Name: community-based adapted tango dancing for individuals with parkinson's disease and older adults
Uploaded: 2014-12-09T13:00:00.000+00:00
Duration: 9 min 19 s
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson's Disease and Older Adults at JoVE.com

We would like to thank the teachers, Ronda and Manuel Patino, and Gabriela Lopez of Tango Rio, Erik Renz, Sarah Kelley Kerr, Mark Needelman and Shelley Brooks. We also acknowledge volunteers Adrienne Wimberly, Allison Bascas, Marco Coelho, Dabin Choi, Carly DiLeo, Margaret Fang, Kevin Huang, Twinkle Mehta, Malije Obi, Mina Taheb, Diana Tiwari, Kedra Woodard, Dawa Tsering, Sabine Povian, Dhondup Tso King, Mylinh Vo, Rebecca Dillard and Marisa Warner. We acknowledge Medlock Gardens retirement community for providing space for the adapted tango workshop, Clairmont Oaks retirement community and Wesley Woods Towers for providing space for the interventions and we thank the administrative staff of each institution. We acknowledge Dr. William De L&#8217;Aune for statistical assistance. The study was supported by the Dan and Merrie Boone Foundation, the Emory Center for Injury Control, and the Emory Center for Health in Aging. This study was also supported by the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number UL1TR000454. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health. The Emory School of Medicine Discovery Program supported KE McKee, and Department of VA R&#38;D Service Career Development Awards (E7108M and N0870W) supported ME Hackney. We would also like to thank Mr. Aaron Bozzorg.&#160;

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Financial Disclosure/Conflict of Interest: There are no conflicts of interest to report.
Funding Sources: Dan and Merrie Boone Foundation, Emory Center for Injury Control, Emory Center for Health in Aging, Department of VA R&#38;D Service Career Development Awards to ME Hackney (E7108M and N0870W), National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number UL1TR000454. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Engaging in habitual exercise remains overwhelmingly poor in the general older adult population: only 1 in 8 older adults engage in strength or balance-challenging activities. 31 Recently, exercise has gained approval as a complementary approach to accompany conventional medicine. To further &#8216;aging in place&#8217; and maintain independence in a growing older population, the widespread implementation of evidence-based exercise programs is necessary. Additionally, given that pharmacological and surgical approaches incompletely address motor and cognitive challenges of the growing PD population, access to complementary therapies, like adapted tango, is necessary. Since 2006, this adapted tango program has been iterated, refined and tested several times, but only at academic centers, not in a community-based setting. 10,13 The methods described above provide a guide to dissemination of adapted tango to the community in such a way that the fidelity, efficacy, safety, and enjoyment of the program are preserved.
Translating health behavior research into sustainable applications is frequently overlooked 32 and underfunded. 33 This methodological guide may allow wider dissemination of adapted tango thus providing access to needed therapy for numerous community dwelling older adults and individuals with balance impairments. Key to dissemination of adapted tango are the selection of appropriate teacher trainees, proper safety training, ample volunteer/family member recruitment, and rigorous assessment of participants before and after completion of the program.
Without a qualified pool of teacher trainees, the adapted tango program will not function. Trainees must possess not only dance knowledge and skill but also a willingness to work outside the traditional realm of able-bodied dance. Teacher trainee enthusiasm, patience, and attention to detail (especially safety) cannot be overstated. One of the main barriers to a multitude of engaging exercise activities for older adults and those with balance impairments is the inability to guarantee safety. Indeed, safety cannot be guaranteed within the adapted tango curricula but if the measures described above regarding volunteer recruitment, participant file review, and partnering are followed, adverse events would be kept to a minimum.
Rigorous assessment of participants before and after the tango program with validated standard measures is necessary to demonstrate that community-based tango is as efficacious as that conducted in academic centers. One of the main limitations of the study as we have implemented it here is the small sample size. Although we were able to show dissemination did not compromise effect size, this should be replicated in future larger studies. The replicated demonstration of efficacy may lead to increased awareness of the benefits of complementary therapy and foster further accessibility to those in need.
The adapted tango dance manual (unpublished), adapted tango class syllabus, this text, and accompanying video are designed to allow individuals in diverse communities to implement this program. Yet, successful utilization of these print and video resources assumes some baseline knowledge of dance, older adults, movement disorders, and fall risk. The above protocol also assumes prior knowledge or familiarity with pre-and-post assessment tests. While all of these tests are cited in validated research papers available to the wider community, implementation of each research measure from a written description alone would be daunting. However, many of these tests are commonly utilized within the physical therapy community. Therefore, it may be advantageous to partner with a physical therapist when attempting to implement this program. Physical therapy involvement could help with implementing pre and post testing, fine-tuning fall prevention strategies and further dissemination/implementation of the program itself, with added expertise to ensure safety.
As stated earlier, implementation of a dancing exercise program for individuals with balance impairments is a big risk and represents a potentially unsafe situation if proper measures are not taken. Future dissemination of this program will necessitate strict safety standards to ensure community leaders and community facilities are willing to host such a program. Integral to safety is also the recruitment of volunteers and family members to partner during the class. While urban areas generally contain an abundance of pre-medical and other health profession students, rural areas lacking major academic centers may find volunteer recruitment more difficult. In this scenario we suggest reaching out to local schools/churches/clubs to enlist able-bodied youth in community service projects to partner for these dance classes.
Lack of mechanistic understanding may prevent more rapid evolution of dance/exercise as a complementary medicine. However, several mechanisms may explain the generally positive changes in physical function produced by adapted tango. The creativity involved in a dance form through exposure to novel steps, and choreographic patterns could tap into mechanisms of neural plasticity. A recent study of adapted tango noted improvement in PD disease severity 29 leading to speculation about potential neuroprotective or neurorestorative effects of adapted tango. The positive functional gains of older adults undergoing regular aerobic activity may be explained by plasticity-related changes in synaptogenesis, angiogenesis and neurogenesis. 34 Future research should delineate ideal frequency, duration and intensity of dance sessions to obtain and retain gains in function.
Individuals with PD were considerably more likely to comply with therapy and finish the program than were older adults, which is curious given that individuals with PD are less active than age-matched peers without PD. 35 Further, the PD group came from the community and needed to travel to the classes; whilst the older adults received the therapy at their senior living communities. As PD remains a condition with many intractable symptoms, those with PD may be more likely to comply with therapy suggestions, including novel, and appealing non-pharmacological treatments. Older adults lost to attrition may have felt less urgency to adopt a new exercise habit. Traditional exercise programs for older adults suffer more than 30% attrition, 36 which is comparable to the rate observed here for the older adult cohort.
The etiology of high satisfaction with the program is likely multifactorial. Music, which has been found to activate specific neural pathways associated with emotion, might reduce stress and enhance social relationships. 37In a randomized controlled trial of Tango over 2 weeks (meeting 1.5 hr and 4 times per week) with middle-aged adults with self-referred symptoms of anxiety, and depression, significant improvements in their symptoms were noted at post-test, and maintained at a 1 month follow-up and similar improvements were noted in the same population after 8 weeks of tango dance. 38 Because social dance often involves meeting regularly to work in pairs or groups for honing skill and/or to enjoy the activity, dance may encourage teamwork that can allow the cultivation of friendships and larger community involvement. Further, therapies involving the arts and self-expression, both emotional and physical, may be especially helpful for managing motor and cognitive symptoms resulting from aging-related morbidities. Therapies that 1) allow the patient to regain and exert control on their body and 2) involve extensive social interaction have been shown to be effective at improving quality of life. 39 Future research should evaluate the role of a regained locus of control and consider depression and cognitive impairment as they relate to interventional success.
Limitations with dissemination media (ie: text and video), safety concerns, and potential difficulty in recruiting teachers and volunteers may limit further dissemination of adapted tango. As this study was primarily methodological in focus, hypothesis testing to determine the significance of results was not performed, but will be necessary to perform in future work. The effect sizes in this work for the mobility measures were relatively small, which does call into question the true efficacy of this form of therapy. Evaluating measures of cognition, psychosocial function and quality of life, not performed here, are needed.
That the program was safely implemented by novice teachers in the community and for individuals with varied impairments and a large age range (36-95 years) suggests the generalizability of the program, and flexibility for addressing multiple needs. Rehabilitation to restore and/or improve function in people with PD and older adults must be efficient and effective. Creating sustained behavioral change through targeted and effective programs may be most effective at addressing functional independence issues for older adults with and without movement disorders. 40 Although effect sizes are often compromised during dissemination, 32 this study suggests that adapted tango could be disseminated in the community under the instruction of non-clinically trained individuals, with only minimally attenuated effect sizes. More research is needed to refine dissemination methods while maintaining program fidelity.

A correction to the author list has been made for the article <a href="http://www.jove.com/video/52066">Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson's Disease and Older Adults</a>. There was an error with the author, Madeleine Hackney's, name. The author's name has been updated to:
Madeleine E. Hackney
from:
Madeleine Hackney

A correction to the author list has been made for the article <a href="http://www.jove.com/video/52066">Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson's Disease and Older Adults</a>.

Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson's Disease and Older Adults

Older adults and individuals with Parkinson&#8217;s Disease (PD) suffer decreased quality of life (QOL), 1-3 poor mobility, and high risk of falls 4 secondary to their motor and cognitive impairments. Physical activities that challenge mobility have beneficial effects on balance and can increase self-efficacy in performing activities of daily living (ADLs). 5 Specifically, exercise programs that 1) incorporate dynamic balance practice and 2) involve motor adaptation according to task and environmental demands can rehabilitate balance impairment.6
Dance has recently garnered attention as a potentially effective exercise therapy to address balance impairments. Frequent participation in partnered dance is associated with superior balance, gait, and reaction time in older dancers compared to age-matched non-dancers.7 In institutional settings, adapted Argentine tango (adapted tango) has improved mobility, balance and QOL in those with PD,8-12 stroke,13 and older individuals with visual impairment.14 Adapted tango is designed to address motor impairments including those specific to individuals with PD, i.e., bradykinesia, shortened stride length, backward instability, turning issues, and freezing of gait.
Composed of simple step elements, adapted tango involves movement initiation and cessation, multi-directional perturbations, varied speeds and rhythms. Participants focus on foot placement, whole body coordination, and attention to partner, path of movement, and aesthetics. Within the context of adapted tango, partner dancing is a sophisticated, yet accessible system of tactile communication that conveys motor intentions and goals between a &#8216;leader&#8217; (planner of movement) and &#8216;follower&#8217; (externally cued mover).
To ensure engaging, effective exercise programs like adapted tango are accessible by community-dwelling older adults, individuals with PD, and others with motor impairments, adapted tango must be disseminated beyond the academic research setting and into the community. Few evidence-based exercise programs are being systematically disseminated through delivery systems.15 This has resulted in insufficient numbers of adequately trained fitness personnel to provide community-based exercise activities suited to the unique needs of individuals with motor impairments. 16 This paper outlines methodology for dissemination of adapted tango, including standardization of an evidence-based curriculum and comprehensive training of dance teachers without clinical qualifications.
The adapted tango program described here incorporates key, novel elements based upon curricula developed through an empirical approach in several studies. 9,11-13,17 Uniquely, the program described here implemented an uninvestigated dose of 20, 1.5h biweekly sessions, which meets recommendations that older adults exceed 150 min of weekly exercise, 18 and provides additional learning time for individuals with PD to overcome motor learning challenges. 19 The program also expanded the rhythmic training component to harness the known movement facilitation effects of auditory cueing for PD. 20-22
The teacher training workshop focuses on the mechanics of teaching adapted tango, and includes didactic and experiential instruction regarding teaching populations with sensory and motor impairments (e.g., older adults and individuals with PD). A manual composed for this workshop provides a description of the five sections of the Adapted Tango class, a complete syllabus that describes the plan for each lesson (including rhythms, steps of the day, and embellishments) as well as information about people with movement disorders and motor impairments, fall risk and prevention. Classroom management, partnering and rhythmic training are also described in detail.
Any attempt to disseminate academically developed methodology into a community-based setting should include measures to ensure that program quality, safety and participant satisfaction are not sacrificed. Herein the methodology for assessing feasibility, efficacy and generalizability of a disseminated program are described. These measure include 1) evaluation of teacher trainees for teaching the adapted tango syllabus, as per instructions provided in the manual and 15 hr workshop, 2) measurement of adverse events and falls in and out of the class, 3) investigation of participant attrition and satisfaction 4) comparison of the feasibility, adherence and efficacy measures between older adults and individuals with PD, and 5) changes in mobility compared to results from previous studies.8,9,12
A successful dissemination should allow teacher trainees to deliver classes with very low incidence of adverse events (i.e., less than or equal to 1 event during a 12 week course of instruction or 48 classes). Additionally mobility improvements, as demonstrated by decreased fall risk, improved functional mobility, and increased lower body strength should be similar to those from prior studies.8 Finally, a well delivered program should have low attrition, (&#62;80% compliance), and be acceptable for individuals with PD as well as older and oldest-old individuals (85+ years) residing in senior independent living communities.

<table><tbody><tr><td>Sound Equipment</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Space to hold dance classes</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

community-based adapted tango dancing for individuals with parkinson's disease and older adults

Adapted tango dancing improves mobility and balance in older adults and additional populations with balance impairments. It is composed of very simple step elements. Adapted tango involves movement initiation and cessation, multi-directional perturbations, varied speeds and rhythms. Focus on foot placement, whole body coordination, and attention to partner, path of movement, and aesthetics likely underlie adapted tango&#8217;s demonstrated efficacy for improving mobility and balance. In this paper, we describe the methodology to disseminate the adapted tango teaching methods to dance instructor trainees and to implement the adapted tango by the trainees in the community for older adults and individuals with Parkinson&#8217;s Disease (PD). Efficacy in improving mobility (measured with the Timed Up and Go, Tandem stance, Berg Balance Scale, Gait Speed and 30 sec chair stand), safety and fidelity of the program is maximized through targeted instructor and volunteer training and a structured detailed syllabus outlining class practices and progression.

The methods detailed above describe rigorous evaluation of adapted tango dissemination in an effort to ensure quality programming becomes available to community dwelling individuals with balance impairments. When this adapted tango program was implemented in community based settings around the Atlanta, GA metro area over the summer of 2012, it was found to be feasible, efficacious and generalizable, although effect sizes were generally small. Nine dance instructors without clinical qualifications participated in 15 hr of training, consisting of: a 12 hr workshop on adapted tango methods, PD-specific motor impairments, and fall prevention, followed by an additional 3 hr of individual training from the senior author. Teacher-trainees had 2-25 years of experience teaching dance and &#62;1 year working with older adults in a fitness/dance setting. Based upon their demonstrated proficiency with safety concepts and adapted tango methods, seven teacher-trainees were selected to teach Tango in five different senior living communities located in the greater Atlanta metro area. The PI (MEH) attended each of the classes at least three times. Each of the teachers delivered the expected syllabus on the expected day, in the correct order. Two non-injurious falls&#8212;involving two self-reported frequent fallers&#8212;occurred out of 48 offered tango classes for individuals with PD and 2 non-injurious falls occurred out of 144 offered tango classes for older adults. In these instances participants resumed dancing after a short break. Altogether, the teacher trainees taught 192 classes in adapted tango according to the methods described in the Adapted Tango Manual.
Several student volunteers, who dedicated 600+ volunteer hours to efforts related to Tango, were relatively easily recruited through undergraduate and graduate pre-health list serves. All volunteers underwent fall-prevention training and were assessed for safe practices before being allowed to partner with the highest fall risk participants. In attendance, each class for those with PD averaged M = 5.5, SD = 2 volunteers and M = 3.9, SD = 2 caregivers, friends, and relatives. Data regarding precise number of volunteers per older adult class is unavailable but fewer volunteers and fewer caregivers, friends, relatives attended the older adult classes.
Some data for those with PD have been previously published.29 Eighty-eight participants (age range: 36-95 years) were recruited for participation in the adapted tango classes (PD: n = 25; older adults: n = 63). Table 1 shows the baseline characteristics of the participants initially assigned to adapted tango. Sixty-seven participants (PD: n = 23, older adults: n = 44) completed 20 lessons in 10-12 weeks. Overall adherence was 76.1% but there was a significant difference between PD participants with 92% adherence (previously reported)29 and older adults with 70% adherence (p = 0.028). PD and older adult participants who did not complete the program cited illness, family commitments, other time commitments, and lack of interest as reasons for their withdrawal.
Efficacy Measures. Mobility and balance gains were similar to those observed in prior studies of adapted tango conducted in controlled academic settings.14 However, effect sizes were generally small. The changes noted are detailed here. Both groups were able to complete more rises during the 30 second chair stand and received higher scores on the BBS at post testing with gains maintained at follow-up. Gait speed and tandem stance for individuals with PD did not increase substantially at post-testing but demonstrated some increase at follow-up testing. Older adults demonstrated faster gait speed, faster TUG performance, and longer time in tandem stance from pre-to-post with gains maintained at follow-up. Figure 1 demonstrates efficacy outcomes in terms of mean change and effect sizes for each group. Cohen&#39;s d effects sizes of 0.41 and above are considered &#39;practically significant&#39;.30
Falls. Amongst the Older adult cohort, 122 falls were reported in 21,900 person days in the year prior at a rate of 0.0056 falls per person-day. Twelve falls were reported in 3,612 person days in the 12 week intervention period at a rate of .0033 falls per person-day and 7 falls were reported in 3,444 person days in the 12 weeks post-intervention at a rate of 0.0020 falls per person-day. Amongst the PD cohort, because of an outlier who fell 3-4 times per day, 1,289 falls were reported in 8,760 person days in the year prior at a rate of 0.1471 falls per person-day. One hundred twelve falls were reported in 1,932 person days in the 12 week intervention period at a rate of .0580 falls per person-day and 140 falls were reported in 1,764 person days in the 12 weeks post-intervention at a rate of 0.0794 falls per person-day.
At baseline, a greater proportion of the PD sample fell in the year before the study than older adults (i.e., 60% versus 38%). Falls outside of class during the 3 month class period and in the 3 months after the class were rare, although a greater proportion of those with PD experienced a fall compared to the older adult cohort. Figure 2 compares percentages of the groups who did or did not report falls in the year prior, during the intervention, and in the ten-twelve weeks after the intervention.
Satisfaction. The program was well received as per the Exit Questionnaire, and both PD and older adult participants strongly agreed they enjoyed the class and would continue classes if given the opportunity. They agreed they noted improved coordination, walking, strength, endurance, and balance and were more physically and mentally active. The only marginally significant difference between those with PD and the older adults was that older adults more strongly agreed they noted balance improvements (p = 0.075). Numerical ranking responses regarding enjoyment of the program from an exit questionnaire administered to all participants at the conclusion of the program are detailed in Table 2. Table 3 provides a summary of open-ended responses to questions soliciting feedback about the program. Participants in both groups in particular praised the quality of the instruction, the energy of the instructors, the format of the class, the attention received, and feedback given. Many participants appreciated the opportunity to meet new people and among those with PD, the opportunity to forge new friendships with other individuals with PD. A few participants wished there had been more dance while others found the class duration too long. The most frequent recommendation for future classes was to spend more time dancing.
<img alt="Figure 1" fo:content-width="3in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52066/52066fig1highres.jpg" width="400" /> 
Figure 1: Change in Mobility &#38; Balance Efficacy Measures. PD: Parkinson&#39;s disease; OA: Older Adults. The values presented are mean change scores +/- the standard deviation of change. Change score values are calculated as &#39;post minus pre&#39; and &#39;follow-up minus pre&#39; for gait speed, 30-s Chair Stand, Tandem Stance and the Berg Balance Scale. Change score values are calculated as &#39;pre minus post&#39; and &#39;pre minus follow-up&#39; for the Timed Up &#38; Go. Positive change indicates improvement on the outcome. Cohen&#39;s d estimates of effect size are placed above each group&#39;s change score. Cohen&#39;s d effects sizes of .41 and above are considered &#39;practically significant&#39;. 30 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52066/52066fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" fo:content-width="5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52066/52066fig2highres.jpg" width="500" /> 
Figure 2: Fall Incidence Outside of Class Before, During, and After the Intervention. The percentage of the sample considered Fallers (with a history of at least one fall in the prior year) and Non-Fallers (no history of falls in the prior year) within the PD group (red bars), and the Older Adults group (pink bars) are depicted, along with the percentages of the sample who did or did not report a fall outside of class during the ten-twelve week interventional period and in the ten-twelve weeks following cessation of the intervention. The p values are the levels of significance between groups determined with Chi square tests. Although those with PD were on average younger than the older adult cohort, they were more likely to experience falls during the study. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/52066/52066fig2highres.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Individuals with PD</td>
			<td>Older Adults</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>n=25</td>
			<td>n=63</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>M (SD)</td>
			<td>M (SD)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Sex</td>
			<td>12 F; 13 M</td>
			<td>49F; 14M</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Age (years)</td>
			<td>68.4 (7.5)</td>
			<td>82.3 (8.8)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Education (years)</td>
			<td>16.5 (2.1)</td>
			<td>14.2 (3.1)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Number Co-morbidities</td>
			<td>3.3 (1.7)</td>
			<td>3.2 (1.9)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Number Prescription Medications</td>
			<td>5.4 (4.5)</td>
			<td>3.3 (2.0)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Use of Assistive Device (%)</td>
			<td>29%</td>
			<td>69%</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Fear of Falling (FoF)</td>
			<td>3.0 (1.5)</td>
			<td>2.9 (1.7)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Quality of Life (QoL)</td>
			<td>5.2 (0.9)</td>
			<td>5.4 (1.2)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Composite Physical Function (CPF) (/24)</td>
			<td>20.3 (4.9)</td>
			<td>17.8 (4.7)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) (/30)</td>
			<td>26.0 (2.8)</td>
			<td>22.5 (4.0)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) (/63)</td>
			<td>12.1 (9.6)</td>
			<td>6.6 (4.7)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">UPDRS Motor Subscale III (n=24)</td>
			<td>28.1 (6.9)</td>
			<td>~</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Gait Speed (m/s)</td>
			<td>0.97(.24)</td>
			<td>0.88(.23)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">30 s Chair Stand (Number of Rises)</td>
			<td>11.5(4)</td>
			<td>7.9(5)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Berg Balance Scale (/56 points)</td>
			<td>51.2(4.5)</td>
			<td>46.1(8.7)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Tandem Stance (s)</td>
			<td>26.1(26)</td>
			<td>8.3(16)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td colspan="2">Timed Up and Go (s)</td>
			<td>11.9(8)</td>
			<td>12.9(5)</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 1: Adapted Tango Baseline Participant Demographics &#38; Outcome Measure Baselines. Participant-reported co-morbidities included arthritis, diabetes, high blood pressure, heart problems and osteoporosis, among others. FoF &#38; QoL are based upon participant ratings regarding worry about falling / quality of life from 1 (low) to 7 (high). For the Composite Physical Function Index, the Montreal Cognitive Assessment, and the Berg Balance Scale higher values indicate greater physical function, cognitive ability, and balance respectively. For BDI-II, higher values indicate greater depression.
<table border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Total Sample (n=67)</td>
			<td>PD (n=23)</td>
			<td>Older Adult (n=44)</td>
			<td>p value</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Enjoyment</td>
			<td>1[1,1]</td>
			<td>1[1,1]</td>
			<td>1[1,1]</td>
			<td>0.725</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Balance</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2[2,3]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>0.075</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Walking</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2[2,3]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>0.427</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mood</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2[1.25,2]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>0.713</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coordination</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2[2,3]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>0.766</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Strength</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2.5[2,3]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>0.328</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Endurance</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2[2,3]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>0.783</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Continuing</td>
			<td>1[1,2]</td>
			<td>1.5[1,2]</td>
			<td>1[1,2]</td>
			<td>0.988</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Physically More Active</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2[1.25,3]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>0.876</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mentally More Active</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>2[1,3]</td>
			<td>0.659</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 2: Participant Satisfaction. Participants indicated level of agreement (1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree) with statements regarding the class and improvements in their physical and mental well-being. Values are represented as Median [1st, 3rd quartile]. There were no differences between those with PD and older adults in self-reported satisfaction.
<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>PD </td>
			<td>Older Adults</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>What did you like best?</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Instructors and helpers&#8212;11</td>
			<td>Instructors and helpers&#8212;18</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Being able to socialize&#8212;11</td>
			<td>Exercise&#8212;16</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Opportunity to dance&#8212;3</td>
			<td>Opportunity to dance&#8212;14</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Structured/Scheduled activity&#8212;1</td>
			<td>Being able to socialize&#8212;12</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Feeling of accomplishment&#8212;1</td>
			<td>Bodily improvements (balance, walking, energy etc.)&#8212;6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Bodily improvements (balance, walking, energy etc.)&#8212;1</td>
			<td>Being &#39;challenged to think &#38; act&#39;&#8212;1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Flexibility with attendance&#8212;1</td>
			<td>All of it&#8212;1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Handouts with brief descriptions&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>What did you like least?</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>More dancing, less exercise requested&#8212;4</td>
			<td>Duration too long&#8212;11</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Nothing&#8212;3</td>
			<td>Nothing&#8212;8</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Travel &#38; Distance&#8212;3</td>
			<td>Other&#8212;5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Attendance and Record Keeping Pressure&#8212;2</td>
			<td>Program duration (20 lessons) too short&#8212;4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Transportation to class dependant on others&#8212;1</td>
			<td>Hearing/Audio&#8212;2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Music system did not work well&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Warm up too long&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Too overprotected at times&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td colspan="2">Number of chairs in the room made me fearful of running into them&#8212;1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Not enough emphasis on keeping up with the music&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Female partners (felt safer with male partners)&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Duration of individual classes (1.5 h) too long&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Recommendations</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Nothing&#8212;5</td>
			<td>Nothing&#8212;11</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>More Dancing&#8212;5</td>
			<td>Have more volunteer partners available&#8212;10</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Shorter classes or more breaks&#8212;2</td>
			<td>Other&#8212;6</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Include other Latin dances such as the cha cha&#8212;1</td>
			<td>Shorter classes&#8212;5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Provide tango music to listen to at home&#8212;1</td>
			<td>Visual Stimuli and Materials&#8212;4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Fewer chairs in room&#8212;1</td>
			<td>Program Duration (10-12 weeks) too short&#8212;3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Make-up class options&#8212;1</td>
			<td>Positioning and Point of View of Instructor&#8212;3</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Better volunteer awareness of PD limitations&#8212;1</td>
			<td>More Movement&#8212;2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Have a focus group to share experiences&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Allow more opportunities to take notes&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Use name tags for the first few classes&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td>Recruit more male volunteers to partner&#8212;1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>
Table 3: Participant Feedback. Participants completed an open-ended Exit Questionnaire regarding what they liked best and least about the class and suggestions for improvement. Their responses are summarized here.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson's Disease and Older Adults at JoVE.com

Adapted tango has demonstrated efficacy for improving mobility and balance. We describe the dissemination of adapted tango teaching methods to dance instructor trainees and the implementation of adapted tango by the trainees in the community for improving mobility and balance in older adults and individuals with Parkinson&#8217;s disease.

Adapted tango dancing improves mobility and balance in older adults and additional populations with balance impairments. It is composed of very simple ...

community-based-adapted-tango-dancing-for-individuals-with-parkinson

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25.5K Views.  Emory University School of Medicine. Adapted tango has demonstrated efficacy for improving mobility and balance. We describe the dissemination of adapted tango teaching methods to dance instructor trainees and the implementation of adapted tango by the trainees in the community for improving mobility and balance in older adults and individuals with Parkinson’s disease. 

Video: Community-based Adapted Tango Dancing for Individuals with Parkinson's Disease and Older Adults

Substantiating Appropriate Motion Capture Techniques for the Assessment of Nordic Walking Gait and Posture in Older Adults

Nordic walking (NW) has become a safe and simple form of exercise in recent years, and in studying this gait pattern, various data collection techniques have been employed, each with positives and negatives. The aim was to determine the effect of NW on older adult gait and posture and to determine optimal use of different data collection systems in both short and long duration analysis. Gait and posture during NW and normal walking were assessed in 17 healthy older adults (age: 69 &#177; 7.3). Participants performed two trials of 6 Minute Walk Tests (6MWT) (1 with poles (WP) and 1 without poles (NP)) and 6 trials of a 5m walk (3 WP and 3 NP). Motion was recorded using two systems, a 6-sensor accelerometry system and an 8-camera 3-dimensional motion capture system, in order to quantify spatial-temporal, kinematic, and kinetic parameters.
With both systems, participants demonstrated increased stride length and double support and decreased gait speed and cadence WP compared to NP (p &#60;0.05). Also, with motion capture, larger single support time was found WP (p &#60;0.05). With 3-D capture, smaller hip power generation and moments of force were found at heel contact and pre-swing as well as smaller knee power absorption at heel contact, pre-swing, and terminal swing WP compared to NP, when assessed over one cycle (p &#60;0.05). Also, WP yielded smaller moments of force at heel contact and terminal swing along with larger moments at mid-stance of a gait cycle (p &#60;0.05). No changes were found for posture.
NW seems appropriate for promoting a normal gait pattern in older adults. Three-dimensional motion capture should primarily be used during short duration gait analysis (i.e. single gait cycle), while accelerometry systems should be primarily employed in instances requiring longer duration analysis such as during the 6MWT.

The aim was to substantiate optimal use of data collection techniques for Nordic walking gait and posture analysis. Three-dimensional motion capture should be used during short duration analysis (i.e. single gait cycle), while accelerometry should be employed for longer duration analysis (i.e. repeated cycles) like a 6 Minute Walk Test.

Nordic walking (NW) has become a safe and simple form of exercise in recent years, and in studying this gait pattern, various data collection techniques ...

Controlling Parkinson's Disease With Adaptive Deep Brain Stimulation

Adaptive deep brain stimulation (aDBS) has the potential to improve the treatment of Parkinson&#39;s disease by optimizing stimulation in real time according to fluctuating disease and medication state. In the present realization of adaptive DBS we record and stimulate from the DBS electrodes implanted in the subthalamic nucleus of patients with Parkinson&#39;s disease in the early post-operative period. Local field potentials are analogue filtered between 3 and 47 Hz before being passed to a data acquisition unit where they are digitally filtered again around the patient specific beta peak, rectified and smoothed to give an online reading of the beta amplitude. A threshold for beta amplitude is set heuristically, which, if crossed, passes a trigger signal to the stimulator. The stimulator then ramps up stimulation to a pre-determined clinically effective voltage over 250 msec and continues to stimulate until the beta amplitude again falls down below threshold. Stimulation continues in this manner with brief episodes of ramped DBS during periods of heightened beta power.
Clinical efficacy is assessed after a minimum period of stabilization (5 min) through the unblinded and blinded video assessment of motor function using a selection of scores from the Unified Parkinson&#39;s Rating Scale (UPDRS). Recent work has demonstrated a reduction in power consumption with aDBS as well as an improvement in clinical scores compared to conventional DBS. Chronic aDBS could now be trialed in Parkinsonism.

Adaptive deep brain stimulation (aDBS) is effective for Parkinson&#8217;s disease, improving symptoms and reducing power consumption compared to conventional deep brain stimulation (cDBS). In aDBS we track a local field potential biomarker (beta oscillatory amplitude) in real time and use this to control the timing of stimulation.

Adaptive deep brain stimulation (aDBS) has the potential to improve the treatment of Parkinson&#39;s disease by optimizing stimulation in real time ...

Medicine

Clinical Assessment of Spatiotemporal Gait Parameters in Patients and Older Adults

Spatial and temporal characteristics of human walking are frequently evaluated to identify possible gait impairments, mainly in orthopedic and neurological patients1-4, but also in healthy older adults5,6. The quantitative gait analysis described in this protocol is performed with a recently-introduced photoelectric system (see&#160;Materials table) which has the potential to be used in the clinic because it is portable, easy to set up (no subject preparation is required before a test), and does not require maintenance and sensor calibration. The photoelectric system consists of series of high-density floor-based photoelectric cells with light-emitting and light-receiving diodes that are placed parallel to each other to create a corridor, and are oriented perpendicular to the line of progression7. The system simply detects interruptions in light signal, for instance due to the presence of feet within the recording area. Temporal gait parameters and 1D spatial coordinates of consecutive steps are subsequently calculated to provide common gait parameters such as step length, single limb support and walking velocity8, whose validity against a criterion instrument has recently been demonstrated7,9. The measurement procedures are very straightforward; a single patient can be tested in less than 5 min&#160;and a comprehensive report can be generated in less than 1&#160;min.

This protocol is used to evaluate spatial and temporal gait variables of neurological/orthopedic patients and older persons by means of a recently-introduced floor-based photocell system.

Spatial and temporal characteristics of human walking are frequently evaluated to identify possible gait impairments, mainly in orthopedic and ...

Walk with Me Hybrid Virtual/In-Person Walking for Older Adults with Neurodegenerative Disease

This study presents a protocol for virtual and in-person walking groups for older adults with neurodegenerative diseases and addresses the decline in physical activity and social connectivity during the pandemic. Physical activity, specifically moderate-intensity walking, has been shown to have multiple health benefits for older adults. This methodology was created during the COVID-19 pandemic, contributing to lower physical activity levels and social isolation in older adults. Both the in-person and virtual classes utilize technology such as fitness tracking apps and video platforms. Data are presented from two groups of older adults with neurodegenerative disease: people with prodromal Alzheimer's disease and people with Parkinson's disease. Participants in the virtual classes were screened for balance impairments before the walk, and any person deemed at risk for falls was not eligible to participate virtually. As COVID vaccines became available and restrictions were lifted, in-person walking groups became feasible. Staff and caregivers were trained in balance management, roles/responsibilities, and delivering walking cues. Both walks, virtual and in-person, consisted of a warm up, a walk, and a cool down, and posture, gait, and safety cues were given throughout. Measures of the rate of perceived exertion (RPE) and heart rate (HR) were taken pre-warm up, post-warm up, and at 15 min, 30 min, and 45 min time points. Participants also used a walking application (app) on their phones to record the distance walked and the number of steps taken. The study showed a positive correlation between HR and RPE in both groups. The participants in the virtual group rated the walking group favorably in terms of improving their quality of life during a period of social isolation and contributing to physical, mental, and emotional well-being. The methodology shows a safe and feasible way to implement virtual and in-person walking groups for older adults with neurological diseases.

The present protocol aims to inform rehabilitation specialists and fitness instructors in safe, feasible, and evidence-based methods of delivering virtual and in-person walking classes to older adults with neurodegenerative diseases.

This study presents a protocol for virtual and in-person walking groups for older adults with neurodegenerative diseases and addresses the decline in ...

Adapted Resistance Training Improves Strength in Eight Weeks in Individuals with Multiple Sclerosis

Hip weakness is a common symptom affecting walking ability in people with multiple sclerosis (MS). It is known that resistance strength training (RST) can improve strength in individuals with MS, however; it remains unclear the duration of RST that is needed to make strength gains and how to adapt hip strengthening exercises for individuals of varying strength using only resistance bands. This paper describes the methodology to set up and implement an adapted resistance strength training program, using resistance bands, for individuals with MS. Directions for pre- and post-strength tests to evaluate efficacy of the strength-training program are included. Safety features and detailed instructions outline the weekly program content and progression. Current evidence is presented showing that significant strength gains can be made within 8 weeks of starting a RST program. Evidence is also presented showing that resistance strength training can be successfully adapted for individuals with MS of varying strength with little equipment.

Hip weakness is a common symptom affecting walking ability in people with multiple sclerosis. Isolated muscle strengthening is a useful method to target specific weaknesses. This protocol describes a progressive resistance-training program using exercise bands to increase hip muscle strength.

Hip weakness is a common symptom affecting walking ability in people with multiple sclerosis (MS). It is known that resistance strength training (RST) can ...

Exergaming in Older People Living with HIV Improves Balance, Mobility and Ameliorates Some Aspects of Frailty

Approximately 1.2 million people in the United States live with HIV infection. Medical advancements have increased the life expectancy and this cohort is aging. HIV-positive individuals have a high incidence of frailty (~20%) characterized by depression and sedentary behavior. Exercise would be healthy, but due to the frail status of many HIV-positive individuals, conventional exercise is too taxing. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness and acceptability of a novel game-based training program (exergame) in ameliorating some aspects of frailty in HIV-infected individuals. Ten older people living with HIV were enrolled in an exergame intervention. Patients performed balance exercises such as weight shifting, ankle reaching, and obstacle crossing. Real-time visual/audio lower-extremity joint motion feedback was provided using wearable sensors to assist feedback and encourage subjects to accurately execute each exercise task. Patients trained twice a week for 45 min for 6 weeks. Changes in balance, gait, psychosocial parameters and quality of life parameters were assessed at the beginning, midterm and at conclusion of the training program. Ten patients completed the study and their results analyzed. The mean age was 57.2 &#177; 9.2 years. The participants showed a significant reduction in center of mass sway (78.2%, p = .045) during the semi-tandem balance stance with eyes closed and showed a significant increase in gait speed during a dual task motor-cognitive assessment (9.3%, p = .048) with an increase in stride velocity of over 0.1 m/sec. A significant reduction in reported pain occurred (43.5%, p = .041). Preliminary results of this exergame intervention show promise in improving balance and mobility while requiring older people living with HIV to be more active. The exergame can be continued at home and may have long term as well as short-term benefits for ameliorating frailty associated with HIV infection.

Persons infected with HIV are often frail, depressed and live a sedentary lifestyle for which conventional exercise is too taxing. Here, we present an exercise protocol that ameliorates aspects of frailty in HIV-infected persons. An exergame integrating cognitive control was developed using biosensors that measured balance, weight-shifting and obstacle crossing.

Approximately 1.2 million people in the United States live with HIV infection. Medical advancements have increased the life expectancy and this cohort is ...

A Training Program Using an Agility Ladder for Community-Dwelling Older Adults

Aging impairs physical and cognitive functions and limits daily activities. Agility training can improve or maintain physical functioning in older people. The purpose of this study is to report the physical fitness benefits of a training program for independent community-dwelling older adults using an agility ladder. Each training session lasted approximately 30 minutes, and the benefits were achieved with two sessions per week for 14 weeks. Training was timed and involved four different drills and varying levels of difficulty through time. The exercises were performed at the School of Physical Education of the University of Campinas, S&#227;o Paulo state, Brazil. The study participants (n = 16; mean age of 66.9 &#177; 5.0 years) were instructed to perform the exercises as quickly as possible without making mistakes and were assisted by a physical trainer when they made mistakes. Assessments were performed both before and after training using five functional tests (i.e., Illinois agility, five times sit-to-stand, timed up-and-go, walking usual speed, and one-leg stand). Although the study sample was not compared with a control group, the results indicate that training protocols using an agility ladder are easy and practical and improve physical function performance in older adults.

The aim of this study is to present an agility training program for older people. The feasibility of this program is described, and the training protocol demonstrated by video imaging.

Aging impairs physical and cognitive functions and limits daily activities. Agility training can improve or maintain physical functioning in older people. ...

Evaluating the Risk of Falling in Elderly Using iTUG Motion Capture Technology

Using Motion Capture Technology in the Instrumented Timed Up and Go Test to Detect the Risk of Falling in Aged Adults

Despite efforts made by medicine and technology, the incidence of falls in older adults is still increasing. Therefore, early detection of the falling risk is becoming increasingly important for falling prevention. The Timed Up and Go (TUG) test is a well-accepted tool to assess mobility and can be used in predicting future fall risk in aged adults. In clinical practice, the total time to complete the test is the main outcome measure of the TUG test. Owing to its simplicity and generality, the traditional TUG test has been considered a global test for movement analysis. However, recently, researchers have attempted to split the TUG test into subcomponents and have updated its score system for further investigations. The instrumented Time Up and Go (iTUG) test, which is a new modification of the traditional TUG test, has been reported to be a sensitive tool for predicting movement disorders and the risk of falls in older adults. The goal of the present study was to analyze the iTUG test subcomponents using motion capture technology, and to determine which iTUG test subtasks are related to the potential risk of future falls.

Author Spotlight: Innovations in iTUG Test for Enhanced Risk Assessment and Cognitive Insights

The instrumented Timed Up and Go (iTUG) test is gaining increasing attention in body sway and gait analysis with the development of new technologies. We present a protocol to analyze the subcomponents of the iTUG with motion capture.

Despite efforts made by medicine and technology, the incidence of falls in older adults is still increasing. Therefore, early detection of the falling ...

Parkinson's Disease: Overview

Neurodegenerative disorders are progressive diseases that cause irreversible damage and loss to neurons in specific brain areas. Examples of these disorders include Parkinson&#39;s disease, Alzheimer&#39;s disease, Multiple Sclerosis (MS), and Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS). These disorders share characteristics such as proteinopathies, selective neuronal vulnerability, and a complex interplay between genetic and environmental factors. The primary therapeutic goal for these conditions is to alleviate symptoms and slow the progression of the underlying neurodegenerative process, even though a cure remains elusive.
Parkinsonism is a clinical syndrome involving bradykinesia, muscular rigidity, resting tremor, and impaired postural balance. The most predominant Parkinsonism is idiopathic Parkinson&#39;s disease, featuring degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra region of the brain. Pseudoparkinsonism, on the other hand, mimics the symptoms of Parkinson&#39;s but is usually caused by certain dopamine-disrupting medications like haloperidol and phenothiazine or other health conditions. The pathophysiology of Parkinson&#39;s disease involves basal ganglia dysfunction and an imbalance between direct and indirect neural pathways. This disease&#39;s primary pathological feature includes Lewy bodies and intracellular inclusions containing aggregated &#945;-synuclein proteins.
Treatment for Parkinsonism primarily uses levodopa (L-DOPA), a dopamine precursor that increases its levels in the brain, helping to manage the symptoms. It may be used in conjunction with carbidopa (Lodosyn). Ongoing research focuses on developing newer and better therapeutic strategies, such as immunization against &#945;-synuclein and gene therapy. Despite the challenges, understanding the mechanisms behind these disorders offers hope for future breakthroughs in their management and potential cure.

Neurodegenerative disorders are progressive conditions characterized by the irreversible loss of neurons in specific brain regions.
The primary ...

Pharmacology

Unit 1

Pharmacotherapy of Depression and Anxiety Disorders

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

Parkinson's Disease: Treatment

Neurodegenerative disorders, such as Parkinson&#39;s Disease (PD), involve the gradual and irreversible destruction of neurons in particular brain areas. These disorders exhibit standard features like proteinopathies, selective vulnerability of some neurons, and an interaction of intrinsic properties, genetics, and environmental influences in neural injury.
Parkinson&#39;s Disease is primarily a result of the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta. The cornerstone of its treatment is levodopa (L-DOPA), a dopamine precursor that alleviates symptoms. However, long-term use can lead to motor complications such as response fluctuations and dyskinesias. Although levodopa can induce hallucinations and confusion, especially in older people and those with preexisting cognitive dysfunction, it does not adversely affect the course of PD. Atypical antipsychotics, including clozapine (Clorazil) and quetiapine (Seroquel), effectively treat levodopa-induced psychosis. Levodopa and dopamine agonists can lead to impulse control disorders, and there&#39;s an associated risk of suicidality with PD. 
To enhance the effectiveness of levodopa and reduce its peripheral side effects, it is typically combined with carbidopa. Carbidopa inhibits peripheral decarboxylation of levodopa, allowing more of the medication to cross the blood-brain barrier and minimizing side effects such as nausea and vomiting. Still, whether this is linked to the disease or a specific treatment is unclear.
Dopamine receptor agonists like ropinirole (Requip) and pramipexole (Mirapex) have longer durations of action than levodopa, aiding in managing motor fluctuations. These agonists can cause hallucinosis, confusion, nausea, and orthostatic hypotension, and should be initiated at low doses and titrated slowly. Apomorphine (Apokyn) is a &#34;rescue therapy&#34; for acute intermittent treatment of &#34;off&#34; episodes in PD. Like oral DA agonists, it can cause side effects like QT prolongation, injection site reactions, and potential abuse patterns. COMT inhibitors such as tolcapone (Tasmar) and entacapone (Comtan) reduce &#34;wearing off&#34; symptoms in patients treated with levodopa/carbidopa. Selective MAO-B inhibitors like selegiline (Eldepryl) and rasagiline (Azilect) are also used for treating PD and do not substantially inhibit the peripheral metabolism of catecholamines. Muscarinic receptor antagonists like trihexyphenidyl (Artane) and benztropine mesylate (Cogentin) are used in early PD treatment or as an adjunct to dopamimetic therapy. However, they can cause sedation and confusion and are not well-tolerated in older individuals. Amantadine (Gocovri), an antiviral agent, has antiparkinsonian activity and is used as initial therapy for mild PD and as an adjunct in patients on levodopa with dose-related fluctuations and dyskinesias. It is an effective treatment, despite mild side effects such as dizziness and lethargy, which can be minimized by titrating the dose.

Parkinson&#39;s Disease or PD is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by an imbalance between cholinergic and reduced dopaminergic neurons.
The ...