This research was supported by grants from the Ministry of Science and ICT of Korea (2017M3A9B4061406) and the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Korean government (MSIT) (grant numbers 2017M3A9B4061404 and 2018M3A9H3020844) to Jungjoon K. Lee. The plasmid encoding pGRG36 was a gift from Nancy Craig (Addgene plasmid #16666) and p11-LacY-wtx1 was a gift from Huimin Zhao.

<ol>
	<li>Fu, Y., Sander, J. D., Reyon, D., Cascio, V. M., Joung, J. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Improving+CRISPR-Cas+nuclease+specificity+using+truncated+guide+RNAs.">Improving CRISPR-Cas nuclease specificity using truncated guide RNAs.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 32 (3), 279-284 (2014).</li><li>Kim, S., Kim, D., Cho, S. W., Kim, J., Kim, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Highly+efficient+RNA-guided+genome+editing+in+human+cells+via+delivery+of+purified+Cas9+ribonucleoproteins.">Highly efficient RNA-guided genome editing in human cells via delivery of purified Cas9 ribonucleoproteins.</a> Genome Research. 24 (6), 1012-1019 (2014).</li><li>Chen, J. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enhanced+proofreading+governs+CRISPR-Cas9+targeting+accuracy.">Enhanced proofreading governs CRISPR-Cas9 targeting accuracy.</a> Nature. 550 (7676), 407-410 (2017).</li><li>Kleinstiver, B. P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-fidelity+CRISPR-Cas9+nucleases+with+no+detectable+genome-wide+off-target+effects.">High-fidelity CRISPR-Cas9 nucleases with no detectable genome-wide off-target effects.</a> Nature. 529 (7587), 490-495 (2016).</li><li>Slaymaker, I. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rationally+engineered+Cas9+nucleases+with+improved+specificity.">Rationally engineered Cas9 nucleases with improved specificity.</a> Science. 351 (6268), 84-88 (2016).</li><li>Casini, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+highly+specific+SpCas9+variant+is+identified+by+in+vivo+screening+in+yeast.">A highly specific SpCas9 variant is identified by in vivo screening in yeast.</a> Nature Biotechnology. 36 (3), 265-271 (2018).</li><li>Lee, J. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Directed+evolution+of+CRISPR-Cas9+to+increase+its+specificity.">Directed evolution of CRISPR-Cas9 to increase its specificity.</a> Nature Communications. 9 (1), 3048 (2018).</li><li>Vakulskas, C. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+high-fidelity+Cas9+mutant+delivered+as+a+ribonucleoprotein+complex+enables+efficient+gene+editing+in+human+hematopoietic+stem+and+progenitor+cells.">A high-fidelity Cas9 mutant delivered as a ribonucleoprotein complex enables efficient gene editing in human hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells.</a> Nature Medicine. 24 (8), 1216-1224 (2018).</li><li>Anderson, K. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR+off-target+analysis+in+genetically+engineered+rats+and+mice.">CRISPR off-target analysis in genetically engineered rats and mice.</a> Nature Methods. 15, 512-514 (2018).</li><li>Kim, S., Bae, T., Hwang, J., Kim, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rescue+of+high-specificity+Cas9+variants+using+sgRNAs+with+matched+5'+nucleotides.">Rescue of high-specificity Cas9 variants using sgRNAs with matched 5' nucleotides.</a> Genome Biology. 18 (1), 218 (2017).</li><li>Kulcsar, P. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Crossing+enhanced+and+high+fidelity+SpCas9+nucleases+to+optimize+specificity+and+cleavage.">Crossing enhanced and high fidelity SpCas9 nucleases to optimize specificity and cleavage.</a> Genome Biology. 18 (1), 190 (2017).</li><li>Zhang, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Perfectly+matched+20-nucleotide+guide+RNA+sequences+enable+robust+genome+editing+using+high-fidelity+SpCas9+nucleases.">Perfectly matched 20-nucleotide guide RNA sequences enable robust genome editing using high-fidelity SpCas9 nucleases.</a> Genome Biology. 18 (1), 191 (2017).</li><li>McKenzie, G. J., Craig, N. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fast,+easy+and+efficient:+site-specific+insertion+of+transgenes+into+enterobacterial+chromosomes+using+Tn7+without+need+for+selection+of+the+insertion+event.">Fast, easy and efficient: site-specific insertion of transgenes into enterobacterial chromosomes using Tn7 without need for selection of the insertion event.</a> BMC Microbiology. 6, 39 (2006).</li><li>Geissmann, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=OpenCFU,+a+new+free+and+open-source+software+to+count+cell+colonies+and+other+circular+objects.">OpenCFU, a new free and open-source software to count cell colonies and other circular objects.</a> PLoS One. 8 (2), e54072 (2013).</li><li>Chen, Z., Zhao, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+highly+sensitive+selection+method+for+directed+evolution+of+homing+endonucleases.">A highly sensitive selection method for directed evolution of homing endonucleases.</a> Nucleic Acids Research. 33 (18), e154 (2005).</li><li>Kim, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CRISPR+RNAs+trigger+innate+immune+responses+in+human+cells.">CRISPR RNAs trigger innate immune responses in human cells.</a> Genome Research. 28 (3), 367-373 (2018).</li><li>Park, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cas-Analyzer:+an+online+tool+for+assessing+genome+editing+results+using+NGS+data.">Cas-Analyzer: an online tool for assessing genome editing results using NGS data.</a> Bioinformatics. 33, 286-288 (2017).</li><li>Studier, F. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+T7+RNA+Polymerase+to+Direct+Expression+of+Cloned+Genes.">Use of T7 RNA Polymerase to Direct Expression of Cloned Genes.</a> Methods in Enzymology. 185, 60-89 (1990).</li></ol>

ToolGen has filed a patent application (PCT/KR2017/006212) covering Sniper-screen (status: pending, inventor: Jungjoon K. Lee). Jungjoon K. Lee, Joonsun Lee, Minhee Jung, and Euihwan Jeong are employees of ToolGen, Inc.

For those who want to avoid cumbersome screening procedures to obtain Sniper-Cas9, the Sniper-Cas9 protein and the encoding plasmid are available. Using these materials, the optimum length of the sgRNA, that providing the highest specificity ratio, should be determined. In addition, delivery of Sniper-Cas9 and sgRNA in an RNP format is recommended because it usually results in a higher specificity ratio than delivery in a plasmid format. Unlike Sniper-Cas9, other engineered Cas9 variants are not compatible with truncated sgRNAs6,7 or delivery in RNP form8 (with the exception of HiFi-Cas9).
For Sniper-screen, the selection of the mismatched sequence is the most important step. Selection of a mismatched sgRNA that is associated with low cleavage activity toward the GOI sequence should be avoided. If not, Cas9 variants with a WT level of specificity will not cleave the E. coli genomic DNA with the mismatched target site. This effect will result in a large number of background colonies, jeopardizing the whole screening procedure.
Because E. coli has a fast doubling time and high transformation efficiency compared to yeast, Sniper-screen is advantageous compared to yeast-based screening methods. Additionally, Sniper-screen should be more sensitive than other E. coli-based systems in which the mismatched site is carried on a plasmid: there is one copy of the genomic DNA and thus only one copy of the mismatched site in our system, but a large number of plasmids within a single E. coli cell.
The specificities of other DNA endonucleases that induce DSBs, such as SaCas9 or Cpf1s, could also be improved by using Sniper-screen. Unfortunately, Sniper-screen cannot be used to increase the specificity of base editors directly, because base editors do not induce DSBs in the genomic DNA of E. coli. As base editors use the nickase or dead version of Cas9 in the core of their system, the specificities of base editors could be increased by using the hits obtained from Sniper-screen.

In this paper, we aim to improve the specificity of Cas9 by combining different strategies. Various methods of avoiding the off-target effects of CRISPR-Cas9 have been developed. For example, truncated sgRNAs can be used to achieve higher specificity1. Additionally, the method of Cas9 delivery can be changed from a plasmid format to an RNP format to obtain higher specificity2. Specific amino acid residues of the Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 (SpCas9) protein have been modified according to the rational design described previously3,4,5. Alternatively, amino acid residues have been altered in a random manner and the Cas9 variants with the highest specificity were identified using either a yeast6 or an E. coli7,8 screening system.
However, many groups have reported that Cas9 variants engineered using the design to debilitate the nonspecific interaction between Cas9 and the substrate exhibit low on-target activities7,8,9,10,11,12. We developed an E. coli-based directed evolution system, Sniper-screen, to screen randomly mutagenized Cas9 variants. An E. coli screening system has advantages over a yeast system because of the faster doubling time and higher transformation efficiencies of E. coli.
Both negative and positive selection, based on three different plasmids and a gene of interest (GOI) integrated into the E. coli genome, are used in Sniper-screen. Cas9 variants are expressed under the CMV-PltetO1 dual-promoter system of a low-copy number plasmid so that candidates identified in E. coli can be tested in mammalian cells without the need for subcloning. The GOI is introduced into the E. coli genome using the Tn7 transposon system. The sgRNA plasmid, which contains a temperature-sensitive origin of replication, expresses an sgRNA targeting the GOI; however, the sgRNA and GOI sequences are not perfectly matched. A perfectly matched sgRNA target site exists on a third plasmid containing the ccdB gene, which encodes a lethal product that poisons gyrase. In this system, cells expressing Cas9 variants with high off-target activities are removed because double-strand breaks (DSBs) are introduced into the mismatched site located in the genomic DNA. On the other hand, cells expressing Cas9 variants with low on-target activities are also removed because of lethal ccdB gene expression. The expression level of the Cas9 variants can be changed by altering the concentration of anhydrotetracycline (ATC), which adjusts the selection force.
We reasoned that locating the mismatched sgRNA target site in the genomic DNA rather than on a plasmid would increase the sensitivity of the system. The advantage of this approach is that there is only one genomic site, whereas there would be many plasmids, each containing a target site, within a single E. coli cell.
Using this system, we identified a Cas9 variant, Sniper-Cas9, which shows WT-level on-target activities and reduced off-target activities compared to WT Cas9. Sniper-Cas9 can achieve even higher specificity ratios by using truncated sgRNAs or RNP-based delivery rather than plasmid-based delivery.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Alkaline Phosphatase, Calf Intestinal (CIP)</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>M0290L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin Sodium Salt</td>
			<td>Fisher Chemical</td>
			<td>BP1760-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anhydrotetracycline hydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>37919 or 94664</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Antibiotic Antimycotic solution</td>
			<td>Welgene</td>
			<td>LS203-01</td>
			<td>Media component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BamHI</td>
			<td>Enzynomics</td>
			<td>R003L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloramphenicol</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>R4408</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Diversify PCR Random Mutagenesis</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>630703</td>
			<td>Error-prone PCR kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNA-Shuffling Kit</td>
			<td>Jena Bioscience</td>
			<td>PP-103</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium (DMEM)</td>
			<td>Welgene</td>
			<td>LM001-17</td>
			<td>Culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Endura Electrocompetent Cells (DUO)</td>
			<td>Lucigen</td>
			<td>60242-2</td>
			<td>E. coli electrocompetent cells for library preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Welgene</td>
			<td>S101-01</td>
			<td>Media component</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gene Pulser II</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>E. coli electroporation equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GeneMorph II Random Mutagenesis Kit</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>200550</td>
			<td>Error-prone PCR kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>genomic DNA prep kit</td>
			<td>GenAll</td>
			<td>106-152</td>
			<td>gDNA-prep kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol</td>
			<td>BioShop</td>
			<td>GLY001.1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GP/MP Cuvette, 0.1cm</td>
			<td>Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>BR165-2089</td>
			<td>E. coli electroporation equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEK293T cell</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-11268</td>
			<td>Human cell line</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin sulfate</td>
			<td>Acros Organics</td>
			<td>450810500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-(+)-Arabinose</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A3256-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LaboPass PCR Purification Kit</td>
			<td>Cosmogenetech</td>
			<td>CMR0112</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LaboPass Plasmid Mini</td>
			<td>Cosmogenetech</td>
			<td>CMP0112</td>
			<td>Mini-prep kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB Agar Miller</td>
			<td>Formedium</td>
			<td>LMM0202</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB Broth Miller</td>
			<td>Formedium</td>
			<td>LMM0102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lipofectamine</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>11668019</td>
			<td>Transfection reagent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NEBuilder HiFi DNA Assembly Master Mix</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>E2621L</td>
			<td>Gibson assembly (isothermal in vitro recombination) mixture</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neon Transfection System</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>MPK5000</td>
			<td>RNP Electroporation equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neon Transfection System 10 &#181;L Kit</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>MPK1096</td>
			<td>RNP Electroporation equipment</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NucleoBond Xtra Midi EF</td>
			<td>Macherey-Nagel</td>
			<td>740420.50</td>
			<td>Midi-prep kit</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oligo Clean &#38; Concentrator</td>
			<td>Zymo Research</td>
			<td>D4061</td>
			<td>DNA purification kit that enables low-volume elution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Opti-MEM</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>LS31985070</td>
			<td>Transfection media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>p11-lacY-wtx1</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>#123945</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pgrg36</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>#16666</td>
			<td>E. coli mutator strain</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phusion High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>M0530L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pyrophophatase</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>M2403L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ribonucleotide Solution Set</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>N0450L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNase inhibitor</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>M0314L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T7 RNA polymerase</td>
			<td>NEB</td>
			<td>M0251L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Turbo Dnase</td>
			<td>Ambion</td>
			<td>AM2238</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XbaI</td>
			<td>Enzynomics</td>
			<td>R013L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XL1-Red Competent Cells</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>200129</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using sniper-cas9 to minimize off-target effects of crispr-cas9 without the loss of on-target activity via directed evolution

The development of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated protein 9 (Cas9) into therapeutic modalities requires the avoidance of its potentially deleterious off-target effects. Several methods have been devised to reduce such effects. Here, we present an Escherichia coli-based directed evolution method called Sniper-screen to obtain a Cas9 variant with optimized specificity and retained on-target activity, called Sniper-Cas9. Using Sniper-screen, positive and negative selection can be performed simultaneously. The screen can also be repeated with other single-guide RNA (sgRNA) sequences to enrich for the true positive hits. By using the CMV-PltetO1 dual promoter to express Cas9 variants, the performance of the pooled library can be quickly checked in mammalian cells. Methods to increase the specificity of Sniper-Cas9 are also described. First, the use of truncated sgRNAs has previously been shown to increase Cas9 specificity. Unlike other engineered Cas9s, Sniper-Cas9 retains a wild-type (WT) level of on-target activity when combined with truncated sgRNAs. Second, the delivery of Sniper-Cas9 in a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) format instead of a plasmid format is possible without affecting its on-target activity.

After Sniper-screen is performed, the percentage of survival colonies can be calculated by dividing the number of colonies on the LB plate containing chloramphenicol, kanamycin, arabinose, and ATC (CKAA) by the number of colonies in the LB plate containing chloramphenicol and kanamycin only (CK). This percentage was usually very low when Sniper-screen was performed with the libraries of SpCas9. True-positive hits can be enriched by repeating the screen with the surviving pool. In this representative Sniper-screen, for example, a 100% survival rate was obtained after the third screen (Figure 1). Transfections using RNPs or plasmid-encoded Sniper-Cas9 can be done for various targets and the resulting on-target and off-target activities measured by targeted amplicon sequencing (Figure 2). At most targets, Sniper-Cas9 shows the same level of on-target activities and higher specificity ratios compared to the WT. Truncated sgRNAs can also be used to further improve specificity (Figure 3). However, their use is limited to only a few targets because they result in low on-target activities compared to full-length sgRNAs, in most cases. Therefore, sgRNAs with varying lengths (from 17- to 20-mers) must be tested and both on-target and off-target activities must be measured to optimize specificity.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59202/59202fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Representative Sniper-screens performed with different libraries of random Cas9 variants. Mutator library, EP library I, and EP library II indicate libraries made using different commercial kits. First, second, and final indicate the number of times the enrichment screen was performed7. This figure has been modified from Lee et al.7. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59202/59202fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59202/59202fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: On-target and off-target activities of WT-Cas9 or Sniper-Cas9 paired with a 20-mer guide sequence delivered via plasmid or RNP. Specificity ratios were determined by dividing the on-target activity by the off-target activity. Error bars indicate SEM (n = 3)7. This figure has been modified from Lee et al.7. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59202/59202fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/59202/59202fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: On-target and off-target activities of Sniper-Cas9 compared to WT-Cas9 obtained using sgRNAs with variable lengths targeting the FANCF01 and AAVS sites. Specificity ratios were determined by dividing indel frequencies at on-target sites by those at the respective off-target sites. sgRNAs with a matched guanine at the 5&#39; terminus (GX18 or GX19) and those with a mismatched guanine (gX17, gX18, gX19, or gX20) are indicated. Specificity ratios were not calculated when the normalized on-target activities were &#60;70%7. This figure has been modified from Lee et al.7. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/59202/59202fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using Sniper-Cas9 to Minimize Off-target Effects of CRISPR-Cas9 Without the Loss of On-target Activity Via Directed Evolution at JoVE.com

Using Sniper-Cas9 to Minimize Off-target Effects of CRISPR-Cas9 Without the Loss of On-target Activity Via Directed Evolution

Here, we present a protocol to optimize CRISPR-Cas9 to achieve a higher specificity without the loss of on-target activity. We use a directed evolution approach called Sniper-screen to find a mutant Cas9 with the desired characteristics. Sniper-Cas9 is compatible with truncated single-guide RNAs and delivery in a ribonucleoprotein format, well-known strategies for achieving higher specificities.

The development of clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats (CRISPR)-associated protein 9 (Cas9) into therapeutic modalities requires the ...

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9.5K Views.  ToolGen. Here, we present a protocol to optimize CRISPR-Cas9 to achieve a higher specificity without the loss of on-target activity. We use a directed evolution approach called Sniper-screen to find a mutant Cas9 with the desired characteristics. Sniper-Cas9 is compatible with truncated single-guide RNAs and delivery in a ribonucleoprotein format, well-known strategies for achieving higher specificities.

Video: Using Sniper-Cas9 to Minimize Off-target Effects of CRISPR-Cas9 Without the Loss of On-target Activity Via Directed Evolution

Procedure for Adaptive Laboratory Evolution of Microorganisms Using a Chemostat

Natural evolution involves genetic diversity such as environmental change and a selection between small populations. Adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) refers to the experimental situation in which evolution is observed using living organisms under controlled conditions and stressors; organisms are thereby artificially forced to make evolutionary changes. Microorganisms are subject to a variety of stressors in the environment and are capable of regulating certain stress-inducible proteins to increase their chances of survival. Naturally occurring spontaneous mutations bring about changes in a microorganism's genome that affect its chances of survival. Long-term exposure to chemostat culture provokes an accumulation of spontaneous mutations and renders the most adaptable strain dominant. Compared to the colony transfer and serial transfer methods, chemostat culture entails the highest number of cell divisions and, therefore, the highest number of diverse populations. Although chemostat culture for ALE requires more complicated culture devices, it is less labor intensive once the operation begins. Comparative genomic and transcriptome analyses of the adapted strain provide evolutionary clues as to how the stressors contribute to mutations that overcome the stress. The goal of the current paper is to bring about accelerated evolution of microorganisms under controlled laboratory conditions.

Here, we present a protocol to obtain adaptive laboratory evolution of microorganisms under conditions using chemostat culture. Also, genomic analysis of the evolved strain is discussed.

Natural evolution involves genetic diversity such as environmental change and a selection between small populations. Adaptive laboratory evolution (ALE) ...

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated Targeted Integration In Vivo Using a Homology-mediated End Joining-based Strategy

As a promising genome editing platform, the CRISPR/Cas9 system has great potential for efficient genetic manipulation, especially for targeted integration of transgenes. However, due to the low efficiency of homologous recombination (HR) and various indel mutations of non-homologous end joining (NHEJ)-based strategies in non-dividing cells, in vivo genome editing remains a great challenge. Here, we describe a homology-mediated end joining (HMEJ)-based CRISPR/Cas9 system for efficient in vivo precise targeted integration. In this system, the targeted genome and the donor vector containing homology arms (~800 bp) flanked by single guide RNA (sgRNA) target sequences are cleaved by CRISPR/Cas9. This HMEJ-based strategy achieves efficient transgene integration in mouse zygotes, as well as in hepatocytes in vivo. Moreover, a HMEJ-based strategy offers an efficient approach for correction of fumarylacetoacetate hydrolase (Fah) mutation in the hepatocytes and rescues Fah-deficiency induced liver failure mice. Taken together, focusing on targeted integration, this HMEJ-based strategy provides a promising tool for a variety of applications, including generation of genetically modified animal models and targeted gene therapies.

CRISPR/Cas9-mediated Targeted Integration In Vivo Using a Homology-mediated End Joining-based Strategy

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR associated protein 9 (CRISPR/Cas9) system provides a promising tool for genetic engineering, and opens up the possibility of targeted integration of transgenes. We describe a homology-mediated end joining (HMEJ)-based strategy for efficient DNA targeted integration in vivo and targeted gene therapies using CRISPR/Cas9.

As a promising genome editing platform, the CRISPR/Cas9 system has great potential for efficient genetic manipulation, especially for targeted integration ...

CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing to Make Conditional Mutants of Human Malaria Parasite P. falciparum

Malaria is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. This disease, which primarily affects those living in tropical and subtropical regions, is caused by infection with Plasmodium parasites. The development of more effective drugs to combat malaria can be accelerated by improving our understanding of the biology of this complex parasite. Genetic manipulation of these parasites is key to understanding their biology; however, historically the genome of P. falciparum has been difficult to manipulate. Recently, CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has been utilized in malaria parasites, allowing for easier protein tagging, generation of conditional protein knockdowns, and deletion of genes. CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing has proven to be a powerful tool for advancing the field of malaria research. Here, we describe a CRISPR/Cas9 method for generating glmS-based conditional knockdown mutants in P. falciparum. This method is highly adaptable to other types of genetic manipulations, including protein tagging and gene knockouts.

CRISPR/Cas9 Gene Editing to Make Conditional Mutants of Human Malaria Parasite P. falciparum

We describe a method for generating glmS-based conditional knockdown mutants in Plasmodium falciparum using CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing.

Malaria is a significant cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. This disease, which primarily affects those living in tropical and subtropical ...

Endogenous Protein Tagging in Human Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells Using CRISPR/Cas9

A protocol is presented for generating human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) that express endogenous proteins fused to in-frame&#160;N- or C-terminal fluorescent tags. The prokaryotic CRISPR/Cas9 system (clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats/CRISPR-associated 9) may be used to introduce large exogenous sequences into genomic loci via homology directed repair (HDR). To achieve the desired knock-in, this protocol employs the ribonucleoprotein (RNP)-based approach where wild type Streptococcus pyogenes Cas9 protein, synthetic 2-part guide RNA (gRNA), and a donor template plasmid are delivered to the cells via electroporation. Putatively edited cells expressing the fluorescently tagged proteins are enriched by fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS). Clonal lines are then generated and can be analyzed for precise editing outcomes. By introducing the fluorescent tag at the genomic locus of the gene of interest, the resulting subcellular localization and dynamics of the fusion protein can be studied under endogenous regulatory control, a key improvement over conventional overexpression systems. The use of hiPSCs as a model system for gene tagging provides the opportunity to study the tagged proteins in diploid, nontransformed cells. Since hiPSCs can be differentiated into multiple cell types, this approach provides the opportunity to create and study tagged proteins in a variety of isogenic cellular contexts.

Described here is a protocol for tagging endogenously expressed proteins with fluorescent tags in human induced pluripotent stem cells using CRISPR/Cas9. Putatively edited cells are enriched by fluorescence activated cell sorting and clonal cell lines are generated.

A protocol is presented for generating human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) that express endogenous proteins fused to in-frame&#160;N- or ...

CRISPR/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein-mediated Precise Gene Editing by Tube Electroporation

Gene editing nucleases, represented by CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9), are becoming mainstream tools in biomedical research. Successful delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 elements into the target cells by transfection is a prerequisite for efficient gene editing. This protocol demonstrates that tube electroporation (TE) machine-mediated delivery of CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein (RNP), along with single-stranded oligodeoxynucleotide (ssODN) donor templates to different types of mammalian cells, leads to robust precise gene editing events. First, TE was applied to deliver CRISPR/Cas9 RNP and ssODNs to induce disease-causing mutations in the interleukin 2 receptor subunit gamma (IL2RG) gene and sepiapterin reductase (SPR) gene in rabbit fibroblast cells. Precise mutation rates of 3.57%-20% were achieved as determined by bacterial TA cloning sequencing. The same strategy was then used in human iPSCs on several clinically relevant genes including epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), myosin binding protein C, cardiac (Mybpc3), and hemoglobin subunit beta (HBB). Consistently, highly precise mutation rates were achieved (11.65%-37.92%) as determined by deep sequencing (DeepSeq). The present work demonstrates that tube electroporation of CRISPR/Cas9 RNP represents an efficient transfection protocol for gene editing in mammalian cells.

Presented here is a protocol for efficient CRISPR/Cas9 ribonucleoprotein-mediated gene editing in mammalian cells using tube electroporation.

Gene editing nucleases, represented by CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9), are becoming mainstream tools in biomedical research. Successful delivery of ...

Introducing a Gene Knockout Directly Into the Amastigote Stage of Trypanosoma cruzi Using the CRISPR/Cas9 System

Trypanosoma cruzi is a pathogenic protozoan parasite that causes Chagas&#8217; disease mainly in Latin America. In order to identify a novel drug target against T. cruzi, it is important to validate the essentiality of the target gene in the mammalian stage of the parasite, the amastigote. Amastigotes of T. cruzi replicate inside the host cell; thus, it is difficult to conduct a knockout experiment without going through other developmental stages. Recently, our group reported a growth condition in which the amastigote can replicate axenically for up to 10 days without losing its amastigote-like properties. By using this temporal axenic amastigote culture, we successfully introduced gRNAs directly into the Cas9-expressing amastigote to cause gene knockouts and analyzed their phenotypes exclusively in the amastigote stage. In this report, we describe a detailed protocol to produce in vitro derived extracellular amastigotes, and to utilize the axenic culture in a CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout experiment. The growth phenotype of knockout amastigotes can be evaluated either by cell counts of the axenic culture, or by replication of intracellular amastigote after host cell invasion. This method bypasses the parasite stage differentiation normally involved in producing a transgenic or a knockout amastigote. Utilization of the temporal axenic amastigote culture has the potential to expand the experimental freedom of stage-specific studies in T. cruzi.

Introducing a Gene Knockout Directly Into the Amastigote Stage of Trypanosoma cruzi Using the CRISPR/Cas9 System

Here, we describe a protocol to introduce a gene knockout into the extracellular amastigote of Trypanosoma cruzi, using the CRISPR/Cas9 system. The growth phenotype can be followed up either by cell counting of axenic amastigote culture or by proliferation of intracellular amastigotes after host cell invasion.

Trypanosoma cruzi is a pathogenic protozoan parasite that causes Chagas&#8217; disease mainly in Latin America. In order to identify a novel drug target ...

Generation of Defined Genomic Modifications Using CRISPR-CAS9 in Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

Human pluripotent stem cells offer a powerful system to study gene function and model specific mutations relevant to disease. The generation of precise heterozygous genetic modifications is challenging due to CRISPR-CAS9 mediated indel formation in the second allele. Here, we demonstrate a protocol to help overcome this difficulty by using two repair templates in which only one expresses the desired sequence change, while both templates contain silent mutations to prevent re-cutting and indel formation. This methodology is most advantageous for gene editing coding regions of DNA to generate isogenic control and mutant human stem cell lines for studying human disease and biology. In addition, optimization of transfection and screening methodologies have been performed to reduce labor and cost of a gene editing experiment. Overall, this protocol is widely applicable to many genome editing projects utilizing the human pluripotent stem cell model.

This protocol provides a method to facilitate the generation of defined heterozygous or homozygous nucleotide changes using CRISPR-CAS9 in human pluripotent stem cells.

Human pluripotent stem cells offer a powerful system to study gene function and model specific mutations relevant to disease. The generation of precise ...

Investigation of the Transcriptional Role of a RUNX1 Intronic Silencer by CRISPR/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

The bulk of the human genome (~98%) is comprised of non-coding sequences. Cis-regulatory elements (CREs) are non-coding DNA sequences that contain binding sites for transcriptional regulators to modulate gene expression. Alterations of CREs have been implicated in various diseases including cancer. While promoters and enhancers have been the primary CREs for studying gene regulation, very little is known about the role of silencer, which is another type of CRE that mediates gene repression. Originally identified as an adaptive immunity system in prokaryotes, CRISPR/Cas9 has been exploited to be a powerful tool for eukaryotic genome editing. Here, we present the use of this technique to delete an intronic silencer in the human RUNX1 gene and investigate the impacts on gene expression in OCI-AML3 leukemic cells. Our approach relies on electroporation-mediated delivery of two preassembled Cas9/guide RNA (gRNA) ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes to create two double-strand breaks (DSBs) that flank the silencer. Deletions can be readily screened by fragment analysis. Expression analyses of different mRNAs transcribed from alternative promoters help evaluate promoter-dependent effects. This strategy can be used to study other CREs and is particularly suitable for hematopoietic cells, which are often difficult to transfect with plasmid-based methods. The use of a plasmid- and virus-free strategy allows simple and fast assessments of gene regulatory functions.

Investigation of the Transcriptional Role of a RUNX1 Intronic Silencer by CRISPR/Cas9 Ribonucleoprotein in Acute Myeloid Leukemia Cells

Direct delivery of preassembled Cas9/guide RNA ribonucleoprotein complexes is a fast and efficient means for genome editing in hematopoietic cells. Here, we utilize this approach to delete a RUNX1 intronic silencer and examine the transcriptional responses in OCI-AML3 leukemic cells.

The bulk of the human genome (~98%) is comprised of non-coding sequences. Cis-regulatory elements (CREs) are non-coding DNA sequences that contain binding ...

Cell Surface Receptor Identification Using Genome-Scale CRISPR/Cas9 Genetic Screens

Intercellular communication mediated by direct interactions between membrane-embedded cell surface receptors is crucial for the normal development and functioning of multicellular organisms. Detecting these interactions remains technically challenging, however. This manuscript describes a systematic genome-scale CRISPR/Cas9 knockout genetic screening approach that reveals cellular pathways required for specific cell surface recognition events. This assay utilizes recombinant proteins produced in a mammalian protein expression system as avid binding probes to identify interaction partners in a cell-based genetic screen. This method can be used to identify the genes necessary for cell surface interactions detected by recombinant binding probes corresponding to the ectodomains of membrane-embedded receptors. Importantly, given the genome-scale nature of this approach, it also has the advantage of not only identifying the direct receptor but also the cellular components that are required for the presentation of the receptor at the cell surface, thereby providing valuable insights into the biology of the receptor.

This manuscript describes a genome-scale cell-based screening approach to identify extracellular receptor-ligand interactions.

Intercellular communication mediated by direct interactions between membrane-embedded cell surface receptors is crucial for the normal development and ...

In Vitro Directed Evolution of a Restriction Endonuclease with More Stringent Specificity

Restriction endonuclease (REase) specificity engineering is extremely difficult. Here we describe a multistep protocol that helps to produce REase variants that have more stringent specificity than the parental enzyme. The protocol requires the creation of a library of expression selection cassettes (ESCs) for variants of the REase, ideally with variability in positions likely to affect DNA binding. The ESC is flanked on one side by a sequence for the restriction site activity desired and a biotin tag and on the other side by a restriction site for the undesired activity and a primer annealing site. The ESCs are transcribed and translated in a water-in-oil emulsion, in conditions that make the presence of more than one DNA molecule per droplet unlikely. Therefore, the DNA in each cassette molecule is subjected only to the activity of the translated, encoded enzyme. REase variants of the desired specificity remove the biotin tag but not the primer annealing site. After breaking the emulsion, the DNA molecules are subjected to a biotin pulldown, and only those in the supernatant are retained. This step assures that only ESCs for variants that have not lost the desired activity are retained. These DNA molecules are then subjected to a first PCR reaction. Cleavage in the undesired sequence cuts off the primer binding site for one of the primers. Therefore, PCR amplifies only ESCs from droplets without the undesired activity. A second PCR reaction is then carried out to reintroduce the restriction site for the desired specificity and the biotin tag, so that the selection step can be reiterated. Selected open reading frames can be overexpressed in bacterial cells that also express the cognate methyltransferase of the parental REase, because the newly evolved REase targets only a subset of the methyltransferase target sites.

Restriction endonucleases with new sequence specificity can be developed from enzymes recognizing a partially degenerate sequence. Here we provide a detailed protocol that we successfully used to alter the sequence specificity of NlaIV enzyme. Key ingredients of the protocol are the in vitro compartmentalization of the transcription/translation reaction and selection of variants with new sequence specificities.