This work was supported by National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute grants HL56237, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Institute DK97391-03, National Science Foundation (NSF-1227359 and EPS-1003907).

1. Microfluidic Device Fabrication
<ol>
	<li>Standard Photolithography Fabrication of a SU-8 50 Master Mold
	<ol>
		<li>Clean the silicon wafer before spin-coating. Rinse a bare 2 inch silicon wafer with acetone for 15 min followed by isopropyl alcohol (IPA) for 15 min. Dehydrate the wafer by placing it on a hotplate at 150 &#176;C for 1 hr. After dehydration, cool the wafer at room temperature.</li>
		<li>Spin-coat the silicon wafer with SU-8 photoresist. Add 2 ml SU-8 photoresist onto the wafer. Ramp the wafer to 500 rpm at 100 rpm/sec acceleration for 10 sec, followed by 1,000 rpm at 300 rpm/sec acceleration for 30 sec. (see Supplemental Video 1)</li>
		<li>Pre-bake the wafer on a hot plate at 65 &#176;C for 10 min, then soft bake at 95 &#176;C for 30 min.</li>
		<li>Use UV exposure to transform the designed pattern from a film mask to the spin-coated photoresist. Print the pattern on a thin transparent film as a film mask. Place the film mask on top of the spin-coated photoresist and expose to UV with a dose of 300 mJ/cm2. (see Supplemental Video 2) 
		Note: In this protocol, the microchannel network pattern (159 &#181;m wide mother channels branching into four 100 &#181;m wide daughter channels) is designed with CAD software. The pattern on the film shows as a clear field and the rest of the film is covered by black ink. Because SU-8 is a negative photoresist, the portion of the photoresist that is exposed to UV will be crosslinked and become insoluble to the solvent during the mold development (step 1.1.6). After the development, this insoluble portion will replicate the designed network pattern and serve as a master mold.</li>
		<li>Post-bake the exposed wafer on a hot plate at 65 &#176;C for 1 min, then 95 &#176;C for 10 min.</li>
		<li>Develop the master mold. Use SU-8 developer as the solvent to remove the un-crosslinked photoresist. Immerse the wafer in SU-8 developer for 3 min and rinse with IPA for 1 min.</li>
		<li>Repeat this developing cycle 2-3 times until there is no white streak formation (residue of non-cured photoresist) after the IPA rinse. Gently dry the wafer with nitrogen gas and examine the small features of the pattern under a microscope. Repeat additional developing cycles if necessary.</li>
		<li>Hard bake the wafer on a hot plate at 150 &#176;C for 15 min.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Soft Lithography
	<ol>
		<li>Manually mix the two parts (base and curing agent) of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) elastomer at a wt. ratio of 10:1.</li>
		<li>De-gas the PDMS mixture with a desiccator connected with a house vacuum for 15 min. Cast the PDMS solution on the photoresist master mold. The thickness of the PDMS needs to be over 3 mm to provide a stable holding of the inlet/outlet tubing. De-gas the PDMS again for 15 min, and remove the remaining air bubbles with nitrogen gas if necessary. Cure the casted PDMS in an oven at 65 &#176;C for 3 hr.</li>
		<li>Clean the surface of the glass coverslip with a scotch tape and a plasma cleaner (30 sec plasma treatment). Spin-coat un-cured PDMS (0.5 ml) on the glass coverslip by ramping to 4,000 rpm at 500 rpm/sec acceleration rate for 30 sec. Cure the PDMS spin-coated coverslip in an oven at 65 &#176;C for at least 30 min.</li>
		<li>Cut and release the cured PDMS from the master mold. Then create an inlet and an outlet with a 1 mm diameter hole puncher at the distal end of the mother channels.</li>
		<li>Bond the device to the PDMS spin-coated glass coverslip. Oxidize the surfaces of the PDMS and coverslip with a plasma cleaner for 1 min. After the oxygen plasma treatment, place a droplet of deionized water (DI water) at the bonding surface, and place the two parts together. Bake the device in an oven at 65 &#176;C for 30 min to achieve a permanent bonding.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Supplemental Video 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/54014/54014movie1.jpg" /> 
<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54014/Supplemental_video_1.mp4" target="_blank">Supplemental Video 1 (Right click to download).</a>
<img alt="Supplemental Video 2" src="/files/ftp_upload/54014/54014movie2.jpg" /> 
<a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/54014/Supplemental_video_2.mp4" target="_blank">Supplemental Video 2 (Right click to download).</a>
2. Endothelial Cell Seeding and Culture
<ol>
	<li>Device Sterilization and Fibronectin Coating
	<ol>
		<li>Preserve the hydrophobic property of the PDMS surface around the inlet/outlet from oxidation. Cover the PDMS surface around the inlet and outlet with small stripes of scotch tape to prevent oxidation. This procedure can prevent DI water from spreading all over the top surface of the device during the filling step (2.1.3).</li>
		<li>Treat the PDMS device with oxygen plasma for 5 min to change the surface to be hydrophilic, thus facilitate fluid flow through the microchannel and prevent the bubble trapping in the filling procedure (2.1.3).</li>
		<li>Use either a syringe with a needle attached or a pipette to fill the device with DI water from the inlet. Continue the filling until there is a droplet of DI water (30-50 &#181;l) accumulated at the outlet. Examine the device under a microscope to check if there are bubbles trapped inside the microchannel. Remove the excessive water droplet at the inlet and outlet with a paper tissue.</li>
		<li>Sterilize the device in a petri dish with UV for a minimum of 3 hr in a laminar biosafety hood. To prevent evaporation, cover the inlet/outlet with a thin piece of PDMS, put a wet paper tissue inside the dish, and wrap the dish with Parafilm.</li>
		<li>Coat the device with fibronectin. Rinse the device first with phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), then coat it with 100 &#181;g/ml fibronectin overnight in a refrigerator (4 &#176;C). Place a droplet of solution at the inlet, and then create a negative pressure at the outlet with a house vacuum, a syringe with a needle or a pipette.</li>
		<li>Fill the device with cell culture media. Rinse the device with PBS manually for 3 times before loading the cell culture media. Warm up the device in an incubator at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>ECs Seeding and Long-term Perfusion 
	Note: Comparing with conventional static 2D EC culture, the in vitro microvessel network model with continuous perfusion made the cell culture environment closer to the in vivo conditions. The in vitro microvessel network demonstrated in this protocol can be maintained up to two weeks. The well-controlled perfusion will continuously replenish nutrients, remove wastes, and prevent over-confluence of the EC monolayer. Therefore, it can be extended to a longer term studies, mimicking the cellular and hemodynamic environment under different physiological and pathological conditions.
	<ol>
		<li>Mix primary HUVECs in HUVEC culture media (MCDB 131) with 8% dextran (mol wt 70,000). The dextran is used to increase the viscosity of the loading media and achieve a better cell seeding result. The recommended cell density is about 2-4 x 106 cells/ml.</li>
		<li>Seed the cells into the device. Place a 10-20 &#181;l droplet of cells over the inlet. Introduce a gentle flow by either tilting the device, or capillary action using a glass Pasteur pipette at the outlet. The key for a successful cell loading is to control the flow velocity less than 1 mm/sec within the smallest channels.</li>
		<li>Check the cell seeding. After the initial seeding, incubate the device for 15-20 min (humidified atmosphere of 5% CO2 at 37 &#176;C) before checking the seeding status under the microscope. If necessary, perform additional cell loading to achieve a desired cell density.</li>
		<li>Gently rinse the device with cell culture medium (37 &#176;C) to remove the dextran. Culture the device in the absence of flow for the first 6 hr in an incubator (5% CO2 at 37 &#176;C).</li>
		<li>Set up the tubing connection for long-term perfusion. Tape the device into a petri dish to prevent movement. Create small holes on the lid of the Petri dish for inlet and outlet tubing insertions. Connect the inlet tubing to a syringe with a needle for the cell culture media perfusion. Connect the outlet tubing to a waste collector. 
		Note: Place the device and the waste collector in a cell culture incubator, while placing a perfusion pump outside of the incubator and connect it with the device by the long inlet tubing. The perfusion rate is determined by the experimental design. In the present device, use a perfusion rate of 0.35 &#956;l/min and a shear stress range between 1-2 dyne/cm2. Under this perfusion condition, the HUVECs reach confluence in about 3-4 days.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Immunofluorescent Staining
<ol>
	<li>Fix the ECs in the device by perfusion of 2% paraformaldehyde for 30 min at 4 &#176;C, followed by 1x PBS rinsing at room temperature for 15 min, and 1% BSA blocking for 30 min. Use a perfusion rate that is the same as that used for cell culture.</li>
	<li>Permeabilize the fixed ECs for antibody staining with 0.1% Triton X-100. Perfuse the device with Triton for 5-7 min to label VE-cadherin, and 3 min to label F-actin.</li>
	<li>Load the antibodies into the device. Perfuse the device with 1x PBS for 15 min to wash out the previous solutions. Manually load the primary antibody against VE-cadherin (anti-goat) into the device at the concentration of 2 &#181;g/ml (the total volume is 20-50 &#181;l). Keep the device in a refrigerator at 4 &#176;C overnight. Perfuse the secondary antibody (donkey anti-goat) by a syringe pump at the concentration of 7 &#181;g/ml for 45-60 min.</li>
	<li>Label EC F-actin with phalloidin. Perfuse the device with 1x PBS for 15 min before manually loading phalloidin (10 &#181;g/ml) for 7-10 min.</li>
	<li>Label EC nuclei (see Materials List).</li>
	<li>Rinse the device with 1x PBS, and maintain it at 4 &#176;C until imaging.</li>
</ol>
4. Fluorescence Imaging of Endothelial [Ca2+]i
<ol>
	<li>Perfuse the device with albumin (10 mg/ml)-Ringer&#39;s solution for 15 min at 37 &#176;C. Use the same perfusion rate as that used for cell culture. The concentrations of all components of albumin-Ringer&#39;s solution are described in the Materials List.</li>
	<li>Set up confocal system for EC [Ca2+]i imaging with fluo-4 AM. Use a confocal microscopic system for Ca2+ imaging. Use an argon laser (488 nm) for excitation and set the emission band as 510-530 nm. Collect the images with a 25X objective (water immersion, NA: 0.95) at 512 x 512 scan format. Use a z-step of 2 &#181;m and a scanning interval for each stack of images of 20 sec.</li>
	<li>Perfuse the device with fluo-4 AM (5 &#181;M) for 40 min at 37 &#176;C, then wash out the lumen fluo-4 AM with albumin-Ringer&#39;s solution.</li>
	<li>Acquire images of fluo-4 loaded microvessels. Collect the baseline images for 10 min. Perfuse the device with ATP (10 &#181;M) and record the changes of fluorescence intensity (FI) for 20 min.</li>
</ol>
5. Fluorescence Imaging of Nitric Oxide Production
<ol>
	<li>Perfuse the device with albumin-Ringer&#39;s solution for 15 min. Use a perfusion rate that is the same as that used for cell culture.</li>
	<li>Set up the fluorescence imaging system to measure ATP-induced nitric oxide production. Use a microscope equipped with a 12-bit digital CCD camera and a computer-controlled shutter for nitric oxide measurement. Use a 75 W xenon lamp as the light source. 
	Note: Select the excitation and emission wavelength for DAF-2 DA by an interference filter (480/40 nm) and a dichroic mirror (505 nm) with a band-pass barrier (535/50 nm). Use a 20X objective lens (NA: 0.75) to collect the images. To minimize photobleaching, position a neutral density filter (0.5 N) in front of the interference filter and limit the exposure time to 0.12 sec.</li>
	<li>Load the cells with DAF-2 DA (5 &#181;M). Perfuse the device with DAF-2 DA for about 35-40 min at 37 &#176;C. Record the baseline of DAF-2 fluorescence intensity (FIDAF) after the initial loading. 
	Note: DAF-2 DA is continuously present in the perfusate throughout the experiment7.</li>
	<li>Collect DAF-2 images. Record the baseline of FIDAF for 5 min. Perfuse the device with ATP (10 &#181;M) and collect the images for 30 min with 1 min intervals. Collect all of the images from the same group of cells at the same focal plane.</li>
</ol>
6. Data Analysis
<ol>
	<li>Manually select the region of interests (ROIs) from the collected images at individual cell level. Each ROI covers the area of one individual cell which can be indicated by the fluorescence outline.</li>
	<li>Subtract background fluorescence and calculate the mean FI of each ROIs.</li>
	<li>Measure ATP-induced changes in EC [Ca2+]i and NO production. Quantify ATP-induced changes in EC [Ca2+]i by calculating the changes in Fluo-4 FI (FI/FI0*100, where FI0 is the average baseline FI during albumin-Ringer perfusion before adding ATP) minus the measured background. Quantify NO production rate by conducting the first differential conversion of the FIDAF over time. 
	Note: The time course of FIDAF represents a cumulative NO production with time. Therefore, NO production rate is calculated based on the profile of FIDAF under both basal and ATP stimulated conditions. Details of data analysis and experimental procedures have been described in a previous publication7.</li>
</ol>

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M., Prabhakarpandian, B., Pant, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Generation+of+Shear+Adhesion+Map+Using+SynVivo+Synthetic+Microvascular+Networks.">Generation of Shear Adhesion Map Using SynVivo Synthetic Microvascular Networks.</a> Jove-J Vis Exp. , e51025 (2014).</li><li>Booth, R., Kim, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+a+microfluidic+in+vitro+model+of+the+blood-brain+barrier+(iBBB).">Characterization of a microfluidic in vitro model of the blood-brain barrier (iBBB).</a> Lab on a Chip. 12, 5282-5282 (2012).</li><li>Shao, J. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrated+microfluidic+chip+for+endothelial+cells+culture+and+analysis+exposed+to+a+pulsatile+and+oscillatory+shear+stress.">Integrated microfluidic chip for endothelial cells culture and analysis exposed to a pulsatile and oscillatory shear stress.</a> Lab on a Chip. 9, 3118-3125 (2009).</li><li>Yeon, J. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reliable+permeability+assay+system+in+a+microfluidic+device+mimicking+cerebral+vasculatures.">Reliable permeability assay system in a microfluidic device mimicking cerebral vasculatures.</a> Biomed Microdevices. 14, 1141-1148 (2012).</li><li>Golden, A. P., Tien, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fabrication+of+microfluidic+hydrogels+using+molded+gelatin+as+a+sacrificial+element.">Fabrication of microfluidic hydrogels using molded gelatin as a sacrificial element.</a> Lab Chip. 7, 720-725 (2007).</li><li>Zheng, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vitro+microvessels+for+the+study+of+angiogenesis+and+thrombosis.">In vitro microvessels for the study of angiogenesis and thrombosis.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 109, 9342-9347 (2012).</li><li>Baker, B. M., Trappmann, B., Stapleton, S. C., Toro, E., Chen, C. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Microfluidics+embedded+within+extracellular+matrix+to+define+vascular+architectures+and+pattern+diffusive+gradients.">Microfluidics embedded within extracellular matrix to define vascular architectures and pattern diffusive gradients.</a> Lab Chip. 13, 3246-3252 (2013).</li></ol>

The authors have no competing interests or conflicting interests to disclose.

In this article, we present detailed protocols for the development of cultured microvessel network, the characterization of EC junctions and cytoskeleton F-actin distribution, and the quantitative measurements of EC [Ca2+]i and NO production using a microfluidic device. The perfused microfluidic device provides an in vitro model that allows a close simulation of the in vivo microvascular geometries and shear flow conditions. Since the cultured microvessel network can be formed by p...

Endothelial cells (ECs) lining the blood vessel walls in vivo are constantly exposed to flow, but cultured ECs are often grown under static conditions and exhibit a pro-inflammatory phenotype1,2. The microfluidics technology enables a precisely controlled fluid through a geometrically constrained microscale (sub-millimeter) channels3, which provides the opportunity for cultured cells, especially for vascular ECs, to grow under desired flow conditions. These features make the cell culture conditions closer to in vivo than the conventional, static 2D cell cultures. They are extremely important when the microfluidic devices are used to model different types of vasculatures and to study EC responses to mechanical and/or chemical stimulations.
Despite the advantages demonstrated by the microchannel network over a static cell culture, the adaptation and application of microfluidics in the biomedical field remain limited. Reported by a recent review, the majority of the publications of this field (85%) are still in engineering journals4. The performance of microfluidic devices has not been convincing enough for most biologists to switch from current techniques such as the Transwell assay and the macro-scale culture dish/glass slide to this miniaturized device. Microfluidics is a multidisciplinary field, which requires interdisciplinary collaborations to move this field forward. The objective of this technical article is to reduce the knowledge gaps between disciplines and make the fabrication procedures understandable by biologists, while providing biological application and functional validation of the microfluidic microvessels. The visualized experimental protocols include fabrication of both microfluidic devices and their biological utilities, which represents a close collaboration between engineers and biologists.
We recently reported some biological applications using the in vitro microvessel network with microfluidic device5. In order to appropriately design the dimensions of the microchannel network and apply the desired shear stress, a numerical model was built with computational fluid dynamic software to closely estimate the flow profile. Primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) that were seeded into the microchannels reached confluence, i.e. covered the entire inner surfaces of the microchannel, in 3-4 days with continuous perfusion. The proper barrier formation was demonstrated by VE-cadherin staining and compared with those formed under static cell culture conditions and in intact microvessels. By applying the experimental protocols developed in individually perfused intact microvessels6-8, we quantitatively measured the changes in EC [Ca2+]i and nitric oxide (NO) production in response to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) with fluorescent indicators and confocal and conventional fluorescence microscopy. The agonist-induced increases in EC [Ca2+]i and NO production have been reported as necessary intracellular signals for inflammatory mediator-induced increases in microvessel permeability6-15. Although some previous studies showed images of DAF-2 DA loaded microfluidic devices16,17, appropriate resolution and data analysis had not yet achieved18. To our knowledge, this study demonstrates the first quantitative measurements of agonist-induced dynamic change in endothelial [Ca2+]i and NO production utilizing microfluidic based system.
Microfabrication techniques have the flexibility to fabricate microchannels down to a few microns and enable the development of complex patterns to mimic the geometries of in vivo microvasculature. Here we presented a typical microchannel network with three levels of branching. This network is fabricated by the combination of photolithography which is performed in a microfabrication cleanroom and soft lithography.

<table><tbody><tr><td>ATP</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>A2383</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Acetone</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>A929</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Biopsy punch</td><td>Miltex</td><td>33-31 AA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bovine Albumin</td><td>MP Biomedicals</td><td>810014</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Bovine Brain Extract (BBE)</td><td>Lonza</td><td>CC-4098</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cover-slip</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12-542C</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DAF-2 DA</td><td>Calbiochem</td><td>251505</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Dextran</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>31390</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Donkey anti-Goat IgG (H+L) Secondary Antibody</td><td>Life technologies</td><td>A-11055</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DPBS, no calcium, no magnesium</td><td>Gibco</td><td>14190-250</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DRAQ5 (nuclei staining)&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Cell Signaling Technology</td><td>4084</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Endothelial Cell Growth Supplement (ECGS)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>E2759-15MG</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fetal Bovine Serum</td><td>Gibco</td><td>16000-044</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fibronectin</td><td>Gibco</td><td>PHE0023</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Fluo-4 AM</td><td>Life technologies</td><td>F-14201</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Gelatin from porcine skin</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>G1890-100G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Gentamicin (50 mg/ml)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>15750-078</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glass coverslip</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>12-548B</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glass Pasteur pippette</td><td>VWR</td><td>14672</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Heparin sodium salt from porcine intestinal mucosa</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>H3393-10KU</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>HEPES Buffered Saline Solution</td><td>Lonza</td><td>CC-5024</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)</td><td>Lonza</td><td>CC-2517</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Isopropyl alcohol (IPA)</td><td>VWR</td><td>89125</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>L-Glutamine (200 mM)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>25030-081</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Mammalian Ringer Solution Ingredient</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NaCl (132 mM)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>S671-3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>KCl (4.6 mM)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>P217-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CaCl&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;middot; 2H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (2.0 mM)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>C79-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MgSO&lt;sub&gt;4&lt;/sub&gt; &amp;middot;7H&lt;sub&gt;2&lt;/sub&gt;O (1.2 mM)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>M63-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Glucose (5.5 mM)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>BP350-1</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>NaHCO&lt;sub&gt;3&lt;/sub&gt; (5.0 mM)</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>S233-500</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hepes Salt (9.1 mM)</td><td>Research Organics</td><td>6007H</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hepes Acid (10.9 mM)</td><td>Research Organics</td><td>6003H</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>MCDB 131 Culture Medium</td><td>Life technologies</td><td>10372-019</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Paraformaldehyde</td><td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td><td>15710</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Phalloidin (F-actin staining)</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>P1951</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Phosphate Buffered Saline&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Life technologies</td><td>14040-133</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS)</td><td>Dow Corning Corporation</td><td>Sylgard 184</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scalpel</td><td>Exel Int</td><td>29552</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Scotch tape</td><td>3M</td><td>34-8711-3070-3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Silicon wafer</td><td>VWR</td><td>14672</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SU-8 photoresist</td><td>MicroChem</td><td>SU-8 2050 Y111072</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>SU-8 developer</td><td>MicroChem</td><td>Y020100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>tissue culture flasks</td><td>Sigma-Aldrich</td><td>Z707503-100EA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Triton X-100</td><td>Chemical Book</td><td>T6878</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypsin Neutralizer solution</td><td>Gibco</td><td>R-002-100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypsin/EDTA Solution (TE)</td><td>Gibco</td><td>R-001-100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Tubing</td><td>Cole-Parmer</td><td>PTFE microbore tubing, 0.012&quot; ID x 0.030&quot; OD</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>VE-cadherin</td><td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology</td><td>SC-6458</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Name of Equipment&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Company&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Catalog Number&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Comments/Description&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Biosafety Laminar hood</td><td>NuAire</td><td>NU-425 Class II, Type A2</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CCD camera</td><td>Hamamatsu</td><td>ORCA</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Confocal microscope</td><td>Leica</td><td>TCS SL</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Desiccator</td><td>Bel-Art</td><td>F42022</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Hotplate</td><td>Wenesco</td><td>HP-1212</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Incubator</td><td>Forma Scientific</td><td>3110</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Isotemp oven</td><td>Barnstead</td><td>3608-5</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lithography bench</td><td>Karl Suss</td><td>MA6 Contact Lithography</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Optical microscope</td><td>Nikon</td><td>L200 ND &amp;amp; Diaphod 300</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Shutter for the CCD camera</td><td>Sutter Instrument</td><td>Lambda 10-2</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Plasma cleaner</td><td>PVA TePla/Harrick plasma</td><td>M4L/PDC-32G</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Spin coater</td><td>Brewer Science</td><td>Cee 200X</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Syringe pump system</td><td>Harvard Apparatus</td><td>703005</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Name of Software&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Company&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Catalog Number&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td>&lt;strong&gt;Comments/Description&lt;/strong&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>CAD software</td><td>Autodesk</td><td>AutoCAD 2015</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>CFD simulation software</td><td>COMSOL</td><td>COMSOL Multiphysics 4.0.0.982</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Images acquire and analyse for NO production&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Universal Imaging</td><td>Metafluor</td><td></td></tr></tbody></table>

development and characterization of in vitro microvessel network and quantitative measurements of endothelial [ca2+]i and nitric oxide production

Endothelial cells (ECs) lining the blood vessel walls in vivo are constantly exposed to flow, but cultured ECs are often grown under static conditions and exhibit a pro-inflammatory phenotype. Although the development of microfluidic devices has been embraced by engineers over two decades, their biological applications remain limited. A more physiologically relevant in vitro microvessel model validated by biological applications is important to advance the field and bridge the gaps between in vivo and in vitro studies. Here, we present detailed procedures for the development of cultured microvessel network using a microfluidic device with a long-term perfusion capability. We also demonstrate its applications for quantitative measurements of agonist-induced changes in EC [Ca2+]i and nitric oxide (NO) production in real time using confocal and conventional fluorescence microscopy. The formed microvessel network with continuous perfusion showed well-developed junctions between ECs. VE-cadherin distribution was closer to that observed in intact microvessels than statically cultured EC monolayers. ATP-induced transient increases in EC [Ca2+]i and NO production were quantitatively measured at individual cell levels, which validated the functionality of the cultured microvessels. This microfluidic device allows ECs to grow under a well-controlled, physiologically relevant flow, which makes the cell culture environment closer to in vivo than that in the conventional, static 2D cultures. The microchannel network design is highly versatile, and the fabrication process is simple and repeatable. The device can be easily integrated to the confocal or conventional microscopic system enabling high resolution imaging. Most importantly, because the cultured microvessel network can be formed by primary human ECs, this approach will serve as a useful tool to investigate how pathologically altered blood components from patient samples affect human ECs and provide insight into clinical issues. It also can be developed as a platform for drug screening.

This section shows some of the results obtained with the cultured microvessel network developed with this protocol. The microchannel pattern is a three level branching network (Figure 1A). In this design, a 159 &#181;m wide mother channel branches into two 126 &#181;m wide channels, and branches again into four 100 &#181;m wide daughter channels. A 3D numerical simulation was performed to estimate the shear stress distributions under the flow rate of 0.35 &#181;l/min (<st...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Development and Characterization of In Vitro Microvessel Network and Quantitative Measurements of Endothelial [Ca2+]i and Nitric Oxide Production at JoVE.com

Development and Characterization of In Vitro Microvessel Network and Quantitative Measurements of Endothelial [Ca2+]i and Nitric Oxide Production

Primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were grown to confluence within a microfluidic network device. The endothelial cell junction and F-actin distributions were illustrated and the changes in intracellular calcium concentration and nitric oxide production in response to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were quantified in real-time at individual cell levels.

Development and Characterization of In Vitro Microvessel Network and Quantitative Measurements of Endothelial [Ca2+]i and Nitric Oxide Production

Endothelial cells (ECs) lining the blood vessel walls in vivo are constantly exposed to flow, but cultured ECs are often grown under static conditions and ...

development-characterization-vitro-microvessel-network-quantitative

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

8.5K Views.  College of Medicine, Penn State University. Primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) were grown to confluence within a microfluidic network device. The endothelial cell junction and F-actin distributions were illustrated and the changes in intracellular calcium concentration and nitric oxide production in response to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) were quantified in real-time at individual cell levels.

Video: Development and Characterization of In Vitro Microvessel Network and Quantitative Measurements of Endothelial [Ca2+]i and Nitric Oxide Production

Endothelialized Microfluidics for Studying Microvascular Interactions in Hematologic Diseases

Advances in microfabrication techniques have enabled the production of inexpensive and reproducible microfluidic systems for conducting biological and biochemical experiments at the micro- and nanoscales 1,2. In addition, microfluidics have also been specifically used to quantitatively analyze hematologic and microvascular processes, because of their ability to easily control the dynamic fluidic environment and biological conditions3-6. As such, researchers have more recently used microfluidic systems to study blood cell deformability, blood cell aggregation, microvascular blood flow, and blood cell-endothelial cell interactions6-13.However, these microfluidic systems either did not include cultured endothelial cells or were larger than the sizescale relevant to microvascular pathologic processes. A microfluidic platform with cultured endothelial cells that accurately recapitulates the cellular, physical, and hemodynamic environment of the microcirculation is needed to further our understanding of the underlying biophysical pathophysiology of hematologic diseases that involve the microvasculature.
Here, we report a method to create an "endothelialized" in vitro model of the microvasculature, using a simple, single mask microfabrication process in conjunction with standard endothelial cell culture techniques, to study pathologic biophysical microvascular interactions that occur in hematologic disease. This "microvasculature-on-a-chip" provides the researcher with a robust assay that tightly controls biological as well as biophysical conditions and is operated using a standard syringe pump and brightfield/fluorescence microscopy. Parameters such as microcirculatory hemodynamic conditions, endothelial cell type, blood cell type(s) and concentration(s), drug/inhibitory concentration etc., can all be easily controlled. As such, our microsystem provides a method to quantitatively investigate disease processes in which microvascular flow is impaired due to alterations in cell adhesion, aggregation, and deformability, a capability unavailable with existing assays.

A method to culture an endothelial cell monolayer throughout the entire inner 3D surface of a microfluidic device with microvascular-sized channels (&lt;30 &mu;m) is described. This in vitro microvasculature model enables the study of biophysical interactions between blood cells, endothelial cells, and soluble factors in hematologic diseases.

Advances in  microfabrication techniques have enabled the production of inexpensive and  reproducible microfluidic systems for conducting biological and ...

Bioengineering

An Ex Vivo Method for Time-Lapse Imaging of Cultured Rat Mesenteric Microvascular Networks

Angiogenesis, defined as the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels, involves endothelial cells, pericytes, smooth muscle cells, immune cells, and the coordination with lymphatic vessels and nerves. The multi-cell, multi-system interactions necessitate the investigation of angiogenesis in a physiologically relevant environment. Thus, while the use of in vitro cell-culture models have provided mechanistic insights, a common critique is that they do not recapitulate the complexity associated with a microvascular network. The objective of this protocol is to demonstrate the ability to make time-lapse comparisons of intact microvascular networks before and after angiogenesis stimulation in cultured rat mesentery tissues. Cultured tissues contain microvascular networks that maintain their hierarchy. Immunohistochemical labeling confirms the presence of endothelial cells, smooth muscle cells, pericytes, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels. In addition, labeling tissues with BSI-lectin enables time-lapse comparison of local network regions before and after serum or growth factor stimulation characterized by increased capillary sprouting and vessel density. In comparison to common cell culture models, this method provides a tool for endothelial cell lineage studies and tissue specific angiogenic drug evaluation in physiologically relevant microvascular networks.

An Ex Vivo Method for Time-Lapse Imaging of Cultured Rat Mesenteric Microvascular Networks

Angiogenesis involves multi-cell, multi-system interactions that need to be investigated in a physiologically relevant environment. The objective of this study is to demonstrate the ability of the rat mesentery culture model to make time-lapse comparisons of intact microvascular networks during angiogenesis.

Angiogenesis, defined as the growth of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels, involves endothelial cells, pericytes, smooth muscle cells, immune ...

Developmental Biology

Procedure for the Development of Multi-depth Circular Cross-sectional Endothelialized Microchannels-on-a-chip

Efforts have been focused on developing in vitro assays for the study of microvessels because in vivo animal studies are more time-consuming, expensive, and observation and quantification are very challenging. However, conventional in vitro microvessel assays have limitations when representing in vivo microvessels with respect to three-dimensional (3D) geometry and providing continuous fluid flow. Using a combination of photolithographic reflowable photoresist technique, soft lithography, and microfluidics, we have developed a multi-depth circular cross-sectional endothelialized microchannels-on-a-chip, which mimics the 3D geometry of in vivo microvessels and runs under controlled continuous perfusion flow. A positive reflowable photoresist was used to fabricate a master mold with a semicircular cross-sectional microchannel network. By the alignment and bonding of the two polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) microchannels replicated from the master mold, a cylindrical microchannel network was created. The diameters of the microchannels can be well controlled. In addition, primary human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) seeded inside the chip showed that the cells lined the inner surface of the microchannels under controlled perfusion lasting for a time period between 4 days to 2 weeks.

A microchannels-on-a-chip platform was developed by the combination of photolithographic reflowable photoresist technique, soft lithography, and microfluidics. The endothelialized microchannels platform mimics the three-dimensional (3D) geometry of in vivo microvessels, runs under controlled continuous perfusion flow, allows for high-quality and real-time imaging&#160;and can be applied for microvascular research.

Efforts have been focused on developing in vitro assays for the study of microvessels because in vivo animal studies are more time-consuming, expensive, ...

Kinetic Analysis of Vasculogenesis Quantifies Dynamics of Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis In Vitro

Vasculogenesis is a complex process by which endothelial stem and progenitor cells undergo de novo vessel formation. Quantitative assessment of vasculogenesis has become a central readout of endothelial progenitor cell functionality, and therefore, several attempts have been made to improve both in vitro and in vivo vasculogenesis models. However, standard methods are limited in scope, with static measurements failing to capture many aspects of this highly dynamic process. Therefore, the goal of developing this novel protocol was to assess the kinetics of in vitro vasculogenesis in order to quantitate rates of network formation and stabilization, as well as provide insight into potential mechanisms underlying vascular dysfunction. Application of this protocol is demonstrated using fetal endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs) exposed to maternal diabetes mellitus. Fetal ECFCs were derived from umbilical cord blood following birth, cultured, and plated in slides containing basement membrane matrix, where they underwent vasculogenesis. Images of the entire slide wells were acquired using time-lapse phase contrast microscopy over 15 hours. Images were analyzed for derivation of quantitative data using an analysis software called Kinetic Analysis of Vasculogenesis (KAV). KAV uses image segmentation followed by skeletonization to analyze network components from stacks of multi-time point phase contrast images to derive ten parameters (9 measured, 1 calculated) of network structure including: closed networks, network areas, nodes, branches, total branch length, average branch length, triple-branched nodes, quad-branched nodes, network structures, and the branch to node ratio. Application of this protocol identified altered rates of vasculogenesis in ECFCs obtained from pregnancies complicated by diabetes mellitus. However, this technique has broad implications beyond the scope reported here. Implementation of this approach will enhance mechanistic assessment and improve functional readouts of vasculogenesis and other biologically important branching processes in numerous cell types or disease states.

Kinetic Analysis of Vasculogenesis Quantifies Dynamics of Vasculogenesis and Angiogenesis In Vitro

Here, we present a protocol for time-lapse imaging and analysis of vasculogenesis in vitro using phase contrast microscopy coupled with the open source software, Kinetic Analysis of Vasculogenesis. This protocol can be applied to quantitatively assess the vasculogenic potential of numerous cell types or experimental conditions that model vascular disease.

Vasculogenesis is a complex process by which endothelial stem and progenitor cells undergo de novo vessel formation. Quantitative assessment of ...

An In Vitro 3D Model and Computational Pipeline to Quantify the Vasculogenic Potential of iPSC-Derived Endothelial Progenitors

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a patient-specific, proliferative cell source that can differentiate into any somatic cell type. Bipotent endothelial progenitors (EPs), which can differentiate into the cell types necessary to assemble mature, functional vasculature, have been derived from both embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells. However, these cells have not been rigorously evaluated in three-dimensional environments, and a quantitative measure of their vasculogenic potential remains elusive. Here, the generation and isolation of iPSC-EPs via fluorescent-activated cell sorting are first outlined, followed by a description of the encapsulation and culture of iPSC-EPs in collagen hydrogels. This extracellular matrix (ECM)-mimicking microenvironment encourages a robust vasculogenic response; vascular networks form after a week of culture. The creation of a computational pipeline that utilizes open-source software to quantify this vasculogenic response is delineated. This pipeline is specifically designed to preserve the 3D architecture of the capillary plexus to robustly identify the number of branches, branching points, and the total network length with minimal user input.

Endothelial progenitors derived from induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC-EPs) have the potential to revolutionize cardiovascular disease treatments and to enable the creation of more faithful cardiovascular disease models. Herein, the encapsulation of iPSC-EPs in three-dimensional (3D) collagen microenvironments and a quantitative analysis of these cells&#8217; vasculogenic potential are described.

Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a patient-specific, proliferative cell source that can differentiate into any somatic cell type. Bipotent ...

Micropatterning and Assembly of 3D Microvessels

In vitro platforms to study endothelial cells and vascular biology are largely limited to 2D endothelial cell culture, flow chambers with polymer or glass based substrates, and hydrogel-based tube formation assays. These assays, while informative, do not recapitulate lumen geometry, proper extracellular matrix, and multi-cellular proximity, which play key roles in modulating vascular function. This manuscript describes an injection molding method to generate engineered vessels with diameters on the order of 100 &#181;m. Microvessels are fabricated by seeding endothelial cells in a microfluidic channel embedded within a native type I collagen hydrogel. By incorporating parenchymal cells within the collagen matrix prior to channel formation, specific tissue microenvironments can be modeled and studied. Additional modulations of hydrodynamic properties and media composition allow for control of complex vascular function within the desired microenvironment. This platform allows for the study of perivascular cell recruitment, blood-endothelium interactions, flow response, and tissue-microvascular interactions. Engineered microvessels offer the ability to isolate the influence from individual components of a vascular niche and precisely control its chemical, mechanical, and biological properties to study vascular biology in both health and disease.

This manuscript presents an injection molding method to engineer microvessels that recapitulate physiological properties of endothelium. The microfluidic-based process creates patent 3D vascular networks with tailorable conditions, such as flow, cellular composition, geometry, and biochemical gradients. The fabrication process and examples of potential applications are described.

In vitro platforms to study endothelial cells and vascular biology are largely limited to 2D endothelial cell culture, flow chambers with polymer or glass ...

Differentiation and Mechanical Stimulation of hiPSC-Derived Endothelial Cells

In Vitro Model of Fetal Human Vessel On-chip to Study Developmental Mechanobiology

The heart is the first organ to be functionally established during development, thus initiating blood circulation very early in gestation. Besides transporting oxygen and nutrients to ensure fetal growth, fetal circulation controls many crucial developmental events taking place within the endothelial layer through mechanical cues. Biomechanical signals induce blood vessel structural changes, establish arteriovenous specification, and control the development of hematopoietic stem cells. The inaccessibility of the developing tissues limits the understanding of the role of circulation in early human development; therefore, in vitro models are pivotal tools for the study of vessel mechanobiology. This paper describes a protocol to differentiate endothelial cells from human induced pluripotent stem cells and their subsequent seeding into a fluidic device to study their response to mechanical cues. This approach allows for long-term culture of endothelial cells under mechanical stimulation followed by&#160;retrieval of the endothelial cells for phenotypical and functional characterization. The in vitro model established here will be instrumental to elucidate&#160;the intracellular molecular mechanisms that transduce the signaling mediated by mechanical cues, which ultimately orchestrate vessel development during human fetal life.

Author Spotlight: Studying hiPSC-Derived Endothelial Cells Cultured Under Fluidic-Mediated Mechanical Stimulation 

Described here is a simple workflow to differentiate endothelial cells from human pluripotent stem cells followed by a detailed protocol for their mechanical stimulation. This allows for the study of the developmental mechanobiology of endothelial cells. This approach is compatible with downstream assays of live cells collected from the culture chip after mechanical stimulation.

The heart is the first organ to be functionally established during development, thus initiating blood circulation very early in gestation. Besides ...

Endothelial Cell Tube Formation Assay for the In Vitro Study of Angiogenesis

Angiogenesis is a vital process for normal tissue development and wound healing, but is also associated with a variety of pathological conditions. Using this protocol, angiogenesis may be measured in vitro in a fast, quantifiable manner. Primary or immortalized endothelial cells are mixed with conditioned media and plated on basement membrane matrix. The endothelial cells form capillary like structures in response to angiogenic signals found in conditioned media. The tube formation occurs quickly with endothelial cells beginning to align themselves within 1&#160;hr and lumen-containing tubules beginning to appear within 2 hr. Tubes can be visualized using a phase contrast inverted microscope, or the cells can be treated with calcein AM prior to the assay and tubes visualized through fluorescence or confocal microscopy. The number of branch sites/nodes, loops/meshes, or number or length of tubes formed can be easily quantified as a measure of in vitro angiogenesis. In summary, this assay can be used to identify genes and pathways that are involved in the promotion or inhibition of angiogenesis in a rapid, reproducible, and quantitative manner.

Endothelial Cell Tube Formation Assay for the In Vitro Study of Angiogenesis

The tube formation assay is a fast, quantifiable method for measuring in vitro angiogenesis. Endothelial cells are combined with conditioned media and plated on basement membrane extract. Tube formation occurs within hours and newly formed tubules easily quantified.

Angiogenesis is a vital process for normal tissue development and wound healing, but is also associated with a variety of pathological conditions. Using ...

Two-photon Imaging of Intracellular Ca2+ Handling and Nitric Oxide Production in Endothelial and Smooth Muscle Cells of an Isolated Rat Aorta

Calcium is a very important regulator of many physiological processes in vascular tissues. Most endothelial and smooth muscle functions highly depend on changes in intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i) and nitric oxide (NO). In order to understand how [Ca2+]i, NO and downstream molecules are handled by a blood vessel in response to vasoconstrictors and vasodilators, we developed a novel technique that applies calcium-labeling (or NO-labeling) dyes with two photon microscopy to measure calcium handling (or NO production) in isolated blood vessels. Described here is a detailed step-by-step procedure that demonstrates how to isolate an aorta from a rat, label calcium or NO within the endothelial or smooth muscle cells, and image calcium transients (or NO production) using a two photon microscope following physiological or pharmacological stimuli. The benefits of using the method are multi-fold: 1) it is possible to simultaneously measure calcium transients in both endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells in response to different stimuli; 2) it allows one to image endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells in their native setting; 3) this method is very sensitive to intracellular calcium or NO changes and generates high resolution images for precise measurements; and 4) described approach can be applied to the measurement of other molecules, such as reactive oxygen species. In summary, application of two photon laser emission microscopy to monitor calcium transients and NO production in the endothelial and smooth muscle cells of an isolated blood vessel has provided high quality quantitative data and promoted our understanding of the mechanisms regulating vascular function.

Two-photon Imaging of Intracellular Ca2+ Handling and Nitric Oxide Production in Endothelial and Smooth Muscle Cells of an Isolated Rat Aorta

Vascular cell functiondepends on activity of intracellular messengers. Described here is an ex vivo two photon imaging method that allows the measurement of intracellular calcium and nitric oxide levels in response to physiological and pharmacological stimuli in individual endothelial and smooth muscle cells of an isolated aorta.

Calcium is a very important regulator of many physiological processes in vascular tissues. Most endothelial and smooth muscle functions highly depend on ...

Simultaneous Measurements of Intracellular Calcium and Membrane Potential in Freshly Isolated and Intact Mouse Cerebral Endothelium

Cerebral arteries and their respective microcirculation deliver oxygen and nutrients to the brain via blood flow regulation. Endothelial cells line the lumen of blood vessels and command changes in vascular diameter as needed to meet the metabolic demand of neurons. Primary endothelial-dependent signaling pathways of hyperpolarization of membrane potential (Vm) and nitric oxide typically operate in parallel to mediate vasodilation and thereby increase blood flow. Although integral to coordinating vasodilation over several millimeters of vascular length, components of endothelium-derived hyperpolarization (EDH) have been historically difficult to measure. These components of EDH entail intracellular Ca2+ [Ca2+]i increases and subsequent activation of small- and intermediate conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (SKCa/IKCa) channels.
Here, we present a simplified illustration of the isolation of fresh endothelium from mouse cerebral arteries; simultaneous measurements of endothelial [Ca2+]i and Vm using Fura-2 photometry and intracellular sharp electrodes, respectively; and a continuous superfusion of salt solutions and pharmacological agents under physiological conditions (pH 7.4, 37 &#176;C). Posterior cerebral arteries from the Circle of Willis are removed free of the posterior communicating and the basilar arteries. Enzymatic digestion of cleaned posterior cerebral arterial segments and subsequent trituration facilitates removal of adventitia, perivascular nerves, and smooth muscle cells. Resulting posterior cerebral arterial endothelial &#34;tubes&#34; are then secured under a microscope and examined using a camera, photomultiplier tube, and one to two electrometers while under continuous superfusion. Collectively, this method can simultaneously measure changes in endothelial [Ca2+]i and Vm in discrete cellular locations, in addition to the spreading of EDH through gap junctions up to millimeter distances along the intact endothelium. This method is expected to yield a high-throughput analysis of the cerebral endothelial functions underlying mechanisms of blood flow regulation in the normal and diseased brain.

Demonstrated here are protocols for (1) freshly isolating intact cerebral endothelial "tubes" and (2) simultaneous measurements of endothelial calcium and membrane potential during endothelium-derived hyperpolarization. Further, these methods allow for pharmacological tuning of endothelial cell calcium and electrical signaling as individual or interactive experimental variables.

Cerebral arteries and their respective microcirculation deliver oxygen and nutrients to the brain via blood flow regulation. Endothelial cells line the ...

Development and Characterization of In Vitro Microvessel Network and Quantitative Measurements of Endothelial [Ca²⁺]_iand Nitric Oxide Production

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An In Vitro 3D Model and Computational Pipeline to Quantify the Vasculogenic Potential of iPSC-Derived Endothelial Progenitors

Micropatterning and Assembly of 3D Microvessels

In Vitro Model of Fetal Human Vessel On-chip to Study Developmental Mechanobiology

Endothelial Cell Tube Formation Assay for the In Vitro Study of Angiogenesis

Two-photon Imaging of Intracellular Ca²⁺ Handling and Nitric Oxide Production in Endothelial and Smooth Muscle Cells of an Isolated Rat Aorta

Simultaneous Measurements of Intracellular Calcium and Membrane Potential in Freshly Isolated and Intact Mouse Cerebral Endothelium