We thank Lowell Cochran for expert videography assistance. The financial assistance of the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR), the Canadian Breast Cancer Foundation (CBCF, Ontario Chapter), the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC), the Canadian Breast Cancer Research Alliance, the Ontario Centers of Excellence, the Breast Cancer Action Kingston and the Clare Nelson bequest fund through grants to LR is gratefully acknowledged. SG was the recipient of an NSERC studentship. MG was supported by a postdoctoral fellowship from the US Army Breast Cancer Program, the Ministry of Research and Innovation of the Province of Ontario and the Advisory Research Committee of Queen&#8217;s University.

1. Plating the Cells in the Electroporation Chambers
<ol>
	<li>In a laminar-flow hood, trypsinize the cells using sterile technique as usual. 
	NOTE: It is very important to eliminate by centrifugation all traces of trypsin, because they may hinder spreading of the cells on the glass, hence the formation of adherens and gap junctions.</li>
	<li>Pipette 1 ml of the cell suspension in the sterile electroporation chambers provided with the in situ electroporator (Figure 1), and place in a 37 oC, CO2 incubator. 
	NOTE: Cell adhesion can be improved by plating on fibronectin, collagen, poly-lysine or cell and tissue adhesive (see Materials Table).</li>
	<li>When the cells have formed a confluent layer they are ready for GJIC examination.</li>
</ol>
2. Electroporation Procedure
Electroporation for GJIC examination can be conducted outside a laminar-flow hood, since it takes only a few minutes. If longer incubation times are required for a specific experiment, then it can be conducted entirely in a laminar-flow hood. In all cases, the chambers where the cells are grown must be sterile.
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a 5 mg/ml Lucifer yellow solution: Dissolve 10 mg LY powder (provided with the electroporator) in 2 ml Calcium-free growth medium. For experiments that requires longer incubation times, filter-sterilize the solution and store at 4oC.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the growth medium and wash the cells with Calcium-free medium, being careful not to scratch the monolayer or dry the cells. If the cells are dried they usually have darker nuclei and pick up LY without electroporation. The effect is more pronounced in the middle of the slide which is more exposed to air drafts (Figure 4F).</li>
	<li>With an Eppendorf pipettor, pipette the dye solution to the cells (400 &#956;l for the whole chamber), at the edge of the chamber, being careful not to touch the cell layer.</li>
	<li>Place the chamber in the holder supplied with the electroporator and apply a pulse of the appropriate strength (see Discussion).</li>
	<li>Carefully aspirate some of the LY solution. It can be reused a second time for less important experiments.</li>
	<li>Add Calcium-free DMEM containing 10% dialysed serum.</li>
	<li>Incubate the cells for 3-5 min in the incubator to allow dye transfer through gap junctions. 
	NOTE: The inclusion of dialysed serum at this point helps pore closure.</li>
	<li>Wash the unincorporated dye with Calcium-free DMEM for live cell observation. Alternatively, cells can be fixed at this stage, through the addition of 4% formaldehyde to the well, then washed with PBS (phosphate-buffered saline). In all cases the washing must remove all background. 
	NOTE: In preliminary experiments to determine the optimal conditions, if the voltage is too low, then it is possible to let the cells recover in the incubator for a few minutes and electroporate the same slide a second time, to save in the cost of slides.</li>
</ol>
3. Microscopic Examination
<ol>
	<li>Observe the cells under fluorescence illumination, using an inverted microscope equipped with the appropriate filter for the dye being used. For Lucifer yellow, excitation is 423nm, emission 555nm, WBV filter for a Nikon IX70 microscope.</li>
	<li>Eliminate meniscus effects by placing a glass cover-slip on top of the plastic well, after filling it to the top with liquid, to examine cell morphology under phase contrast. For better pictures, the well can be detached from the slide, and the coverslip placed on the frame. For fixed cells, the well can be filled with glycerol for microscopic observation, while for live cells it must be filled with growth medium. 
	NOTE: Washing and photographing is easier if the cells are fixed with formaldehyde following the transfer of the dye (step 2.7 above). If the cells are not fixed, fluorescence is eliminated from the cells within approximately 60 min depending upon the cell type, voltage and amount of LY introduced while in fixed cells fluorescence is retained for several hours. However, fluorescence fades or dissipates after O/N incubation, even in fixed cells. For this reason, photographs must be taken soon after electroporation (Figure 2).</li>
</ol>
4. Quantitation of Intercellular Communication
<ol>
	<li>Photograph the cells with a 20x objective under fluorescence and phase contrast (Figure 3).</li>
	<li>Identify and mark with a star the electroporated cells at the border with the non-electroporated area (Figure 2, arrow, electroporation edge).</li>
	<li>Identify and mark with a dot fluorescing cells on the non-electroporated side, where the dye has transferred through gap junctions (Figures 3A and 3B).</li>
	<li>Divide the total number of fluorescing cells on the non-electroporated area by the number of electroporated cells along the edge (Figures 3A and 3B). 
	NOTE: The transfer from at least 200 contiguous electroporated border cells is calculated for each experiment. The number obtained is the GJIC value.</li>
</ol>

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H., Trosko, J. E., Chang, C. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Scrape-loading+and+dye+transfer:+A+rapid+and+simple+technique+to+study+gap+junctional+intercellular+communication.">Scrape-loading and dye transfer: A rapid and simple technique to study gap junctional intercellular communication.</a> Exp Cell Res. 168, 430-442 (1987).</li><li>Raptis, L., Brownell, H. L., Firth, K. L., MacKenzie, L. 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L., Raptis, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Examination+of+gap+junctional,+intercellular+communication+by+in+situ+electroporation+on+two+co-planar+indium-tin+oxide+electrodes.">Examination of gap junctional, intercellular communication by in situ electroporation on two co-planar indium-tin oxide electrodes.</a> Mol Oncol. 1, 226-231 (2007).</li><li>Tomai, E., Brownell, H. L., Tufescu, T., Reid, K., Raptis, S., Campling, B. G., Raptis, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+functional+assay+for+intercellular,+junctional+communication+in+cultured+human+lung+carcinoma+cells.">A functional assay for intercellular, junctional communication in cultured human lung carcinoma cells.</a> Lab Invest. 78, 639-640 (1998).</li><li>Tomai, E., Brownell, H. L., Tufescu, T., Reid, K., Raptis, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Gap+junctional+communication+in+lung+carcinoma+cells.">Gap junctional communication in lung carcinoma cells.</a> Lung Cancer. 23, 223-231 (1999).</li><li>Geletu, M., Chaize, C., Arulanandam, R., Vultur, A., Kowolik, C., Anagnostopoulou, A., Jove, R., Raptis, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stat3+activity+is+required+for+gap+junctional+permeability+in+normal+epithelial+cells+and+fibroblasts.">Stat3 activity is required for gap junctional permeability in normal epithelial cells and fibroblasts.</a> DNA Cell Biol. 28, 319-327 (2009).</li><li>Geletu, M., Arulanandam, R., Greer, S., Trotman-Grant, A., Tomai, E., Raptis, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stat3+is+a+positive+regulator+of+gap+junctional+intercellular+communication+in+cultured,+human+lung+carcinoma+cells.">Stat3 is a positive regulator of gap junctional intercellular communication in cultured, human lung carcinoma cells.</a> BMC Cancer. 12, 605 (2012).</li><li>Brownell, H. 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The corresponding author is the inventor in a patent held by Queen&#8217;s University, which has been licensed to Cell Projects Inc. The company or the University had no influence upon the contents of the paper.

Critical steps in the protocol
Electroporated material 
The purity of the material to be electroporated is very important. If the cells are very flat, then higher concentrations of the tracking dye must be used (up to 20 mg/ml for LY) and in such cases, purity is even more important than in cells with a more spherical shape1. Besides LY a large variety of other dyes or nonpermeant molecules have been employed, such as a series of Alexa dyes to use as probes for c...

The application of electrical current to a cell causes the formation of pores on the cell membrane, by a process termed electroporation. The pores allow the passage of a variety of nonpermeant molecules through the membrane. The electrical field can be controlled precisely, so that the pores formed are very small and reclose rapidly, with minimal disturbance to the cellular physiology. Interestingly, adherent cells can be grown on a glass slide coated with conductive and transparent indium-tin oxide (ITO) and electroporated in situ, that is on the surface where they grow, without being detached to be electroporated in suspension. Cells can grow very well on this surface, and as they are attached and extended, detailed microscopic observation is possible. Using this technique, small nonpermeant molecules can be introduced instantly and into essentially 100% of the cells, which makes this technique especially suitable for studies on the activation of components of a pathway following ligand stimulation of a receptor (reviewed in1).
Electroporation has been used mostly for the introduction of DNA (also called electrotransfection). However, electroporation in situ can be valuable for the introduction of a large variety of molecules, such as peptides2-4, oligonucleotides, such as antisense RNA, double-stranded DNA decoy oligonucleotides to inhibit transcription factor binding, or siRNA3,5,6, radioactive nucleotides7-10, proteins1112 or pro-drugs13. Following electroporation, cells can be lysed for biochemical analyses or fixed and stained with antibodies.
The conductive ITO coating is very thin, 800-1,000&#197;, so that cell growth is not disturbed by the difference in height of the two surfaces, as the cells grow across the edge of the conductive coating. This offers the advantage that non-electroporated cells can be grown side by side with electroporated ones, to serve as controls. The same approach can be used for the examination of gap junctional, intercellular communication (GJIC), as described in the Video.
Gap junctions are channels connecting the interiors of adjacent cells14. Gap junctional, intercellular communication plays an important role in tumor formation and metastasis, while oncogenes such as Src suppress GJIC15,16. To examine GJIC a fluorescent dye such as Lucifer yellow (LY) is often introduced into cultured cells through microinjection or scrape-loading17 and the diffusion of the dye into neighboring cells is microscopically observed under fluorescence illumination. These techniques however invariably cause cell damage. We now describe a technique where cells are grown on a glass slide which is partly coated with ITO18. An electric pulse was applied in the presence of LY (or other dyes) causing its penetration into the cells growing on the conductive part of the slide, while dye migration to the adjacent, non-electroporated cells was microscopically observed through fluorescence illumination. To avoid disturbing sensitive cells that may tend to detach from the monolayer, an assembly was designed that did not require an electrode to be placed on top of the cells to apply the electrical current19. This approach offers the ability to quantitate GJIC in a large number of cells, without any detectable disturbance to cellular metabolism, as indicated by the absence of an effect on the length of the G1 phase following serum stimulation12, increase in the levels of the fos protooncogene protein (Raptis, unpublished) or two kinases associated with cellular stress, the p38hog or JNK/SAPK kinase1. This approach made possible the examination of the link between levels of oncogene expression, transformation and GJIC18, as well as the effect of Src and Stat3 upon GJIC in a variety of cell types, including cells freshly cultured from lung tumor specimens20-23. In addition, in situ electroporation with the setup described which lacks a top electrode has been successfully employed for the demonstration of gap junction closure upon adipocytic differentiation, although cellular attachment to the substrate is reduced at that stage19,24.

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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:179px;">Name of Material/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">DMEM</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Cellgro http://www.cellgro.com/</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">50-013-PB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">DMEM without Calcium</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Hyclone (Thermo scientific: http://www.thermoscientific.com)</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">SH30319-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Donor Calf Serum&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">PAA: http://www.paa.com/</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Cat.# B15-008</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">PAA: http://www.paa.com/</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Cat.# A15-751</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Electroporation apparatus</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Cell Projects Ltd UK: http://www.cellprojects.com/</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ACE-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Chambers</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Cell Projects Ltd UK</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ACE-04-CC</td>
			<td>4-wells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Chambers</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Cell Projects Ltd UK</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ACE-08-CC</td>
			<td>8-wells</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Lucifer Yellow</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Cell Projects Ltd UK</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">ACE-25-LY</td>
			<td>High purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">CelTak</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">BD Biosciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">354240</td>
			<td>Cell and tissue adhesive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Fibronectin</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">F1141</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Collagen</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">BD Biosciences</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">354236</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:179px;">Poly-Lysine</td>
			<td style="width:428px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P8920</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a functional assay for gap junctional examination; electroporation of adherent cells on indium-tin oxide

In this technique, cells are cultured on a glass slide that is partly coated with indium-tin oxide (ITO), a transparent, electrically conductive material. A variety of molecules, such as peptides or oligonucleotides can be introduced into essentially 100% of the cells in a non-traumatic manner.&#160; Here, we describe how it can be used to study intercellular, gap junctional communication. Lucifer yellow penetrates into the cells when an electric pulse, applied to the conductive surface on which they are growing, causes pores to form through the cell membrane. This is electroporation. Cells growing on the nonconductive&#160;glass surface immediately adjacent to the electroporated region do not take up Lucifer yellow by electroporation but do acquire the fluorescent dye as it is passed to them via gap junctions that link them to the electroporated cells. The results of the transfer of dye from cell to cell can be observed microscopically under fluorescence illumination. This technique allows for precise quantitation of gap junctional communication. In addition, it can be used for the introduction of peptides or other non-permeant molecules, and the transfer of small electroporated peptides via gap junctions to inhibit the signal in the adjacent, non-electroporated cells is a powerful demonstration of signal inhibition.

Figure 2 shows rat liver epithelial T51B cells22, electroporated with LY and photographed under fluorescence (panel A and B), or phase-contrast (C) illumination, following fixation and washing. In panel A, the edge of the electroporated area is marked in red. The gradient of fluorescence to the right of the red line denotes transfer through gap junctions. In Figure 3A and 3B, the quantitation of gap junctional communication is shown: The cells at the edge of t...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Functional Assay for Gap Junctional Examination; Electroporation of Adherent Cells on Indium-Tin Oxide at JoVE.com

A Functional Assay for Gap Junctional Examination; Electroporation of Adherent Cells on Indium-Tin Oxide

This presentation demonstrates a method whereby electroporation of adherent, cultured cells is used for the study of intercellular, junctional communication, while the cells grow on a slide coated with conductive and transparent indium-tin oxide.

In this technique, cells are cultured on a glass slide that is partly coated with indium-tin oxide (ITO), a transparent, electrically conductive material. ...

a-functional-assay-for-gap-junctional-examination-electroporation

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

9.8K Views.  Queen's University. This presentation demonstrates a method whereby electroporation of adherent, cultured cells is used for the study of intercellular, junctional communication, while the cells grow on a slide coated with conductive and transparent indium-tin oxide.

Video: A Functional Assay for Gap Junctional Examination; Electroporation of Adherent Cells on Indium-Tin Oxide

Patterning Cells on Optically Transparent Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes

The ability to exercise precise spatial and temporal control over cell-surface interactions is an important prerequisite to the assembly of multi-cellular constructs serving as in vitro mimics of native tissues.  In this study, photolithography and wet etching techniques were used to fabricate individually addressable indium tin oxide (ITO) electrodes on glass substrates.  The glass substrates containing ITO microelectrodes were modified with poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG) silane to make them protein and cell resistive.  Presence of insulating PEG molecules on the electrode surface was verified by cyclic voltammetry employing potassium ferricyanide as a redox reporter molecule.  Importantly, the application of reductive potential caused desorption of the PEG layer, resulting in regeneration of the conductive electrode surface and appearance of typical ferricyanide redox peaks.    Application of reductive potential also corresponded to switching of ITO electrode properties from cell non-adhesive to cell-adhesive. Electrochemical stripping of PEG-silane layer from ITO microelectrodes allowed for cell adhesion to take place in a spatially defined fashion, with cellular patterns corresponding closely to electrode patterns.  Micropatterning of several cell types was demonstrated on these substrates.   In the future, the control of the biointerfacial properties afforded by this method will allow to engineer cellular microenvironments through the assembly of three or more cell types into a precise geometric configuration on an optically transparent substrate.

Non-fouling PEG silane monolayer was desorbed from individually addressable ITO electrodes on glass by application of a reductive potential. Electrochemical stripping of PEG-silane layer from ITO microelectrodes allowed for cell adhesion to take place in a spatially defined fashion, with cellular patterns corresponding closely to electrode patterns.

The ability to exercise precise spatial and temporal control over cell-surface interactions is an important prerequisite to the assembly of multi-cellular ...

Labeling hESCs and hMSCs with Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Non-Invasive in vivo Tracking with MR Imaging

In recent years, stem cell research has led to a better understanding of developmental biology, various diseases and its potential impact on regenerative medicine. A non-invasive method to monitor the transplanted stem cells repeatedly in vivo would greatly enhance our ability to understand the mechanisms that control stem cell death and identify trophic factors and signaling pathways that improve stem cell engraftment. MR imaging has been proven to be an effective tool for the in vivo depiction of stem cells with near microscopic anatomical resolution. In order to detect stem cells with MR, the cells have to be labeled with cell specific MR contrast agents. For this purpose, iron oxide nanoparticles, such as superparamagnetic iron oxide particles (SPIO), are applied, because of their high sensitivity for cell detection and their excellent biocompatibility. SPIO particles are composed of an iron oxide core and a dextran, carboxydextran or starch coat, and function by creating local field inhomogeneities, that cause a decreased signal on T2-weighted MR images. This presentation will demonstrate techniques for labeling of stem cells with clinically applicable MR contrast agents for subsequent non-invasive in vivo tracking of the labeled cells with MR imaging.

For the evaluation of new stem cell therapies it is important to non-invasively track the injected cells in vivo. This video will show you how to label human mesenchymal and embryonic stem cells with iron oxide based contrast agents in vivo for subsequent MR imaging in vivo.

In recent years, stem cell research has led to a better understanding of developmental biology, various diseases and its potential impact on regenerative ...

Electroporation of Mycobacteria

High efficiency transformation is a major limitation in the study of mycobacteria. The genus Mycobacterium can be difficult to transform; this is mainly caused by the thick and waxy cell wall, but is compounded by the fact that most molecular techniques have been developed for distantly-related species such as Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis. In spite of these obstacles, mycobacterial plasmids have been identified and DNA transformation of many mycobacterial species have now been described. The most successful method for introducing DNA into mycobacteria is electroporation. Many parameters contribute to successful transformation; these include the species/strain, the nature of the transforming DNA, the selectable marker used, the growth medium, and the  conditions for the electroporation pulse. Optimized methods for the transformation of both slow- and fast-grower are detailed here. Transformation efficiencies for different mycobacterial species and with various selectable markers are reported.

Mycobacterial pathogenic strategies remain poorly understood. The slow growth rate of most species, the impenetrable nature of the cell-wall, and the hazards of working with pathogens make mycobacteria difficult to study and are largely responsible for our poor understanding of these organisms. In this video we will demonstrate the technique of electroporation, which involves subjecting cells to a brief high electrical impulse to allow the entry of DNA. It is the most widely used method for introducing DNA into mycobacterial cells.

High efficiency transformation is a major limitation in the study of mycobacteria. The genus Mycobacterium can be difficult to transform; this is mainly ...

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

The retina and its sole output neuron, the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), comprise an excellent model in which to examine biological questions such as cell differentiation, axon guidance, retinotopic organization and synapse formation[1]. One drawback is the inability to efficiently and reliably manipulate gene expression in RGCs in vivo, especially in the otherwise accessible murine visual pathways. Transgenic mice can be used to manipulate gene expression, but this approach is often expensive, time consuming, and can produce unwanted side effects. In chick, in ovo electroporation is used to manipulate gene expression in RGCs for examining retina and RGC development. Although similar electroporation techniques have been developed in neonatal mouse pups[2], adult rats[3], and embryonic murine retinae in vitro[4], none of these strategies allow full characterization of RGC development and axon projections in vivo. To this end, we have developed two applications of electroporation, one in utero and the other ex vivo, to specifically target embryonic murine RGCs[5, 6]. 
With in utero retinal electroporation, we can misexpress or downregulate specific genes in RGCs and follow their axon projections through the visual pathways in vivo, allowing examination of guidance decisions at intermediate targets, such as the optic chiasm, or at target regions, such as the lateral geniculate nucleus. Perturbing gene expression in a subset of RGCs in an otherwise wild-type background facilitates an understanding of gene function throughout the retinal pathway. Additionally, we have developed a companion technique for analyzing RGC axon growth in vitro. We electroporate embryonic heads ex vivo, collect and incubate the whole retina, then prepare explants from these retinae several days later. Retinal explants can be used in a variety of in vitro assays in order to examine the response of electroporated RGC axons to guidance cues or other factors. In sum, this set of techniques enhances our ability to misexpress or downregulate genes in RGCs and should greatly aid studies examining RGC development and axon projections.

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

Here we present two techniques for manipulating gene expression in murine retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) by in utero and ex vivo electroporation. These techniques enable one to examine how alterations in gene expression affect RGC development, axon guidance, and functional properties.

The retina and its sole output neuron, the retinal ganglion cell (RGC), comprise an excellent model in which to examine biological questions such as cell ...

In situ Subcellular Fractionation of Adherent and Non-adherent Mammalian Cells

Protein function is intimately coupled to protein localization. Although some proteins are restricted to a specific location or subcellular compartment, many proteins are present as a freely diffusing population in free exchange with a sub-population that is tightly associated with a particular subcellular domain or structure. In situ subcellular fractionation allows the visualization of protein compartmentalization and can also reveal protein sub-populations that localize to specific structures. For example, removal of soluble cytoplasmic proteins and loosely held nuclear proteins can reveal the stable association of some transcription factors with chromatin. Subsequent digestion of DNA can in some cases reveal association with the network of proteins and RNAs that is collectively termed the nuclear scaffold or nuclear matrix. 
Here we describe the steps required during the in situ fractionation of adherent and non-adherent mammalian cells on microscope coverslips. Protein visualization can be achieved using specific antibodies or fluorescent fusion proteins and fluorescence microscopy. Antibodies and/or fluorescent dyes that act as markers for specific compartments or structures allow protein localization to be mapped in detail. In situ fractionation can also be combined with western blotting to compare the amounts of protein present in each fraction. This simple biochemical approach can reveal associations that would otherwise remain undetected.

In situ Subcellular Fractionation of Adherent and Non-adherent Mammalian Cells

In situ subcellular fractionation of mammalian cells on microscope coverslips allows the visualisation of protein localisation.

Protein function is intimately coupled to protein localization. Although some proteins are restricted to a specific location or subcellular compartment, ...

Mutagenesis and Functional Analysis of Ion Channels Heterologously Expressed in Mammalian Cells

We will demonstrate how to study the functional effects of introducing a point mutation in an ion channel. We study G protein-gated inwardly rectifying potassium (referred to as GIRK) channels, which are important for regulating the excitability of neurons. There are four different mammalian GIRK channel subunits (GIRK1-GIRK4) - we focus on GIRK2 because it forms a homotetramer. Stimulation of different types of G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), such as the muscarinic receptor (M2R), leads to activation of GIRK channels. Alcohol also directly activates GIRK channels. We will show how to mutate one amino acid by specifically changing one or more nucleotides in the cDNA for the GIRK channel. This mutated cDNA sequence will be amplified in bacteria, purified, and the presence of the point mutation will be confirmed by DNA sequencing. The cDNAs for the mutated and wild-type GIRK channels will be transfected into human embryonic kidney HEK293T cells cultured in vitro. Lastly, whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology will be used to study the macroscopic potassium currents through the ectopically expressed wild-type or mutated GIRK channels. In this experiment, we will examine the effect of a L257W mutation in GIRK2 channels on M2R-dependent and alcohol-dependent activation.

We will demonstrate how to study the effect of a single point mutation on the function of an ion channel.

We will demonstrate how to study the functional effects of introducing a point mutation in an ion channel. We study G protein-gated inwardly rectifying ...

Clonogenic Assay: Adherent Cells

The clonogenic (or colony forming) assay has been established for more than 50 years; the original paper describing the technique was published in 19561. Apart from documenting the method, the initial landmark study generated the first radiation-dose response curve for X-ray irradiated mammalian (HeLa) cells in culture1. Basically, the clonogenic assay enables an assessment of the differences in reproductive viability (capacity of cells to produce progeny; i.e. a single cell to form a colony of 50 or more cells) between control untreated cells and cells that have undergone various treatments such as exposure to ionising radiation, various chemical compounds (e.g. cytotoxic agents) or in other cases genetic manipulation. The assay has become the most widely accepted technique in radiation biology and has been widely used for evaluating the radiation sensitivity of different cell lines. Further, the clonogenic assay is commonly used for monitoring the efficacy of radiation modifying compounds and for determining the effects of cytotoxic agents and other anti-cancer therapeutics on colony forming ability, in different cell lines. A typical clonogenic survival experiment using adherent cells lines involves three distinct components, 1) treatment of the cell monolayer in tissue culture flasks, 2) preparation of single cell suspensions and plating an appropriate number of cells in petri dishes and 3) fixing and staining colonies following a relevant incubation period, which could range from 1-3 weeks, depending on the cell line. Here we demonstrate the general procedure for performing the clonogenic assay with adherent cell lines with the use of an immortalized human keratinocyte cell line (FEP-1811)2. Also, our aims are to describe common features of clonogenic assays including calculation of the plating efficiency and survival fractions after exposure of cells to radiation, and to exemplify modification of radiation-response with the use of a natural antioxidant formulation.

The applicability of the clonogenic assay for evaluating reproductive viability has been established for more than 50 years. Here we demonstrate the general procedure for performing the clonogenic assay with adherent cells.

The clonogenic (or colony forming) assay has been established for more than 50 years; the original paper describing the technique was published in 19561. ...

Examination of Drosophila Larval Tracheal Terminal Cells by Light Microscopy

Cell shape is critical for cell function. However, despite the importance of cell morphology, little is known about how individual cells generate specific shapes. Drosophila tracheal terminal cells have become a powerful genetic model to identify and elucidate the roles of genes required for generating cellular morphologies. Terminal cells are a component of a branched tubular network, the tracheal system that functions to supply oxygen to internal tissues. Terminal cells are an excellent model for investigating questions of cell shape as they possess two distinct cellular architectures. First, terminal cells have an elaborate branched morphology, similar to complex neurons; second, terminal cell branches are formed as thin tubes and contain a membrane-bound intracellular lumen. Quantitative analysis of terminal cell branch number, branch organization and individual branch shape, can be used to provide information about the role of specific genetic mechanisms in the making of a branched cell. Analysis of tube formation in these cells can reveal conserved mechanisms of tubulogenesis common to other tubular networks, such as the vertebrate vasculature. Here we describe techniques that can be used to rapidly fix, image, and analyze both branching patterns and tube formation in terminal cells within Drosophila larvae. These techniques can be used to analyze terminal cells in wild-type and mutant animals, or genetic mosaics. Because of the high efficiency of this protocol, it is also well suited for genetic, RNAi-based, or drug screens in the Drosophila tracheal system.

Examination of Drosophila Larval Tracheal Terminal Cells by Light Microscopy

Here, we present a method for light microscopy analysis of tracheal terminal cells in Drosophila larvae. This method allows for quick examination of branch and lumen morphology in whole animals and would be useful for analysis of individual mutants or screens for mutations affecting terminal cell development.

Cell shape is critical for cell function. However, despite the importance of cell morphology, little is known about how individual cells generate specific ...

Measurement and Analysis of Extracellular Acid Production to Determine Glycolytic Rate

Extracellular measurement of oxygen consumption and acid production is a simple and powerful way to monitor rates of respiration and glycolysis1. Both mitochondrial (respiration) and non-mitochondrial (other redox) reactions consume oxygen, but these reactions can be easily distinguished by chemical inhibition of mitochondrial respiration. However, while mitochondrial oxygen consumption is an unambiguous and direct measurement of respiration rate2, the same is not true for extracellular acid production and its relationship to glycolytic rate 3-6. Extracellular acid produced by cells is derived from both lactate, produced by anaerobic glycolysis, and CO2, produced in the citric acid cycle during respiration. For glycolysis, the conversion of glucose to lactate- + H+ and the export of products into the assay medium is the source of glycolytic acidification. For respiration, the export of CO2, hydration to H2CO3 and dissociation to HCO3- + H+ is the source of respiratory acidification. The proportions of glycolytic and respiratory acidification depend on the experimental conditions, including cell type and substrate(s) provided, and can range from nearly 100% glycolytic acidification to nearly 100% respiratory acidification 6. Here, we demonstrate the data collection and calculation methods needed to determine respiratory and glycolytic contributions to total extracellular acidification by whole cells in culture using C2C12 myoblast cells as a model.

Glycolysis is a defining metabolic marker in multiple biological systems. Monitoring glycolysis by measuring the extracellular flux of H+ is common, but requires correction to be quantitative and unambiguous. Here, we demonstrate how to gather and correct extracellular flux data to distinguish between respiratory and glycolytic sources of extracellular acidification.

Extracellular measurement of oxygen consumption and acid production is a simple and powerful way to monitor rates of respiration and glycolysis1. Both ...

Nephrotoxin Microinjection in Zebrafish to Model Acute Kidney Injury

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid decline in renal function and development of the clinical syndrome known as acute kidney injury (AKI). Pharmacological agents used to treat medical circumstances ranging from bacterial infection to cancer, when administered individually or in combination with other drugs, can initiate AKI. Zebrafish are a useful animal model to study the chemical effects on renal function in vivo, as they form an embryonic kidney comprised of nephron functional units that are conserved with higher vertebrates, including humans. Further, zebrafish can be utilized to perform genetic and chemical screens, which provide opportunities to elucidate the cellular and molecular facets of AKI and develop therapeutic strategies such as the identification of nephroprotective molecules. Here, we demonstrate how microinjection into the zebrafish embryo can be utilized as a paradigm for nephrotoxin studies.

Renal injuries incurred from nephrotoxins, which include drugs ranging from antibiotics to chemotherapeutics, can result in complex disorders whose pathogenesis remains incompletely understood. This protocol demonstrates how zebrafish can be used for disease modeling of these conditions, which can be applied to the identification of renoprotective measures.

The kidneys are susceptible to harm from exposure to chemicals they filter from the bloodstream. This can lead to organ injury associated with a rapid ...

A Functional Assay for Gap Junctional Examination; Electroporation of Adherent Cells on Indium-Tin Oxide

Summary

Explore More Videos

Chapters in this video

Patterning Cells on Optically Transparent Indium Tin Oxide Electrodes

Labeling hESCs and hMSCs with Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Non-Invasive in vivo Tracking with MR Imaging

Electroporation of Mycobacteria

In utero and ex vivo Electroporation for Gene Expression in Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells

In situ Subcellular Fractionation of Adherent and Non-adherent Mammalian Cells

Mutagenesis and Functional Analysis of Ion Channels Heterologously Expressed in Mammalian Cells

Clonogenic Assay: Adherent Cells

Examination of Drosophila Larval Tracheal Terminal Cells by Light Microscopy

Measurement and Analysis of Extracellular Acid Production to Determine Glycolytic Rate

Nephrotoxin Microinjection in Zebrafish to Model Acute Kidney Injury