The authors are grateful to Dr. Stephen Bartolucci and Dr. Joshua Maurer at the U.S. Army Benet Laboratories for the use of their scanning electron microscope. This work was supported by a Faculty Development Research Fund grant from the United States Military Academy, West Point.

&#8203;CAUTION: Consult all relevant safety data sheets (SDS) before use. Use appropriate safety practices when performing chemical reactions, to include the use of a fume hood and personal protective equipment (PPE). Rapid hydrogen gas evolution can cause high pressure in reaction tubes causing caps to pop and solutions to spray out. Ensure that reaction tubes remain open and pointed away from the experimenter as specified in the protocol.
1. Cellulose nanofiber hydrogel preparation
<ol>
	<li>Preparation of cellulose nanofiber solution: Prepare 3% (w/w) cellulose nanofiber solution by mixing 1.5 g of carboxymethyl cellulose nanofibers with 50 mL of deionized water. Shake the solution and vortex for 1 min. Sonicate the solution in a bath sonicator at ambient temperature for 24 h to ensure complete mixing.</li>
	<li>Preparation of cross-linking solution: First add 0.959 g of EDC and 0.195 g of 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES) buffer to 2.833 mL of deionized water. Vortex. Add 0.167 mL of ethylenediamine. Vortex for 15 s. Adjust the final volume to 10 mL and pH to 4.5 by adding 1.0 M HCl and deionized water. 
	NOTE: Final crosslinking solution concentrations are 0.5 M EDC, 0.25 M ethylenediamine, and 0.1 M MES buffer.</li>
	<li>Centrifugation of cellulose nanofiber solution: Pipette 0.25 mL of the 3 % (w/w) cellulose nanofiber solution into each of 6 microfuge tubes (1.7 mL or 2.0 mL). Centrifuge the microfuge tubes for 20 min at 21,000 x g. Remove excess water above the compacted CNFs with a pipette avoiding contact with the top surface. 
	NOTE: After centrifuging, the cellulose nanofiber solutions present a distinct interface between the concentrated CNF&#39;s and the clear supernatant. Based on removal of the excess water, the final CNF concentration will be approximately 3.8 %.</li>
	<li>Cross-link the cellulose nanofiber hydrogels. Pipette 1.0 mL of the EDC and diamine crosslinking solution above the compacted cellulose nanofibers in each of the microfuge tubes. Wait at least 24 h for the crosslinking solution to diffuse through the gels and crosslink the CNFs.</li>
	<li>Gel rinsing: Remove the crosslinking solution supernatant in the microfuge tubes with a pipette. With the microfuge tube caps open, immerse the microfuge tubes containing the crosslinked CNF gels in 1 L of deionized water for at least 24 h to remove excess crosslinking solution from within the CNF hydrogels.</li>
	<li>Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy: Place approximately 0.5 mL of 3% (w/w) CNF solution in deionized water on the sample stage and scan percent transmittance for 650 - 4000 cm-1. Use the same scan conditions and repeat for a CNF crosslinked hydrogel from Step 1.5.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of cellulose nanofiber - palladium composite hydrogels
<ol>
	<li>Prepare Pd(NH3)4Cl2 solution. Prepare 10 mL of 1.0 M Pd(NH3)Cl2 solution. Vortex the solution for 15 s. Dilute 1.0 M Pd(NH3)Cl2 solution to 1 mL volumes at 1, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 mM. 
	NOTE: 1.0 M NaPdCl4 solution and respective dilutions may be used and results in similar final aerogel structures.</li>
	<li>Equilibrate cellulose nanofiber hydrogels in palladium solutions. Pipette 1 mL of the 1, 10, 50, 100, 500, and 1000 mM Pd(NH3)Cl2 solutions on the top of the cellulose nanofiber hydrogels in the microfuge tubes. Wait at least 24 h for the palladium solution to equilibrate within the hydrogels.</li>
	<li>Prepare NaBH4 reducing agent solution. Prepare 60 mL of 2 M NaBH4 solution. Aliquot 10 mL of NaBH4 solution into each of six 15 mL conical tubes. 
	NOTE: The 2 M NaBH4 solution is a highly concentrated reducing agent solution and should be handled within a chemical fume hood. Spontaneous decomposition and hydrogen gas evolution will be observed. Ensure that the tubes are pointed away from the experimenter and that proper PPE is worn.</li>
	<li>First reduction of palladium salts on cellulose nanofiber hydrogels: Invert the microfuge tubes with the palladium equilibrated CNF hydrogels and gently tap to remove the hydrogels. In a chemical fume hood, with flat tweezers, place each of the palladium equilibrated CNF hydrogels into each of the 15 mL conical tubes with 10 mL of NaBH4 solution. Allow the reduction to proceed for 24 h. 
	NOTE: Upon placing the palladium equilibrated CNF gels into the 2 M NaBH4 solution, violent hydrogen gas evolution will occur. Ensure that reaction tubes remain open and pointed away from the experimenter.</li>
	<li>Prepare second NaBH4 reducing agent solution. Prepare 60 mL of 0.5 M NaBH4 solution. Aliquot 10 mL of NaBH4 solution into each of six 15 mL conical tubes.</li>
	<li>Second reduction of palladium salts on cellulose nanofiber hydrogels: In a fume hood, using a pair of flat tweezers transfer each of hydrogels from the 2 M NaBH4 solutions into the 0.5 M NaBH4 solutions. Allow the reduction to proceed for 24 h. 
	NOTE: The initially reduced CNF gels in the 2 M NaBH4 solution will be mechanically stable during the transfer step. However, light pressure should be used with the flat tweezers during solution transfer steps to avoid gel compaction.</li>
	<li>Rinse the cellulose nanofiber-palladium composite gels. Using flat tweezers, transfer each of the reduced palladium-CNF gels into 50 mL deionized water in conical tubes. Exchange deionized water after 12 h and allow the gels to rinse for at least an additional 12 h.</li>
	<li>Perform ethanol solvent exchange in cellulose nanofiber-palladium gels. Use flat tweezers to transfer the rinsed CNF-palladium gels successively into 50 mL of 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% ethanol solutions with at least 6 h in each solution.</li>
</ol>
3. Aerogel preparation
<ol>
	<li>After solvent exchange with ethanol, dry the CNF-palladium gels using CO2 in a supercritical dryer with a set point of 35 &#176;C and 1200 psi. After supercritical drying is complete, allow the chamber to equilibrate for at least 12 h prior to opening and removal of the aerogels. 
	NOTE: Occasionally, the 500 mM and 1000 mM samples have been observed to combust when removed from the supercritical dryer which is attributed to the presence of palladium hydride. The 12 h supercritical chamber equilibration is intended to allow for outgassing of hydrogen.</li>
</ol>
4. Composite aerogel material characterization
<ol>
	<li>Scanning electron microscopy (SEM): Cut the CNF-palladium aerogel with a razor blade to obtain a thin film approximately 1 - 2 mm thick. Affix the thin film sample with carbon tape on a SEM sample stub. Initially use an accelerating voltage of 15 kV and beam current of 2.7 - 5.4 pA to perform imaging.</li>
	<li>X-ray diffractometry (XRD): Place the CNF-palladium aerogel in a sample holder and align the top of the aerogel with the top of holder. Alternatively, place a thin film sample section, as in Step 4.1, on a glass slide. Perform XRD scans for diffraction angles 2&#920; from 5 &#176; to 90 &#176; at 45 kV and 40 mA with Cu K&#945; radiation (1.54060 &#197;), a 2&#160;&#952; step size of 0.0130 &#176;, and 20 s per step.</li>
	<li>Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA): Place the aerogel sample in the instrument crucible. Perform analysis by flowing nitrogen gas at 60 mL/min and heating at 10 &#176;/min from ambient temperature to 700 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Nitrogen gas adsorption-desorption: Degas the samples for 24 h at room temperature. Use nitrogen at -196 &#176;C as the test gas with equilibration times for adsorption and desorption of 60 s and 120 s, respectively. 
	NOTE: Elevated degas temperatures are not recommended to avoid decomposition of the cellulose nanofibers.</li>
	<li>Electrochemical characterization.
	<ol>
		<li>Immerse the aerogel samples in 0.5 M H2SO4 electrolyte for 24 h.</li>
		<li>Use a 3-electrode cell with a Ag/AgCl (3 M NaCl) reference electrode, a 0.5 mm diameter Pt wire auxiliary/counter electrode, and a lacquer coated 0.5 mm diameter platinum working electrode. Place the lacquer coated wire with a 1 mm exposed tip in contact with the top surface of the aerogel at the bottom of the electrochemical vial12.</li>
		<li>Perform electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) from 1 MHz to 1 mHz with a 10 mV sine wave.</li>
		<li>Perform cyclic voltammetry (CV) using a voltage range of &#8722;0.2 to 1.2 V (vs. Ag/AgCl) with scan rates of 10, 25, 50, 75, and 100 mV/s.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

The noble metal cellulose nanofiber biotemplated aerogel synthesis method presented here results in stable aerogel composites with tunable metal composition. The covalent crosslinking of the compacted cellulose nanofibers after centrifugation results in hydrogels that are mechanically durable during the subsequent synthesis steps of palladium ion equilibration, electrochemical reduction, rinsing, solvent exchange, and supercritical drying. The hydrogel stability is vital during the electrochemical reduction step given th...

Aerogels, first reported by Kistler, offer porous structures orders of magnitude less dense than their bulk material counterparts1,2,3. Noble metal aerogels have attracted scientific interest for their potential in power and energy, catalytic, and sensor applications. Noble metal aerogels have recently been synthesized via two basic strategies. One strategy is to induce the coalescence of pre-formed nanoparticles4,5,6,7. Sol-gel coalescence of nanoparticles can be driven by linker molecules, changes in solution ionic strength, or simple nanoparticle surface free energy minimization7,8,9. The other strategy is to form aerogels in a single reduction step from metal precursor solutions9,10,11,12,13. This approach has also been used to form bimetallic and alloy noble metal aerogels. The first strategy is generally slow and may require up to many weeks for nanoparticle coalescence14. The direct reduction approach, while generally more rapid, suffers from poor shape control over the macroscopic aerogel monolith.
One possible synthesis approach to address challenges with control of noble metal aerogel macroscopic shape and nanostructure is to employ biotemplating15. Biotemplating uses biological molecules ranging from collagen, gelatin, DNA, viruses, to cellulose to provide a shape-directing template for the synthesis of nanostructures, where the resulting metal-based nanostructures assume the geometry of the biological template molecule16,17. Cellulose nanofibers are appealing as a biotemplate given the high natural abundance of cellulosic materials, their high aspect ratio linear geometry, and ability to chemically functionalize their glucose monomers18,19,20,21,22,23. Cellulose nanofibers (CNF) have been used to synthesize three dimensional TiO2 nanowires for photoanodes24, silver nanowires for transparent paper electronics25, and palladium aerogel composites for catalysis26. Further, TEMPO-oxidized cellulose nanofibers have been used both as a biotemplate and reducing agent in the preparation of palladium decorated CNF aerogels27.
Here, a method to synthesize cellulose nanofiber biotemplated palladium composite aerogels is presented26. Fragile aerogels with poor shape control occurs for a range noble metal aerogel synthesis methods. Carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) used to form a covalent hydrogel allow for the reduction of metal ions such as palladium on the CNFs providing control over both nanostructure and macroscopic aerogel monolith shape after supercritical drying. Carboxymethylated cellulose nanofiber crosslinking is achieved using 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) in the presence of ethylenediamine as a linker molecule between CNFs. The CNF hydrogels maintain their shape throughout the synthesis steps including covalent crosslinking, equilibration with precursor ions, metal reduction with high concentration reducing agent, rinsing in water, ethanol solvent exchange, and CO2 supercritical drying. Precursor ion concentration variation allows for control over the final aerogel metal content through a direct ion reduction rather than relying on the relatively slow coalescence of pre-formed nanoparticles used in sol-gel methods. With diffusion as the basis to introduce and remove chemical species into and out of the hydrogel, this method is suitable for smaller bulk geometries and thin films. Characterization of the cellulose nanofiber-palladium composite aerogels with scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, thermal gravimetric analysis, nitrogen gas adsorption, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry indicates a high surface area, metalized palladium porous structure.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:826px;" width="825">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="62">
			<td height="62" style="height:63px;width:295px;">0.5 mm platinum wire electrode</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">BASi</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">MW-4130</td>
			<td style="width:277px;">Used for auxillery electrode and separately for lacquer coating and use as a working electrode</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:295px;">1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC)</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">&#160;1892-57-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:295px;">2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid (MES)</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>117961-21-4&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:295px;">Ag/AgCl (3M NaCl) Reference Electrode</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">BASi</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">MF-2052</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="83">
			<td height="83" style="height:84px;width:295px;">Carboxymethyl cellulose, TEMPO Cellulose Nanofibrils, Dry Powder</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">University of Maine Process Development Center</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">No 8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:295px;">Ethanol, 200 proof</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">PHARMCO-AAPER</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">241000200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:295px;">Ethylenediamine</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">&#160;107-15-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:295px;">Fourier-Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectrometer, Frontier</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Perkin Elmer</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">L1280044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:295px;">Hydrochloric Acid</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">CORCO</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">7647-01-0</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;width:295px;">Na2PdCl4</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">13820-40-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;width:295px;">NaBH4</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">16940-66-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;width:295px;">Pd(NH3)4Cl2</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">13933-31-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:295px;">Potentiostat</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Biologic-USA</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">VMP-3</td>
			<td>Electrochemical analysis-EIS, CV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:295px;">Scanning Electron Mciroscope (SEM) Helios 600 Nanolab</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:123px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:25px;width:295px;">Supercritical Dryer</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Leica</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">EM CPD300</td>
			<td>Aerogel supercritical drying with CO2</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:295px;">Surface and Pore Analyzer</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">Quantachrome</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">NOVA 4000e</td>
			<td>Nitrogen gas adsorption</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:295px;">Thermal Gravimetric Analysis</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">TA instruments</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">TGA Q500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:295px;">Ultrasonic Cleaner</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">MTI</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">EQ-VGT-1860QTD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:295px;">XRD</td>
			<td style="width:132px;">PanAlytical</td>
			<td style="width:123px;">Empyrean</td>
			<td>X-ray diffractometry</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

synthesis method for cellulose nanofiber biotemplated palladium composite aerogels

Here, a method to synthesize cellulose nanofiber biotemplated palladium composite aerogels is presented. Noble metal aerogel synthesis methods often result in fragile aerogels with poor shape control. The use of carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) to form a covalently bonded hydrogel allows for the reduction of metal ions such as palladium on the CNFs with control over both nanostructure and macroscopic aerogel monolith shape after supercritical drying. Crosslinking the carboxymethylated cellulose nanofibers is achieved using 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) in the presence of ethylenediamine. The CNF hydrogels maintain their shape throughout synthesis steps including covalent crosslinking, equilibration with precursor ions, metal reduction with high concentration reducing agent, rinsing in water, ethanol solvent exchange, and CO2 supercritical drying. Varying the precursor palladium ion concentration allows for control over the metal content in the final aerogel composite through a direct ion chemical reduction rather than relying on the relatively slow coalescence of pre-formed nanoparticles used in other sol-gel techniques. With diffusion as the basis to introduce and remove chemical species into and out of the hydrogel, this method is suitable for smaller bulk geometries and thin films. Characterization of the cellulose nanofiber-palladium composite aerogels with scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, thermal gravimetric analysis, nitrogen gas adsorption, electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, and cyclic voltammetry indicates a high surface area, metallized palladium porous structure.

The scheme to covalently crosslink cellulose nanofibers with EDC in the presence of ethylenediamine is depicted in Figure 1. EDC crosslinking results in an amide bond between a carboxyl and primary amine functional group. Given that the carboxymethyl cellulose nanofibers possess only carboxyl groups for crosslinking, the presence of a diamine linker molecule such as ethylenediamine is essential to covalently link two adjacent CNFs via two amide bonds. To conf...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Synthesis Method for Cellulose Nanofiber Biotemplated Palladium Composite Aerogels at JoVE.com

Synthesis Method for Cellulose Nanofiber Biotemplated Palladium Composite Aerogels

A synthesis method for cellulose nanofiber biotemplated palladium composite aerogels is presented.The resulting composite aerogel materials offer potential for catalysis, sensing, and hydrogen gas storage applications.

Here, a method to synthesize cellulose nanofiber biotemplated palladium composite aerogels is presented. Noble metal aerogel synthesis methods often ...

synthesis-method-for-cellulose-nanofiber-biotemplated-palladium

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

8.0K Views.  United States Military Academy. A synthesis method for cellulose nanofiber biotemplated palladium composite aerogels is presented.The resulting composite aerogel materials offer potential for catalysis, sensing, and hydrogen gas storage applications.

Video: Synthesis Method for Cellulose Nanofiber Biotemplated Palladium Composite Aerogels

A Simple Method for the Size Controlled Synthesis of Stable Oligomeric Clusters of Gold Nanoparticles under Ambient Conditions

Reducing dilute aqueous HAuCl4 with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) under alkaline conditions produces 2 to 3 nm diameter nanoparticles. Stable grape-like oligomeric clusters of these yellow nanoparticles of narrow size distribution are synthesized under ambient conditions via two methods. The delay-time method controls the number of subunits in the oligoclusters by varying the time between the addition of HAuCl4 to alkaline solution and the subsequent addition of reducing agent, NaSCN. The yellow oligoclusters produced range in size from ~3 to ~25 nm. This size range can be further extended by an add-on method utilizing hydroxylated gold chloride (Na+[Au(OH4-x)Clx]-) to auto-catalytically increase the number of subunits in the as-synthesized oligocluster nanoparticles, providing a total range of 3 nm to 70 nm. The crude oligocluster preparations display narrow size distributions and do not require further fractionation for most purposes. The oligoclusters formed can be concentrated &#62;300 fold without aggregation and the crude reaction mixtures remain stable for weeks without further processing. Because these oligomeric clusters can be concentrated before derivatization they allow expensive derivatizing agents to be used economically. In addition, we present two models by which predictions of particle size can be made with great accuracy.

We describe a simple method for producing highly stable oligomeric clusters of gold nanoparticles via the reduction of chloroauric acid (HAuCl4) with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN). The oligoclusters have a narrow size distribution and can be produced with a wide range of sizes and surface coats.

Reducing dilute aqueous HAuCl4 with sodium thiocyanate (NaSCN) under alkaline conditions produces 2 to 3 nm diameter nanoparticles. Stable grape-like ...

Preparation of Biopolymer Aerogels Using Green Solvents

Although the first reports on aerogels made by Kistler1 in the 1930s dealt with aerogels from both inorganic oxides (silica and others) and biopolymers (gelatin, agar, cellulose), only recently have biomasses been recognized as an abundant source of chemically diverse macromolecules for functional aerogel materials. Biopolymer aerogels (pectin, alginate, chitosan, cellulose, etc.) exhibit both specific inheritable functions of starting biopolymers and distinctive features of aerogels (80-99% porosity and specific surface up to 800 m2/g). This synergy of properties makes biopolymer aerogels promising candidates for a wide gamut of applications such as thermal insulation, tissue engineering and regenerative medicine, drug delivery systems, functional foods, catalysts, adsorbents and sensors. This work demonstrates the use of pressurized carbon dioxide (5 MPa) for the ionic cross linking of amidated pectin into hydrogels. Initially a biopolymer/salt dispersion is prepared in water. Under pressurized CO2 conditions, the pH of the biopolymer solution is lowered to 3 which releases the crosslinking cations from the salt to bind with the biopolymer yielding hydrogels. Solvent exchange to ethanol and further supercritical CO2 drying (10 - 12 MPa) yield aerogels. Obtained aerogels are ultra-porous with low density (as low as 0.02 g/cm3), high specific surface area (350 - 500 m2/g) and pore volume (3 - 7 cm3/g for pore sizes less than 150 nm).

A new way for the production of biopolymer-based aerogels by carbon dioxide (CO2) induced gelation is shown. The technique utilizes pressurized carbon dioxide (5 MPa) for the production of biopolymer hydrogels and supercritical CO2 (12 MPa) to convert gels into aerogels. The only solvents needed besides CO2 are water and ethanol.

Although the first reports on aerogels made by Kistler1 in the 1930s dealt with aerogels from both inorganic oxides (silica and others) and biopolymers ...

Palladium N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes: Synthesis from Benzimidazolium Salts and Catalytic Activity in Carbon-carbon Bond-forming Reactions

Detailed and generalized protocols are presented for the synthesis and subsequent purification of four palladium N-heterocyclic carbene complexes from benzimidazolium salts. Detailed and generalized protocols are also presented for testing the catalytic activity of such complexes in arylation and Suzuki-Miyaura cross-coupling reactions. Representative results are shown for the catalytic activity of the four complexes in arylation and Suzuki-Miyaura type reactions. For each of the reactions investigated, at least one of the four complexes successfully catalyzed the reaction, qualifying them as promising candidates for catalysis of many carbon-carbon bond-forming reactions. The protocols presented are general enough to be adapted for the synthesis, purification and catalytic activity testing of new palladium N-heterocyclic carbene complexes.

Palladium N-Heterocyclic Carbene Complexes: Synthesis from Benzimidazolium Salts and Catalytic Activity in Carbon-carbon Bond-forming Reactions

Detailed and generalized protocols are presented for the synthesis and subsequent purification of four palladium N-heterocyclic carbene complexes from benzimidazolium salts. The complexes were tested for catalytic activity in arylation and Suzuki-Miyaura reactions. For each reaction investigated, at least one of the four complexes successfully catalyzed the reaction.

Detailed and generalized protocols are presented for the synthesis and subsequent purification of four palladium N-heterocyclic carbene complexes from ...

Chemical Precipitation Method for the Synthesis of Nb2O5 Modified Bulk Nickel Catalysts with High Specific Surface Area

We demonstrate a method for the synthesis of NixNb1-xO catalysts with sponge-like and fold-like nanostructures. By varying the Nb:Ni ratio, a series of NixNb1-xO nanoparticles with different atomic compositions (x = 0.03, 0.08, 0.15, and 0.20) have been prepared by chemical precipitation. These NixNb1-xO catalysts are characterized by X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy. The study revealed the sponge-like and fold-like appearance of Ni0.97Nb0.03O and Ni0.92Nb0.08O on the NiO surface, and the larger surface area of these NixNb1-xO catalysts, compared with the bulk NiO. Maximum surface area of 173 m2/g can be obtained for Ni0.92Nb0.08O catalysts. In addition, the catalytic hydroconversion of lignin-derived compounds using the synthesized Ni0.92Nb0.08O catalysts have been investigated.

Chemical Precipitation Method for the Synthesis of Nb2O5 Modified Bulk Nickel Catalysts with High Specific Surface Area

A protocol for the synthesis of sponge-like and fold-like Ni1-xNbxO nanoparticles by chemical precipitation is presented.

We demonstrate a method for the synthesis of NixNb1-xO catalysts with sponge-like and fold-like nanostructures. By varying the Nb:Ni ratio, a series of ...

Fabrication and Testing of Catalytic Aerogels Prepared Via Rapid Supercritical Extraction

Protocols for preparing and testing catalytic aerogels by incorporating metal species into silica and alumina aerogel platforms are presented. Three preparation methods are described: (a) the incorporation of metal salts into silica or alumina wet gels using an impregnation method; (b) the incorporation of metal salts into alumina wet gels using a co-precursor method; and (c) the addition of metal nanoparticles directly into a silica aerogel precursor mixture. The methods utilize a hydraulic hot press, which allows for rapid (&#60;6 h) supercritical extraction and results in aerogels of low density (0.10 g/mL) and high surface area (200-800 m2/g). While the work presented here focuses on the use of copper salts and copper nanoparticles, the approach can be implemented using other metal salts and nanoparticles. A protocol for testing the three-way catalytic ability of these aerogels for automotive pollution mitigation is also presented. This technique uses custom-built equipment, the Union Catalytic Testbed (UCAT), in which a simulated exhaust mixture is passed over an aerogel sample at a controlled temperature and flow rate. The system is capable of measuring the ability of the catalytic aerogels, under both oxidizing and reducing conditions, to convert CO, NO and unburned hydrocarbons (HCs) to less harmful species (CO2, H2O and N2). Example catalytic results are presented for the aerogels described.

Here we present protocols for preparing and testing catalytic aerogels by incorporating metal species into silica and alumina aerogel platforms. Methods for preparing materials using copper salts and copper-containing nanoparticles are featured. Catalytic testing protocols demonstrate the effectiveness of these aerogels for three-way catalysis applications.

Protocols for preparing and testing catalytic aerogels by incorporating metal species into silica and alumina aerogel platforms are presented. Three ...

Ligand-Mediated Nucleation and Growth of Palladium Metal Nanoparticles

The size, size distribution and stability of colloidal nanoparticles are greatly affected by the presence of capping ligands. Despite the key contribution of capping ligands during the synthesis reaction, their role in regulating the nucleation and growth rates of colloidal nanoparticles is not well understood. In this work, we demonstrate a mechanistic investigation of the role of trioctylphosphine (TOP) in Pd nanoparticles in different solvents (toluene and pyridine) using in situ SAXS and ligand-based kinetic modeling. Our results under different synthetic conditions reveal the overlap of nucleation and growth of Pd nanoparticles during the reaction, which contradicts the LaMer-type nucleation and growth model. The model accounts for the kinetics of Pd-TOP binding for both, the precursor and the particle surface, which is essential to capture the size evolution as well as the concentration of particles in situ. In addition, we illustrate the predictive power of our ligand-based model through designing the synthetic conditions to obtain nanoparticles with desired sizes. The proposed methodology can be applied to other synthesis systems and therefore serves as an effective strategy for predictive synthesis of colloidal nanoparticles.

The main goal of this work is to elucidate the role of capping agents in regulating the size of palladium nanoparticles by combining in situ small angle x-ray scattering (SAXS) and ligand-based kinetic modeling.

The size, size distribution and stability of colloidal nanoparticles are greatly affected by the presence of capping ligands. Despite the key contribution ...

Synthesis of Substrate-Bound Au Nanowires Via an Active Surface Growth Mechanism

Advancing synthetic capabilities is important for the development of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The synthesis of nanowires has always been a challenge, as it requires asymmetric growth of symmetric crystals. Here, we report a distinctive synthesis of substrate-bound Au nanowires. This template-free synthesis employs thiolated ligands and substrate adsorption to achieve the continuous asymmetric deposition of Au in solution at ambient conditions. The thiolated ligand prevented the Au deposition on the exposed surface of the seeds, so the Au deposition only occurs at the interface between the Au seeds and the substrate. The side of the newly deposited Au nanowires is immediately covered with the thiolated ligand, while the bottom facing the substrate remains ligand-free and active for the next round of Au deposition. We further demonstrate that this Au nanowire growth can be induced on various substrates, and different thiolated ligands can be used to regulate the surface chemistry of the nanowires. The diameter of the nanowires can also be controlled with mixed ligands, in which another &#34;bad&#34; ligand could turn on the lateral growth. With the understanding of the mechanism, Au nanowire-based nanostructures can be designed and synthesized.

We report a solution-based method to synthesize substrate-bound Au nanowires. By tuning the molecular ligands used during the synthesis, the Au nanowires can be grown from various substrates with different surface properties. Au nanowire-based nanostructures can also be synthesized by adjusting the reaction parameters.

Advancing synthetic capabilities is important for the development of nanoscience and nanotechnology. The synthesis of nanowires has always been a ...

A Rapid Synthesis Method for Au, Pd, and Pt Aerogels Via Direct Solution-Based Reduction

Here, a method to synthesize gold, palladium, and platinum aerogels via a rapid, direct solution-based reduction is presented. The combination of various precursor noble metal ions with reducing agents in a 1:1 (v/v) ratio results in the formation of metal gels within seconds to minutes compared to much longer synthesis times for other techniques such as sol-gel. Conducting the reduction step in a microcentrifuge tube or small volume conical tube facilitates a proposed nucleation, growth, densification, fusion, equilibration model for gel formation, with final gel geometry smaller than the initial reaction volume. This method takes advantage of the vigorous hydrogen gas evolution as a by-product of the reduction step, and as a consequence of reagent concentrations. The solvent accessible specific surface area is determined with both electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. After rinsing and freeze drying, the resulting aerogel structure is examined with scanning electron microscopy, X-ray diffractometry, and nitrogen gas adsorption. The synthesis method and characterization techniques result in a close correspondence of aerogel ligament sizes. This synthesis method for noble metal aerogels demonstrates that high specific surface area monoliths may be achieved with a rapid and direct reduction approach.

A rapid, direct solution-based reduction synthesis method to obtain Au, Pd, and Pt aerogels is presented.

Here, a method to synthesize gold, palladium, and platinum aerogels via a rapid, direct solution-based reduction is presented. The combination of various ...

A Salt-Templated Synthesis Method for Porous Platinum-based Macrobeams and Macrotubes

The synthesis of high surface area porous noble metal nanomaterials generally relies on time consuming coalescence of pre-formed nanoparticles, followed by rinsing and supercritical drying steps, often resulting in mechanically fragile materials. Here, a method to synthesize nanostructured porous platinum-based macrotubes and macrobeams with a square cross section from insoluble salt needle templates is presented. The combination of oppositely charged platinum, palladium, and copper square planar ions results in the rapid formation of insoluble salt needles. Depending on the stoichiometric ratio of metal ions present in the salt-template and the choice of chemical reducing agent, either macrotubes or macrobeams form with a porous nanostructure comprised of either fused nanoparticles or nanofibrils. Elemental composition of the macrotubes and macrobeams, determined with x-ray diffractometry and x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, is controlled by the stoichiometric ratio of metal ions present in the salt-template. Macrotubes and macrobeams may be pressed into free standing films, and the electrochemically active surface area is determined with electrochemical impedance spectroscopy and cyclic voltammetry. This synthesis method demonstrates a simple, relatively fast approach to achieve high-surface area platinum-based macrotubes and macrobeams with tunable nanostructure and elemental composition that may be pressed into free-standing films with no required binding materials.

A synthesis method to obtain porous platinum-based macrotubes and macrobeams with a square cross section through chemical reduction of insoluble salt-needle templates is presented.

The synthesis of high surface area porous noble metal nanomaterials generally relies on time consuming coalescence of pre-formed nanoparticles, followed ...

Localized Bathless Metal-Composite Plating via Electrostamping

Composite plating with particles embedded into the metal matrix can enhance the properties of the metal coating to make it more or less conductive, hard, durable, lubricated or fluorescent. However, it can be more challenging than metal plating, because the composite particles are either 1) not charged so they do not have a strong electrostatic attraction to the cathode, 2) are hygroscopic and are blocked by a hydration shell, or 3) too large to remain stagnate at the cathode while stirring. Here, we describe the details of a bathless plating method that involves anode and cathode nickel plates sandwiching an aqueous concentrated electrolyte paste containing large hygroscopic phosphorescent particles and a hydrophilic membrane. After applying a potential, the nickel metal is deposited around the stagnant phosphor particles, trapping them in the film. The composite coatings are characterized by optical microscopy for film roughness, thickness and composite surface loading. In addition, fluorescence spectroscopy can be used to quantify the illumination brightness of these films to assess the effects of various current densities, coating duration and phosphor loading.

Presented here is a protocol of bathless electroplating, where a stagnant metal salt paste containing composite particles are reduced to form metal composites at high loading. This method addresses the challenges faced by other common forms of electroplating (jet, brush, bath) of embedding composites particles into the metal matrix.

Composite plating with particles embedded into the metal matrix can enhance the properties of the metal coating to make it more or less conductive, hard, ...

Methods Article

Synthesis Method for Cellulose Nanofiber Biotemplated Palladium Composite Aerogels