This material is based upon work supported in part by the National Science Foundation (NSF) No. EED-1661100 as well as an NSF GRFP grant given to Darcie Christensen (No. 120214). Any opinions, findings, and conclusions or recommendations expressed in this material do not necessarily reflect those of NSF or USU. We want to thank Sheree Benson for her kind discussions and recommendations for our statistical analysis.
Author contributions in this paper are as follows: Villanueva (research design, data collection and analysis, writing, editing); Husman (research design, data collection, writing, editing); Christensen (data collection and analysis, writing, editing); Youmans (data collection and analysis, writing, and editing); Khan (data collection and analysis, writing, editing); Vicioso (data collection and analysis, editing); Lampkins (data collection and editing); Graham (data collection and editing)

The authors have nothing to disclose.

Although physiological measures have been used in many authentic learning contexts, it is critical to design a study environment that is mindful of the limits of the current technology. Our design balances the need for an authentic testing environment and accommodates the technology. Comfortably limiting participant movement, reducing unintended interruptions, and timestamping participants&#39; testing responses are all critical steps within the protocol.
The space and expense of the electrode...

Psychologists have long understood the importance of humans&#39; emotions in elucidating their behaviors1. Within the study of education, Academic Achievement Emotions (AEE) has become the focus of emotion research2. Researchers that use AAE argue that the situational contexts students find themselves in are important to consider when examining students&#39; emotions. Students may experience test-related, class-related, or learning-related emotions that involve multi-component processes, including affective, physiological, motivational, and cognitive components. AEE is expressed in two forms: valence (positive/negative) and activation (focused/unfocused energy). Positive activating emotions, such as enjoyment, may increase reflective processes like metacognition, whereas positive deactivating emotions such as pride may result in low levels of cognitive processing. Negative activating emotions such as anger and anxiety may spark engagement, whereas negative deactivating emotions such as hopelessness may dampen motivation3,4,5. Academic emotions contribute to how we learn, perceive, decide, respond, and problem-solve2. To regulate academic emotions, an individual must possess self-efficacy (SE)6,7,8, which is their confidence in their ability to employ control over their motivation, behavior, and social environment6. Self-efficacy and academic emotions are interrelated, where lower self-efficacy is tied to negative deactivating emotions (e.g., anxiety, anger, boredom) and higher self-efficacy is tied to positive activating emotions (e.g., happiness, hope, excitement)6,7,8. SE is also believed to be strongly tied to performance6,7,8.
Research that has examined classroom emotions have relied on self-reports, observations, interviews, and artifacts (e.g., exams, projects)9,10. Although these methods provide rich contextual information about students&#39; classroom experiences, they have significant limitations. For example, interviews, observations, and self-reports rely on individuals&#39; introspections10. Other methods have sought to examine academic emotions more proximally than prior researchers, such as those based on experience-sampling approaches where researchers ask students to report on their emotions during the school day11. Although this research allows us to report students&#39; emotions more accurately, this work relies on self-report methods and does not allow for real-time reporting as students have to pause their work on the exam to address the experience survey.
Recently, researchers have begun to address concerns about self-report measures through the use of biological or physiological measures of emotion9, that combined with other instruments or techniques such as surveys, observations, or interviews, consists of a multi-modal form of data collection for educational and psychological research12. For example, biological techniques, including salivary biomarkers, are being used&#160;to understand the role biological processes have on cognition, emotion, learning, and performance13,14,15. For cognitive processes, androgens (e.g., testosterone) have been linked to different spatial recognition patterns in adults and children16,17 whereas hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical hormones (e.g., cortisol) and adrenergic hormones (e.g., salivary &#945;-amylase or sAA) are linked to stress responsiveness amongst individuals18,19,20.
Electrodermal activity (EDA) represents a physiological measure of the activation of the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and is linked to increased activation of the system, cognitive load, or intense&#160;emotional responses21,22,23. In examination activities, EDA is affected by physical mobility21,22, bodily and ambient temperatures24,25,26,27, and verbalization of thoughts28, as well as sensitivity and degree of connectivity of the analog-digital electrodes to the skin29.
Although these can be limitations to using EDA, this technique can still provide valuable insight into what happens during near-real-time examinations and can serve as a promising tool to explore AEE and by extent, self-efficacy. As a result, an accurate picture of students&#39; AEE can be obtained through a combination of survey methods, to determine the valence of emotion, and physiological and biological data, to measure the activation of that emotion. This paper builds upon a previous&#160;publication on examination activities30 and expands the scope of that work to include multi-modal approaches (using experience-sampling surveys, EDA sensors, and salivary biomarkers) in an examination scenario. It is essential&#160;to mention that the protocol described below allows for multiple participant data to be collected at the same time within a single experimental setting.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>1.1 cu ft medical freezer</td>
			<td>Compact Compliance</td>
			<td># bci2801863</td>
			<td>They can use any freezer as long as it can go below -20 degrees Celsius; these can be used to store salivary samples for longer periods of time (~4 months) before running salivary assays.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camping Cooler</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>(any size/type)</td>
			<td>Can be used to store salivary samples during data collection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>E4 sensor</td>
			<td>Empatica Inc</td>
			<td>E4 Wristband Rev2</td>
			<td>You can use any EDA sensor or company as long as it records EDA and accelerometry</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDA Explorer</td>
			<td>https://eda-explorer.media.mit.edu/</td>
			<td>(open-source)</td>
			<td>Can be used to identify potential sources of noise that are not necessarily due to movement</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Laptops</td>
			<td>Dell</td>
			<td>Latitude 3480</td>
			<td>They can use any desktop or laptop</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ledalab</td>
			<td>http://www.ledalab.de/</td>
			<td>(open-source)</td>
			<td>Can be used to separate tonic and phasic EDA signals after following filtration steps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MATLAB</td>
			<td>https://www.mathworks.com/products/matlab.html</td>
			<td>(version varies according to updates)</td>
			<td>To be used for Ledalab, EDA Explorer, and to create customized time-stamping programs.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salivary Alpha Amylase Enzymatic Kit</td>
			<td>Salimetrics</td>
			<td>&#8206;# 1-1902</td>
			<td>For the salivary kits, you should plan to either order the company to analyze your samples and/or go to a molecular biology lab for processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Salivary Cortisol ELISA Kit</td>
			<td>Salimetrics</td>
			<td># &#8206;1-3002</td>
			<td>For the salivary kits, you should plan to either order the company to analyze your samples and/or go to a molecular biology lab for processing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Testing Divider (Privacy Shields)</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>#60005</td>
			<td>They can use any brand of testing shield as long as they cover the workspace</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Web Camera</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td>Logitech c920</td>
			<td>They can use any web camera as long as it is HD and 1080p or greater</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a cross-disciplinary and multi-modal experimental design for studying near-real-time authentic examination experiences

Over the past ten years, research into students&#39; emotions in educational environments has increased. Although researchers have called for more studies that rely on objective measures of emotional experience, limitations on utilizing multi-modal data sources exist. Studies of emotion and emotional regulation in classrooms traditionally rely on survey instruments, experience-sampling, artifacts, interviews, or observational procedures. These methods, while valuable, are mainly&#160;dependent on participant or observer subjectivity and is limited in its authentic measurement of students&#39; real-time performance to a classroom activity or task. The latter, in particular, poses a stumbling block to many scholars seeking to objectively measure emotions and other related measures in the classroom, in real-time.
The purpose of this work is to present a protocol to experimentally study students&#39; real-time responses to exam experiences during an authentic assessment situation. For this, a team of educational psychologists, engineers, and engineering education researchers designed an experimental protocol that retained the limits required for accurate physiological sensor measurement, best-practices of salivary collection, and an authentic testing environment. In particular, existing studies that rely on physiological sensors are conducted in experimental environments that are disconnected from educational settings (e.g., Trier Stress Test), detached in time (e.g., before or after a task), or introduce analysis error (e.g., use of sensors in environments where students are likely to move). This limits our understanding of students&#39; real-time responses to classroom activities and tasks. Furthermore, recent research has called for more considerations to be covered around issues of recruitment, replicability, validity, setups, data cleaning, preliminary analysis, and particular&#160;circumstances (e.g., adding a variable in the experimental design) in academic emotions research that relies on multi-modal approaches.

In this study, we were interested in studying the influences of self-efficacy, performance, and physiological (EDA sensors) and biological (sAA and cortisol) responses of undergraduate engineering students as they took a practice exam. The data shown is a representative subset of samples: (a) one that considered surveys and electrodermal sensors (experiment design A) and (b) one that included the same exam along with the salivary biomarker data (experiment design B). While we collected em...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Cross-Disciplinary and Multi-Modal Experimental Design for Studying Near-Real-Time Authentic Examination Experiences at JoVE.com

A Cross-Disciplinary and Multi-Modal Experimental Design for Studying Near-Real-Time Authentic Examination Experiences

An experimental design was developed to investigate the real-time influences of an examination experience to assess the emotional realities students experience in higher education settings and tasks. This design is the result of a cross-disciplinary (e.g., educational psychology, biology, physiology, engineering) and multi-modal (e.g., salivary markers, surveys, electrodermal sensor) approach.

Over the past ten years, research into students&#39; emotions in educational environments has increased. Although researchers have called for more studies ...

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Research

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6.9K Views.  Utah State University. An experimental design was developed to investigate the real-time influences of an examination experience to assess the emotional realities students experience in higher education settings and tasks. This design is the result of a cross-disciplinary (e.g., educational psychology, biology, physiology, engineering) and multi-modal (e.g., salivary markers, surveys, electrodermal sensor) approach.

Video: A Cross-Disciplinary and Multi-Modal Experimental Design for Studying Near-Real-Time Authentic Examination Experiences

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography (EEG), Electromyography (EMG), and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Recent studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal human walking. Part of this evidence encompasses studies, including our previous work, demonstrating that gait kinematics and limb coordination during treadmill walking can be inferred from the scalp electroencephalogram (EEG) with reasonably high decoding accuracies. These results provide impetus for development of non-invasive brain-machine-interface (BMI) systems for use in restoration and/or augmentation of gait- a primary goal of rehabilitation research. To date, studies examining EEG decoding of activity during gait have been limited to treadmill walking in a controlled environment. However, to be practically viable a BMI system must be applicable for use in everyday locomotor tasks such as over ground walking and turning. Here, we present a novel protocol for non-invasive collection of brain activity (EEG), muscle activity (electromyography (EMG)), and whole-body kinematic data (head, torso, and limb trajectories) during both treadmill and over ground walking tasks. By collecting these data in the uncontrolled environment insight can be gained regarding the feasibility of decoding unconstrained gait and surface EMG from scalp EEG.

Simultaneous Scalp Electroencephalography EEG, Electromyography EMG, and Whole-body Segmental Inertial Recording for Multi-modal Neural Decoding

Development of an effective brain-machine-interface (BMI) system for restoration and rehabilitation of bipedal locomotion requires accurate decoding of user's intent. Here we present a novel experimental protocol and data collection technique for simultaneous non-invasive acquisition of neural activity, muscle activity, and whole-body kinematics during various locomotion tasks and conditions.

Recent  studies support the involvement of supraspinal networks in control of bipedal  human walking. Part of this evidence  encompasses studies, ...

Examination of Rapid Dopamine Dynamics with Fast Scan Cyclic Voltammetry During Intra-oral Tastant Administration in Awake Rats

Rapid, phasic dopamine (DA) release in the mammalian brain plays a critical role in reward processing, reinforcement learning, and motivational control. Fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) is an electrochemical technique with high spatial and temporal (sub-second) resolution that has been utilized to examine phasic DA release in several types of preparations. In vitro experiments in single-cells and brain slices and in vivo experiments in anesthetized rodents have been used to identify mechanisms that mediate dopamine release and uptake under normal conditions and in disease models. Over the last 20 years, in vivo FSCV experiments in awake, freely moving rodents have also provided insight of dopaminergic mechanisms in reward processing and reward learning. One major advantage of the awake, freely moving preparation is the ability to examine rapid DA fluctuations that are time-locked to specific behavioral events or to reward or cue presentation. However, one limitation of combined behavior and voltammetry experiments is the difficulty of dissociating DA effects that are specific to primary rewarding or aversive stimuli from co-occurring DA fluctuations that mediate reward-directed or other motor behaviors. Here, we describe a combined method using in vivo FSCV and intra-oral infusion in an awake rat to directly investigate DA responses to oral tastants. In these experiments, oral tastants are infused directly to the palate of the rat &#8211; bypassing reward-directed behavior and voluntary drinking behavior &#8211; allowing for direct examination of DA responses to tastant stimuli.

Rapid fluctuations in extracellular dopamine (DA) mediate both reward processing and motivated behavior in mammals. This manuscript describes the combined use of fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) and intra-oral tastant administration to determine how tastants alter rapid dopamine release in awake, freely moving rats.

Rapid, phasic dopamine (DA) release in the mammalian brain plays a critical role in reward processing, reinforcement learning, and motivational control. ...

Experimental Assessment of Mouse Sociability Using an Automated Image Processing Approach

Mouse is the preferred model organism for testing drugs designed to increase sociability. We present a method to quantify mouse sociability in which the test mouse is placed in a standardized apparatus and relevant behaviors are assessed in three different sessions (called session I, II, and III).
The apparatus has three compartments (see Figure 1), the left and right compartments contain an inverted cup which can house a mouse (called &#34;stimulus mouse&#34;).
In session I, the test mouse is placed in the cage and its mobility is characterized by the number of transitions made between compartments. In session II, a stimulus mouse is placed under one of the inverted cups and the sociability of the test mouse is quantified by the amounts of time it spends near the cup containing the enclosed stimulus mouse vs. the empty inverted cup. In session III, the inverted cups are removed and both mice interact freely. The sociability of the test mouse in session III is quantified by the number of social approaches it makes toward the stimulus mouse and by the number of times it avoids a social approach by the stimulus mouse.
The automated evaluation of the movie detects the nose of the test mouse, which allows the determination of all described sociability measures in session I and II (in session III, approaches are identified automatically but classified manually). To find the nose, the image of an empty cage is digitally subtracted from each frame of the movie and the resulting image is binarized to identify the mouse pixels. The mouse tail is automatically removed and the two most distant points of the remaining mouse are determined; these are close to nose and base of tail. By analyzing the motion of the mouse and using continuity arguments, the nose is identified.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52508/52508fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Assessment of Sociability During 3 sessions. Session I (top): Acclimation of test mouse to the cage. Session II (middle): Test mouse moving freely in the cage while the stimulus mouse is enclosed in an inverted cup. Session III (bottom): Both test mouse and stimulus mouse are allowed to move freely and interact with each other.

This protocol describes a method to quantify mouse sociability. Mice are videotaped as they move and interact in a special cage. Movie processing allows for the automated quantification of sociability with excellent accuracy and reliability.

Mouse is the preferred model organism for testing drugs designed to increase sociability. We present a method to quantify mouse sociability in which the ...

Asymmetric Walkway: A Novel Behavioral Assay for Studying Asymmetric Locomotion

Behavioral assays are commonly used for the assessment of sensorimotor impairment in the central nervous system (CNS). The most sophisticated methods for quantifying locomotor deficits in rodents is to measure minute disturbances of unconstrained gait overground (e.g., manual BBB score or automated CatWalk). However, cortical inputs are not required for the generation of basic locomotion produced by the spinal central pattern generator (CPG). Thus, unconstrained walking tasks test locomotor deficits due to motor cortical impairment only indirectly. In this study, we propose a novel, precise foot-placement locomotor task that evaluates cortical inputs to the spinal CPG. An instrumented peg-way was used to impose symmetrical and asymmetrical locomotor tasks mimicking lateralized movement deficits. We demonstrate that shifts from equidistant inter-stride lengths of 20% produce changes in the forelimb stance phase characteristics during locomotion with preferred stride length. Furthermore, we propose that the asymmetric walkway allows for measurements of behavioral outcomes produced by cortical control signals. These measures are relevant for the assessment of impairment after cortical damage.

Here, we present a protocol to quantify precise stepping in rodents. Cortical and the spinal central pattern generator signals are required for precise foot-placement during obstructed locomotion. We report here the novel constrained walking task that directly examines precise stepping behavior.

Behavioral assays are commonly used for the assessment of sensorimotor impairment in the central nervous system (CNS). The most sophisticated methods for ...

The Social Dimension of Stress: Experimental Manipulations of Social Support and Social Identity in the Trier Social Stress Test

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations supportive behavior of other people as well as positive social relationships can act as powerful resources to cope with stress. In order to study the interplay between these variables, this protocol describes two effective experimental manipulations of social relationships and supportive behavior in the laboratory. In the present article, these two manipulations are implemented in the Trier Social Stress Test (TSST)&#8212;a standard stress induction paradigm in which participants are subjected to a simulated job interview. More precisely, we propose (a) a manipulation of the relationship between different protagonists in the TSST by making a shared social identity salient and (b) a manipulation of the behavior of the TSST-selection committee, which acts either supportively or unsupportively. These two experimental manipulations are designed in a modular fashion and can be applied independently of each other but can also be combined. Moreover, these two manipulations can also be integrated into other stress protocols and into other standardized social interactions such as trust games, negotiation tasks, or other group tasks.

Previous research on the social dimension of stress has focused on two important variables: social identity and social support. This protocol introduces an effective experimental manipulation of these two social variables and describes their implementation in a standard stress induction paradigm (Trier Social Stress Test).

In many situations humans are influenced by the behavior of other people and their relationships with them. For example, in stressful situations ...

An Experimental Analysis of Children's Ability to Provide a False Report about a Crime

A considerable amount of research has evaluated children's lie-telling behaviors and skills1-2; however, limitations with the tasks used for eliciting false testimonies and interviewing children have restricted the generalizability of the findings. The primary aim of the current study is to provide an easy-to-administer and ecologically valid method for measuring the veracity and quality of school-aged children's (ages 6-11) testimonies when they are asked to provide different types of true and false reports. Moreover, the methodology enables researchers to examine the social and developmental factors that could influence the credibility of a child's testimony. In the current study, children will witness a theft, and are then asked to either falsely deny the transgression, falsely accuse a researcher of the theft, or tell the truth. Afterwards, children are to be interviewed by a second researcher using a thorough and ecologically valid interview protocol that requires children to provide closed-ended and free-recall responses about the events with the instigator (E1). Coders then evaluate the length and number of theft-related details the children give throughout the interview, as well as their ability to maintain their true and false reports. The representative results indicate that the truth and lie-telling conditions elicit the intended behaviors from the children. The open-ended interview questions encouraged children to provide free-recall information about their experiences with E1. Moreover, findings from the closed-ended questions suggest that children are significantly better at maintaining their lies with age, and when producing a false denial compared to a false accusation. Results from the current study can be used to develop a greater understanding of the characteristics of children's true and false testimonies about crime, which can potentially benefit law enforcement, legal staff and professionals who interview children.

An Experimental Analysis of Children&#039;s Ability to Provide a False Report about a Crime

The current methodology is designed to provide an ecologically relevant approach for measuring the veracity, length and quality of children's true and false testimonies. Implications of the current methodology for future research and professionals who interview children will also be discussed.

A considerable amount of research has evaluated children's lie-telling behaviors and skills1-2; however, limitations with the tasks used for eliciting ...

Determining Pain Detection and Tolerance Thresholds Using an Integrated, Multi-Modal Pain Task Battery

Human pain models are useful in the assessing the analgesic effect of drugs, providing information about a drug&#39;s pharmacology and identify potentially suitable therapeutic populations. The need to use a comprehensive battery of pain models is highlighted by studies whereby only a single pain model, thought to relate to the clinical situation, demonstrates lack of efficacy. No single experimental model can mimic the complex nature of clinical pain. The integrated, multi-modal pain task&#160;battery presented here encompasses the electrical stimulation task, pressure stimulation task, cold pressor task, the UVB inflammatory model which includes a thermal task and a paradigm for inhibitory conditioned pain modulation. These human pain models have been tested for predicative validity and reliability both in their own right and in combination, and can be used repeatedly, quickly, in short succession, with minimum burden for the subject and with a modest quantity of equipment. This allows a drug to be fully characterized and profiled for analgesic effect which is especially useful for drugs with a novel or untested mechanism of action.

Human pain models are valuable tools used to assess the analgesic potential of novel compounds and predict their clinical efficacy, especially when used in an integrated manner. Although implementation of these models is complex, with proper execution, the pain models described in this protocol can provide predictive and reliable results.

Human pain models are useful in the assessing the analgesic effect of drugs, providing information about a drug&#39;s pharmacology and identify ...

A Visual Guide for Studying Behavioral Defenses to Pathogen Attacks in Leaf-Cutting Ants

The complex lifestyle, evolutionary history of advanced cooperation, and disease defenses of leaf-cutting ants are well studied. Although numerous studies have described the behaviors connected with disease defense, and the associated use of chemicals and antimicrobials, no common visual reference has been made. The main aim of this study was to record short clips of behaviors involved in disease defense, both prophylactically and directly targeted towards an antagonist of the colony following infection. To do so we used an infection experiment, with sub-colonies of the leaf-cutting ant species Acromyrmex echinatior, and the most significant known pathogenic threat to the ants&#39; fungal crop (Leucoagaricus gongylophorus), a specialized pathogenic fungus in the genus Escovopsis. We filmed and compared infected and uninfected colonies, at both early and more advanced stages of infection. We quantified key defensive behaviors across treatments and show that the behavioral response to pathogen attack likely varies between different castes of worker ants, and between early and late detection of a threat. Based on these recordings we have made a library of behavioral clips, accompanied by definitions of the main individual defensive behaviors. We anticipate that such a guide can provide a common frame of reference for other researchers working in this field, to recognize and study these behaviors, and also provide greater scope for comparing different studies to ultimately help better understand the role these behaviors play in disease defense.

We present a visual guide to disease defense behaviors in leaf-cutting ants, with individual clips and accompanying definitions, illustrated in an experimental infection scenario. Our main aim is to help other researchers recognize key defensive behaviors and to provide a common understanding for future research in this field.

The complex lifestyle, evolutionary history of advanced cooperation, and disease defenses of leaf-cutting ants are well studied. Although numerous studies ...

Multi-Modal Signals for Analyzing Pain Responses to Thermal and Electrical Stimuli

The assessment of pain relies mostly on methods that require a person to communicate. However, for people with cognitive and verbal impairments, existing methods are not sufficient as they lack reliability and validity. To approach this problem, recent research focuses on an objective pain assessment facilitated by parameters of responses derived from physiology, and video and audio signals. To develop reliable automated pain recognition systems, efforts have been made in creating multimodal databases in order to analyze pain and detect valid pain patterns. While the results are promising, they only focus on discriminating pain or pain intensities versus no pain. In order to advance this, research should also consider the quality and duration of pain as they provide additional valuable information for more advanced pain management. To complement existing databases and the analysis of pain regarding quality and length, this paper proposes a psychophysiological experiment to elicit, measure, and collect valid pain reactions. Participants are subjected to painful stimuli that differ in intensity (low, medium, and high), duration (5 s / 1 min), and modality (heat / electric pain) while audio, video (e.g., facial expressions, body gestures, facial skin temperature), and physiological signals (e.g., electrocardiogram [ECG], skin conductance level [SCL], facial electromyography [EMG], and EMG of M. trapezius) are being recorded. The study consists of a calibration phase to determine a subject&#8217;s individual pain range (from low to intolerable pain) and a stimulation phase in which pain stimuli, depending on the calibrated range, are applied. The obtained data may allow refining, improving, and evaluating automated recognition systems in terms of an objective pain assessment. For further development of such systems and to investigate pain reactions in more detail, additional pain modalities such as pressure, chemical, or cold pain should be included in future studies. Recorded data of this study will be released as the &#8220;X-ITE Pain Database&#8221;.

This article focuses on the experimental elicitation of pain through heat (thermal) and electrical stimulation while recording physiological, visual, and paralinguistic responses. It aims at collecting valid multimodal data for analyzing pain based on its intensity, quality, and duration.&#160;

The assessment of pain relies mostly on methods that require a person to communicate. However, for people with cognitive and verbal impairments, existing ...

A Machine Learning Approach to Design an Efficient Selective Screening of Mild Cognitive Impairment

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is the first sign of dementia among elderly populations and its early detection is crucial in our aging societies. Common MCI tests are time-consuming such that indiscriminate massive screening would not be cost-effective. Here, we describe a protocol that uses machine learning techniques to rapidly select candidates for further screening via a question-based MCI test. This minimizes the number of resources required for screening because only patients who are potentially MCI positive are tested further.
This methodology was applied in an initial MCI research study that formed the starting point for the design of a selective screening decision tree. The initial study collected many demographic and lifestyle variables as well as details about patient medications. The Short Portable Mental Status Questionnaire (SPMSQ) and the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) were used to detect possible cases of MCI. Finally, we used this method to design an efficient process for classifying individuals at risk of MCI. This work also provides insights into lifestyle-related factors associated with MCI that could be leveraged in the prevention and early detection of MCI among elderly populations.

This methodology produces decision trees that target population groups more prone to suffering from mild cognitive impairment and are useful for cost-effective selective screening of the disease.

Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) is the first sign of dementia among elderly populations and its early detection is crucial in our aging societies. Common ...