The authors wish to acknowledge Alexandra Opie for technical assistance and support, James Barton for providing video narration, and Ramona Flatz and Joellen Sweeney for appearing in the accompanying video. This work was supported by the M.J. Murdock Charitable Trust (Grant No. 2012205 to JED).

1. The Stereo Microscope System
Note: Although this protocol is easily adaptable to virtually any stereo microscope system coupled to a digital camera with the capability of acquiring video, details are provided on the system used in our lab (Table of Materials/Equipment).
<ol>
	<li>Acquire digital video using a trinocular stereo microscope coupled to a commercial digital camera.</li>
	<li>In order to couple the commercial digital camera to the trinocular port of the stereo microscope, remove the &#189;x C-mount of the phototube port of the stereo microscope and replace it with a 1X&#160;C-mount.</li>
	<li>Mount a digital camera coupler (43 mm thread) to the 1X&#160;C-mount.</li>
	<li>Mount two step-down rings, 58 mm to 48 mm, and 48 mm to 43 mm, to the camera coupler to bridge the connection from the digital camera coupler to a lens adapter kit for the digital camera.</li>
	<li>Mount the digital camera to the lens adapter kit.</li>
	<li>Acquire video with the microscope magnification and optical zoom of the digital camera set for a combined magnification of approximately 12X&#160;(30 frames per sec, 640 x 480 pixels). Note: The magnification of the stereo microscope must be compensated in accordance with the newly reconfigured 1X&#160;C-mount of the trinocular port.</li>
</ol>
2. Imaging Drosophila Third Instar Larvae
<ol>
	<li>Tape a permanent marker to the black stage plate of a stereo microscope coupled to a digital camera so that the side of the marker cap occupies approximately &#8531; to &#188; of the vertical field of view observed in the camera LCD monitor. Use marker tops as the stage to perform larval imaging because they come in an assortment of colors that can be used to color code and differentiate the genotypes of larvae being imaged.</li>
	<li>Demarcate the field of view observed in the digital camera LCD monitor on the surface of the marker top with a fine point marker.</li>
	<li>Select a third instar larva to image. The criteria for selecting third instar larvae was body length, emergence from the food source during the larval phase of the life cycle, the presence of anterior and posterior spiracles, and the structure of the mandibular hooks of the mouth apparatus11. Ensure the larva is clean by washing it thoroughly in water.</li>
	<li>Illuminate the permanent marker top stage from above with light from a fiber optic lighting system. Adjust the angle of incident light to provide optimal illumination.</li>
	<li>Focus the microscope on the edge of the permanent marker top. Begin acquiring digital video.</li>
	<li>Place the larva on the side of the marker cap approximately 75&#176; away from the vertical axis, just outside the field of view, with the anterior of the larva facing towards the field of view (Figure 1). Note: Placement of the larva on the side of the marker cap allows the camera to record movement of the larva from a lateral perspective. It helps to keep the larva moist with water so they don&#39;t fall off the side of the marker cap. Care must be exercised, however, to not use too much water as excessive amounts will adhere to the larva as it crawls across the field.</li>
	<li>Gently poke and prod the larva with a small paintbrush to coerce it to crawl across the field of view. Be patient as the larvae rarely cooperate and often have to be returned to the starting point many times before they crawl straight across the field.</li>
	<li>Record approximately 10-15 min&#160;of uninterrupted digital video footage and crop and remove all unnecessary footage post-acquisition with digital video editing software.</li>
</ol>
3. Imaging Adult Drosophila
<ol>
	<li>Place a single adult Drosophila in a disposable 1.5 ml spectroscopic polystyrene cuvette. 
	Note: CO2 anaesthetization of adult Drosophila immediately before a behavioral analysis protocol can compromise results12. It is recommended that adult Drosophila be given a 24-hr period to recover from CO2 anaesthetization before performing in a behavioral test13.</li>
	<li>Plug the end of the cuvette with a small cotton ball. Ensure the cotton ball is packed tight enough to occupy the large cap space and confines the fly to the reduced volume compartment of the cuvette.</li>
	<li>Place the cuvette on the white stage plate of a stereo microscope and properly align the reduced volume compartment of the cuvette with the field of view observed in the digital camera LCD monitor.</li>
	<li>Illuminate the cuvette from above with light from a fiber optic lighting system. Adjust the angle of incident light to provide optimal illumination.</li>
	<li>Focus the microscope and begin acquiring digital video.</li>
	<li>Record approximately 30-45 min&#160;of uninterrupted digital video footage and crop and remove all unnecessary footage post-acquisition with digital video editing software.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Zhang, B., Freeman, M. R., Waddell, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Drosophila neurobiology: a laboratory manual. , (2010).</li><li>Frank, C. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+approaches+for+studying+synaptic+development,+function,+and+plasticity+using+Drosophila+as+a+model+system.">New approaches for studying synaptic development, function, and plasticity using Drosophila as a model system.</a> J Neurosci. 33, 17560-17568 (2013).</li><li>Mudher, A., Newman, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Drosophila : a toolbox for the study of neurodegenerative disease. , (2008).</li><li>Bilen, J., Bonini, N. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drosophila+as+a+model+for+human+neurodegenerative+disease.">Drosophila as a model for human neurodegenerative disease.</a> Annu Rev Genet. 39, 153-171 (2005).</li><li>Jakubowski, B. R., Longoria, R. A., Shubeita, G. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+high+throughput+and+sensitive+method+correlates+neuronal+disorder+genotypes+to+Drosophila+larvae+crawling+phenotypes.">A high throughput and sensitive method correlates neuronal disorder genotypes to Drosophila larvae crawling phenotypes.</a> Fly (Austin). 6, 303-308 (2012).</li><li>Caldwell, J. C., Miller, M. M., Wing, S., Soll, D. R., Eberl, D. 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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+a+protein+that+interacts+with+tubulin+dimers+and+increases+the+catastrophe+rate+of+microtubules.">Identification of a protein that interacts with tubulin dimers and increases the catastrophe rate of microtubules.</a> Cell. 84, 623-631 (1996).</li><li>Cassimeris, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+oncoprotein+18/stathmin+family+of+microtubule+destabilizers.">The oncoprotein 18/stathmin family of microtubule destabilizers.</a> Curr Opin Cell Biol. 14, 18-24 (2002).</li></ol>

The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Drosophila melanogaster&#8217;s strength as a model system for studying nervous system function stems largely from the convergence of the powerful genetic tools available and the broad array of robust behavioral assays developed. Here we present a simple and widely accessible microscopy technique for acquiring high-quality digital video of Drosophila adult and larval locomotive phenotypes from a lateral perspective. We have successfully used this approach to characterize and quantify the severity of pos...

The common fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful experimental model system for studying the function of the nervous system1-3. Evolutionary conservation of structure and function of the nervous system with humans, as well as ease of genetic manipulation and a vast array of genetic tools makes Drosophila the premiere organism to model human neurodegenerative diseases4. Gene mutations that cause dysfunction of the nervous system often result in viable mutant larvae and adult Drosophila with impaired locomotion. Phenotypes observed in nervous system defective mutants include reduced rate of locomotion, aberrant coordination, and spastic movements in adults, as well as deficits in peristaltic contraction of the body wall musculature, and partial paralysis of larvae. These phenotypes have been exploited in the development of high-throughput genetic screens and locomotion assays of mutant larvae5,6 and adult7-10 Drosophila aimed at quantifying the locomotion impairment and identifying genes necessary for function of the nervous system. While these approaches are extremely useful for quantifying larval and adult locomotive behaviors, they fail to convey qualitative information about each specific aberrant behavior. For example, while mutant third instar larvae may exhibit altered locomotion parameters in a behavioral assay, it may be unclear if this is the result of alterations in rhythmic peristaltic contractions during the crawling cycle, general lack of coordination, or partial paralysis of the posterior body wall musculature. Here we describe a simple and widely accessible microscopy technique for acquiring high-quality digital video of Drosophila adult and larval locomotive phenotypes from a lateral perspective. Digital video acquired from a lateral perspective allows the direct observation and analysis of subtle distinctions in locomotive behaviors from a more informative side-view orientation.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Trinocular Stereozoom Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus Corporation</td>
			<td>SZ6145TR</td>
			<td>&#189; C-mount was removed and replaced with 1x C-mount</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1X C-mount</td>
			<td>Leeds Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>LSZ-1XCMT2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Camera Coupler (43mm thread)</td>
			<td>Qioptiq Imaging Solutions</td>
			<td>25-70-10-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>58mm to 48mm Step Down Ring</td>
			<td>B&#38;H Video</td>
			<td>GBSDR5848</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>48mm to 43mm Step Down Ring</td>
			<td>B&#38;H Video</td>
			<td>GBSDR4843</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lensmate Adapter Kit for Canon G10</td>
			<td>LensMateOnline.com</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Canon PowerShot G10 Digital Camera</td>
			<td>Canon U.S.A., Inc.</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5ml Spectroscopic PolystereneCuvette</td>
			<td>Denville Scientific</td>
			<td>U8650-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

acquisition of high-quality digital video of drosophila larval and adult behaviors from a lateral perspective

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful experimental model system for studying the function of the nervous system. Gene mutations that cause dysfunction of the nervous system often produce viable larvae and adults that have locomotion defective phenotypes that are difficult to adequately describe with text or completely represent with a single photographic image. Current modes of scientific publishing, however, support the submission of digital video media as supplemental material to accompany a manuscript. Here we describe a simple and widely accessible microscopy technique for acquiring high-quality digital video of both Drosophila larval and adult phenotypes from a lateral perspective. Video of larval and adult locomotion from a side-view is advantageous because it allows the observation and analysis of subtle distinctions and variations in aberrant locomotive behaviors. We have successfully used the technique to visualize and quantify aberrant crawling behaviors in third instar larvae, in addition to adult mutant phenotypes and behaviors including grooming.

We have successfully used this technique to acquire and quantify the larval behavioral phenotype associated with loss of function of the stathmin gene (Figure 2)14. The stathmin gene encodes a microtubule regulatory protein that partitions tubulin dimers from pools of soluble tubulin, and binds microtubules and promotes their disassembly15,16. Stathmin function is required to maintain the integrity of microtubules in the axons of peripheral nerves14. Dis...

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Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective

Here we describe a simple and widely accessible microscopy technique to acquire high-quality digital video of Drosophila adult and larval mutant phenotypes from a lateral perspective.

Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective

Drosophila melanogaster is a powerful experimental model system for studying the function of the nervous system. Gene mutations that cause dysfunction of ...

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8.7K Views.  Willamette University. Here we describe a simple and widely accessible microscopy technique to acquire high-quality digital video of Drosophila adult and larval mutant phenotypes from a lateral perspective.

Video: Acquisition of High-Quality Digital Video of Drosophila Larval and Adult Behaviors from a Lateral Perspective

Visualization of Larval Segmental Nerves in 3rd Instar Drosophila Larval Preparations

Drosophila melanogaster is emerging as a powerful model system for studying the development and function of the nervous system, particularly because of its convenient genetics and fully sequenced genome. Additionally, the larval nervous system is an ideal model system to study mechanisms of axonal transport as the larval segmental nerves contain bundles of axons with their cell bodies located within the brain and their nerve terminals ending along the length of the body. Here we describe the procedure for visualization of synaptic vesicle proteins within larval segmental nerves. If done correctly, all components of the nervous system, along with associated tissues such as muscles and NMJs, remain intact, undamaged, and ready to be visualized. 3rd instar larvae carrying various mutations are dissected, fixed, incubated with synaptic vesicle antibodies, visualized and compared to wild type larvae. This procedure can be adapted for several different synaptic or neuronal antibodies and changes in the distribution of a variety of proteins can be easily observed within larval segmental nerves.

Visualization of Larval Segmental Nerves in 3rd Instar Drosophila Larval Preparations

Drosophila melanogaster larvae provide an ideal model system to investigate the mechanisms of axonal transport within larval segmental nerves. Using this procedure, 3rd instar larvae carrying various mutations can be compared to wild type larvae.

Drosophila melanogaster is emerging as a powerful model system for studying the development and function of the nervous system, particularly because of ...

Mapping and Application of Enhancer-trap Flippase Expression in Larval and Adult Drosophila CNS

The Gal4/ UAS binary method is powerful for gene and neural circuitry manipulation in Drosophila. For most neurobiological studies, however, Gal4 expression is rarely tissue-specific enough to allow for precise correlation of the circuit with behavioral readouts. To overcome this major hurdle, we recently developed the FINGR method to achieve a more restrictive Gal4 expression in the tissue of interest. The FINGR method has three components: 1) the traditional Gal4/UAS system; 2) a set of FLP/FRT-mediated Gal80 converting tools; and 3) enhancer-trap FLP (ET-FLP). Gal4 is used to define the primary neural circuitry of interest. Paring the Gal4 with a UAS-effector, such as UAS-MJD78Q or UAS-Shits, regulates the neuronal activity, which is in turn manifested by alterations in the fly behavior. With an additional UAS-reporter such as UAS-GFP, the neural circuit involved in the specific behavior can be simultaneously mapped for morphological analysis. For Gal4 lines with broad expression, Gal4 expression can be restricted by using two complementary Gal80-converting tools: tubP&gt;Gal80&gt; ('flip out') and tubP&gt;stop&gt;Gal80 ('flip in'). Finally, investigators can turn Gal80 on or off, respectively, with the help of tissue-specific ET-FLP. In the flip-in mode, Gal80 will repress Gal4 expression wherever Gal4 and ET-FLP intersect. In the flip-out mode, Gal80 will relieve Gal4 repression in cells in which Gal4 and FLP overlap. Both approaches enable the restriction of the number of cells in the Gal4-defined circuitry, but in an inverse pattern. The FINGR method is compatible with the vast collection of Gal4 lines in the fly community and highly versatile for traditional clonal analysis and for neural circuit mapping. In this protocol, we demonstrate the mapping of FLP expression patterns in select ET-FLPx2 lines and the effectiveness of the FINGR method in photoreceptor cells. The principle of the FINGR method should also be applicable to other genetic model organisms in which Gal4/UAS, Gal80, and FLP/FRT are used.

Mapping and Application of Enhancer-trap Flippase Expression in Larval and Adult Drosophila CNS

We describe a Flippase-induced intersectional Gal80/Gal4 repression (FINGR) method, allowing tissue-specific FLP to determine Gal80 expression patterns. Wherever Gal4 and FLP overlap, Gal4 expression is turned on (Gal80 flipped out) or off (Gal80 flipped in). The FINGR method is versatile for clonal analysis and neural circuit mapping.

The Gal4/ UAS binary method is powerful for gene and neural circuitry manipulation in Drosophila. For most neurobiological studies, however, Gal4 ...

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of Larval, Pupal and Adult Drosophila Retinas

The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster consists of about 750 ommatidia (unit eyes). Each ommatidium is composed of about 20 cells, including lens-secreting cone cells, pigment cells, a bristle cell and eight photoreceptors (PRs) R1-R8 2. The PRs have specialized microvillar structures, the rhabdomeres, which contain light-sensitive pigments, the Rhodopsins (Rhs). The rhabdomeres of six PRs (R1-R6) form a trapezoid and contain Rh1 3 4. The rhabdomeres of R7 and R8 are positioned in tandem in the center of the trapezoid and share the same path of light. R7 and R8 PRs stochastically express different combinations of Rhs in two main subtypes5: In the 'p' subtype, Rh3 in pR7s is coupled with Rh5 in pR8s, whereas in the 'y' subtype, Rh4 in yR7s is associated with Rh6 in yR8s 6 7 8.
Early specification of PRs and development of ommatidia begins in the larval eye-antennal imaginal disc, a monolayer of epithelial cells. A wave of differentiation sweeps across the disc9 and initiates the assembly of undifferentiated cells into ommatidia10-11. The 'founder cell' R8 is specified first and recruits R1-6 and then R7 12-14. Subsequently, during pupal development, PR differentiation leads to extensive morphological changes 15, including rhabdomere formation, synaptogenesis and eventually rh expression.
In this protocol, we describe methods for retinal dissections and immunohistochemistry at three defined periods of retina development, which can be applied to address a variety of questions concerning retinal formation and developmental pathways. Here, we use these methods to visualize the stepwise PR differentiation at the single-cell level in whole mount larval, midpupal and adult retinas (Figure 1).

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of Larval, Pupal and Adult Drosophila Retinas

The Drosophila retina is a crystal-like lattice composed of a small number of cell types that are generated in a stereotyped manner 1. Its amenability to sophisticated genetic analysis allows the study of complex developmental programs. This protocol describes dissections and immunohistochemistry of retinas at three discrete developmental stages, with a focus on photoreceptor differentiation.

The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster consists of about 750 ommatidia (unit eyes). Each ommatidium is composed of about 20 cells, including ...

Drosophila Adult Olfactory Shock Learning

Drosophila have been used in classical conditioning experiments for over 40 years, thus greatly facilitating our understanding of memory, including the elucidation of the molecular mechanisms involved in cognitive diseases1-7. Learning and memory can be assayed in larvae to study the effect of neurodevelopmental genes8-10 and in flies to measure the contribution of adult plasticity genes1-7. Furthermore, the short lifespan of Drosophila facilitates the analysis of genes mediating age-related memory impairment5,11-13. The availability of many inducible promoters that subdivide the Drosophila nervous system makes it possible to determine when and where a gene of interest is required for normal memory as well as relay of different aspects of the reinforcement signal3,4,14,16.
Studying memory in adult Drosophila allows for a detailed analysis of the behavior and circuitry involved and a measurement of long-term memory15-17. The length of the adult stage accommodates longer-term genetic, behavioral, dietary and pharmacological manipulations of memory, in addition to determining the effect of aging and neurodegenerative disease on memory3-6,11-13,15-21.
Classical conditioning is induced by the simultaneous presentation of a neutral odor cue (conditioned stimulus, CS+) and a reinforcement stimulus, e.g., an electric shock or sucrose, (unconditioned stimulus, US), that become associated with one another by the animal1,16. A second conditioned stimulus (CS-) is subsequently presented without the US. During the testing phase, Drosophila are simultaneously presented with CS+ and CS- odors. After the Drosophila are provided time to choose between the odors, the distribution of the animals is recorded. This procedure allows associative aversive or appetitive conditioning to be reliably measured without a bias introduced by the innate preference for either of the conditioned stimuli. Various control experiments are also performed to test whether all genotypes respond normally to odor and reinforcement alone.

Drosophila Adult Olfactory Shock Learning

The method to measure adult Drosophila associative memory is described. The assay is based on the ability of the fly to associate an odor presented with a negative reinforcer (electric shock) and then recall this information at a later time, allowing memory to be measured.

Drosophila have been used in classical conditioning experiments for over 40 years, thus greatly facilitating our understanding of memory, including the ...

Functional Analysis of the Larval Feeding Circuit in Drosophila

The serotonergic feeding circuit in Drosophila melanogaster larvae can be used to investigate neuronal substrates of critical importance during the development of the circuit. Using the functional output of the circuit, feeding, changes in the neuronal architecture of the stomatogastric system can be visualized. Feeding behavior can be recorded by observing the rate of retraction of the mouth hooks, which receive innervation from the brain. Locomotor behavior is used as a physiological control for feeding, since larvae use their mouth hooks to traverse across an agar substrate. Changes in feeding behavior can be correlated with the axonal architecture of the neurites innervating the gut. Using immunohistochemistry it is possible to visualize and quantitate these changes. Improper handling of the larvae during behavior paradigms can alter data as they are very sensitive to manipulations. Proper imaging of the neurite architecture innervating the gut is critical for precise quantitation of number and size of varicosities as well as the extent of branch nodes. Analysis of most circuits allow only for visualization of neurite architecture or behavioral effects; however, this model allows one to correlate the functional output of the circuit with the impairments in neuronal architecture.

Functional Analysis of the Larval Feeding Circuit in Drosophila

The feeding circuit in Drosophila melanogaster larvae serves a simple yet powerful model that allows changes in feeding rate to be correlated with alterations in the stomatogastric neural circuitry. This circuit is composed of central serotonergic neurons that send projections to the mouth hooks as well as the foregut.

The serotonergic  feeding circuit in Drosophila  melanogaster larvae can be used to investigate neuronal substrates of  critical importance during the ...

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given their relevance to development and disease, understanding the mechanisms that govern asymmetric stem cell division has been a robust area of study. Because they are genetically tractable and undergo successive rounds of cell division about once every hour, the stem cells of the Drosophila central nervous system, or neuroblasts, are indispensable models for the study of stem cell division. About 100 neural stem cells are located near the surface of each of the two larval brain lobes, making this model system particularly useful for live imaging microscopy studies. In this work, we review several approaches widely used to visualize stem cell divisions, and we address the relative advantages and disadvantages of those techniques that employ dissociated versus intact brain tissues. We also detail our simplified protocol used to explant whole brains from third instar larvae for live cell imaging and fixed analysis applications.

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

This protocol details a streamlined method used to conduct live cell imaging in the context of an intact larval brain. Live cell imaging approaches are invaluable for the study of asymmetric neural stem cell divisions as well as other neurogenic and developmental processes, consistently uncovering mechanisms that were previously overlooked.

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given ...

Quantifying Fish Swimming Behavior in Response to Acute Exposure of Aqueous Copper Using Computer Assisted Video and Digital Image Analysis

Behavioral responses of aquatic organisms to environmental contaminants can be precursors of other effects such as survival, growth, or reproduction. However, these responses may be subtle, and measurement can be challenging. Using juvenile white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) with copper exposures, this paper illustrates techniques used for quantifying behavioral responses using computer assisted video and digital image analysis. In previous studies severe impairments in swimming behavior were observed among early life stage white sturgeon during acute and chronic exposures to copper. Sturgeon behavior was rapidly impaired and to the extent that survival in the field would be jeopardized, as fish would be swept downstream, or readily captured by predators. The objectives of this investigation were to illustrate protocols to quantify swimming activity during a series of acute copper exposures to determine time to effect during early lifestage development, and to understand the significance of these responses relative to survival of these vulnerable early lifestage fish. With mortality being on a time continuum, determining when copper first affects swimming ability helps us to understand the implications for population level effects. The techniques used are readily adaptable to experimental designs with other organisms and stressors.

Measuring the impacts of environmental contaminants on fish behavior is often subjective and challenging particularly when dealing with sublethal endpoints. We describe methods including video technology to quantify swimming behavior of early life stage white sturgeon (Acipenser transmontanus) during and after 96 hr acute exposures to various concentrations of copper.

Behavioral responses of aquatic organisms to environmental contaminants can be precursors of other effects such as survival, growth, or reproduction.  ...

Olfactory Behaviors Assayed by Computer Tracking Of Drosophila in a Four-quadrant Olfactometer

A key challenge in neurobiology is to understand how neural circuits function to guide appropriate animal behaviors. Drosophila melanogaster is an excellent model system for such investigations due to its complex behaviors, powerful genetic techniques, and compact nervous system. Laboratory behavioral assays have long been used with Drosophila to simulate properties of the natural environment and study the neural mechanisms underlying the corresponding behaviors (e.g. phototaxis, chemotaxis, sensory learning and memory)1-3. With the recent availability of large collections of transgenic Drosophila lines that label specific neural subsets, behavioral assays have taken on a prominent role to link neurons with behaviors4-11. Versatile and reproducible paradigms, together with the underlying computational routines for data analysis, are indispensable for rapid tests of candidate fly lines with various genotypes. Particularly useful are setups that are flexible in the number of animals tested, duration of experiments and nature of presented stimuli. The assay of choice should also generate reproducible data that is easy to acquire and analyze. Here, we present a detailed description of a system and protocol for assaying behavioral responses of Drosophila flies in a large four-field arena. The setup is used here to assay responses of flies to a single olfactory stimulus; however, the same setup may be modified to test multiple olfactory, visual or optogenetic stimuli, or a combination of these. The olfactometer setup records the activity of fly populations responding to odors, and computational analytical methods are applied to quantify fly behaviors. The collected data are analyzed to get a quick read-out of an experimental run, which is essential for efficient data collection and the optimization of experimental conditions.

Olfactory Behaviors Assayed by Computer Tracking Of Drosophila in a Four-quadrant Olfactometer

We describe here a behavioral setup and data analysis method for assaying olfactory responses of up to 100 vinegar flies (Drosophila melanogaster). This system may be used with single or multiple olfactory stimuli, and adaptable for optogenetic activation or silencing of neuronal subsets.

A key challenge in neurobiology is to understand how neural circuits function to guide appropriate animal behaviors. Drosophila melanogaster is an ...

Removal of Drosophila Muscle Tissue from Larval Fillets for Immunofluorescence Analysis of Sensory Neurons and Epidermal Cells

Drosophila larval dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a popular model for investigating mechanisms of neuronal morphogenesis. Da neurons develop in communication with the epidermal cells they innervate and thus their analysis benefits from in situ visualization of both neuronally and epidermally expressed proteins by immunofluorescence. Traditional methods of preparing larval fillets for immunofluorescence experiments leave intact the muscle tissue that covers most of the body wall, presenting several challenges to imaging neuronal and epidermal proteins. Here we describe a method for removing muscle tissue from Drosophila larval fillets. This protocol enables imaging of proteins that are otherwise obscured by muscle tissue, improves signal to noise ratio, and facilitates the use of super-resolution microscopy to study da neuron development.

Removal of Drosophila Muscle Tissue from Larval Fillets for Immunofluorescence Analysis of Sensory Neurons and Epidermal Cells

Studies of neuronal morphogenesis using Drosophila larval dendritic arborization (da) neurons benefit from in situ visualization of neuronal and epidermal proteins by immunofluorescence. We describe a procedure that improves immunofluorescence analysis of da neurons and surrounding epidermal cells by removing muscle tissue from the larval body wall.

Drosophila larval dendritic arborization (da) neurons are a popular model for investigating mechanisms of neuronal morphogenesis. Da neurons develop in ...

Using Linear Agarose Channels to Study Drosophila Larval Crawling Behavior

Drosophila larval crawling is emerging as a powerful model to study neural control of sensorimotor behavior. However, larval crawling behavior on flat open surfaces is complex,&#160;including: pausing, turning, and meandering. This complexity in the repertoire of movement hinders detailed analysis of the events occurring during a single crawl stride cycle. To overcome this obstacle, linear agarose channels were made that constrain larval behavior to straight, sustained, rhythmic crawling. In principle, because agarose channels and the Drosophila larval body are both optically clear, the movement of larval structures labeled by genetically-encoded fluorescent probes can be monitored in intact, freely-moving larvae. In the past, larvae were placed in linear channels and crawling at the level of whole organism, segment, and muscle were analyzed1. In the future, larvae crawling in channels can be used for calcium imaging to monitor neuronal activity. Moreover, these methods can be used with larvae of any genotype and with any researcher-designed channel. Thus the protocol presented below is widely applicable for studies using the Drosophila larva as a model to understand motor control.

Using Linear Agarose Channels to Study Drosophila Larval Crawling Behavior

The Drosophila larva is a powerful model system to study neural control of behavior. This publication describes the use of linear agarose channels to elicit sustained bouts of linear crawling and methods to quantify the dynamics of larval structures during repetitive crawling behavior.

Drosophila larval crawling is emerging as a powerful model to study neural control of sensorimotor behavior. However, larval crawling behavior on flat ...