</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:277px;">Matlab</td>
			<td style="width:305px;">The Mathworks, Natick (MA), USA</td>
			<td style="width:325px;"></td>
			<td>R2012a</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

recording single neurons' action potentials from freely moving pigeons across three stages of learning

While the subject of learning has attracted immense interest from both behavioral and neural scientists, only relatively few investigators have observed single-neuron activity while animals are acquiring an operantly conditioned response, or when that response is extinguished. But even in these cases, observation periods usually encompass only a single stage of learning, i.e. acquisition or extinction, but not both (exceptions include protocols employing reversal learning; see Bingman&#160;et al.1 for an example). However, acquisition and extinction entail different learning mechanisms and are therefore expected to be accompanied by different types and/or loci of neural plasticity.
Accordingly, we developed a behavioral paradigm which institutes three stages of learning in a single behavioral session and which is well suited for the simultaneous recording of single neurons&#39; action potentials. Animals are trained on a single-interval forced choice task which requires mapping each of two possible choice responses to the presentation of different novel visual stimuli (acquisition). After having reached a predefined performance criterion, one of the two choice responses is no longer reinforced (extinction). Following a certain decrement in performance level, correct responses are reinforced again (reacquisition). By using a new set of stimuli in every session, animals can undergo the acquisition-extinction-reacquisition process repeatedly. Because all three stages of learning occur in a single behavioral session, the paradigm is ideal for the simultaneous observation of the spiking output of multiple single neurons. We use pigeons as model systems, but the task can easily be adapted to any other species capable of conditioned discrimination learning.

Behavior
Figure 4A shows the behavioral performance of an animal in one example session. The performance level of the animal reaches criterion for NS 2 within 180 trials (45 stimulus presentations) and is close to 100% for the NS 1 from the beginning. This strategy - first responding to the same key for both new stimuli, and then adjusting responses for one of the stimuli - is about as often observed as initial random responding to both NS. In this session, the NS 2 was randomly ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Recording Single Neurons' Action Potentials from Freely Moving Pigeons Across Three Stages of Learning at JoVE.com

Recording Single Neurons' Action Potentials from Freely Moving Pigeons Across Three Stages of Learning

Learning new stimulus-response associations engages a wide range of neural processes which are ultimately reflected in changing spike output of individual neurons. Here we describe a behavioral protocol allowing for the continuous registration of single-neuron activity while animals acquire, extinguish, and reacquire a conditioned response within a single experimental session.

While the subject of learning has attracted immense interest from both behavioral and neural scientists, only relatively few investigators have observed ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

High-density EEG Recordings of the Freely Moving Mice using Polyimide-based Microelectrode

Electroencephalogram (EEG) indicates the averaged electrical activity of the neuronal populations on a large-scale level. It is widely utilized as a ...

Retrograde Fluorescent Labeling Allows for Targeted Extracellular Single-unit Recording from Identified Neurons In vivo

Retrograde Fluorescent Labeling Allows for Targeted Extracellular Single-unit Recording from Identified Neurons In vivo

The overall goal of this method is to record single-unit responses from an identified population of neurons. In vivo electrophysiological recordings from ...

Optical Recording of Suprathreshold Neural Activity with Single-cell and Single-spike Resolution

Signaling of information in the vertebrate central nervous system is often carried by populations of neurons rather than individual neurons. Also ...

Simultaneous Recording of Electroretinography and Visual Evoked Potentials in Anesthetized Rats

The electroretinogram (ERG) and visual evoked potential (VEP) are commonly used to assess the integrity of the visual pathway. The ERG measures the ...

Recording EEG in Freely Moving Neonatal Rats Using a Novel Method

EEG is a useful method to detect electrical activity in the brain. Moreover, it is a widely used diagnostic tool for various neurological conditions, such ...

Simultaneous Recordings of Cortical Local Field Potentials, Electrocardiogram, Electromyogram, and Breathing Rhythm from a Freely Moving Rat

Monitoring the physiological dynamics of the brain and peripheral tissues is necessary for addressing a number of questions about how the brain controls ...

Noninvasive EEG Recordings from Freely Moving Piglets

The method allows the recording of high-quality electroencephalograms (EEGs) from freely moving piglets directly in the pigpen. We use a one-channel ...

Microdialysis of Excitatory Amino Acids During EEG Recordings in Freely Moving Rats

Microdialysis is a well-established neuroscience technique that correlates the changes of neurologically active substances diffusing into the brain ...

Hybrid Microdrive System with Recoverable Opto-Silicon Probe and Tetrode for Dual-Site High Density Recording in Freely Moving Mice

Multi-regional neural recordings can provide crucial information to understanding fine-timescale interactions between multiple brain regions. However, ...

Multi-Fiber Photometry to Record Neural Activity in Freely-Moving Animals

Recording the activity of a group of neurons in a freely-moving animal is a challenging undertaking. Moreover, as the brain is dissected into smaller and ...