Name: microinjection of dna into eyebuds in xenopus laevis embryos and imaging of gfp expressing optic axonal arbors in intact, living xenopus tadpoles
Uploaded: 2019-09-04T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles at JoVE.com

We thank Touro University California College of Osteopathic Medicine for supporting our research. We acknowledge previous students in the laboratory (Esther Wu, Gregory Peng, Taegun Jin, John Lim) who helped implement this microinjection technique in our laboratory. We are grateful to Dr. Christine Holt, in whose laboratory this DNA microinjection/lipofection technique in Xenopus embryos was first developed.

All methods described here have been approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Touro University California (Protocol # TUCA003TE01X).
1. Obtaining X. laevis Embryos
<ol>
	<li>Obtain X. laevis embryos by natural mating of pairs of male and female adult frogs primed with human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), by in vitro fertilization of eggs shed from female adult frogs primed with HCG, or by ordering directly (Table of Materials).<...

<ol>
	<li>Gibson, D. A., Ma, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Developmental+regulation+of+axon+branching+in+the+vertebrate+nervous+system.">Developmental regulation of axon branching in the vertebrate nervous system.</a> Development. 138 (2), 183-195 (2011).</li><li>Alsina, B., Vu, T., Cohen-Cory, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualizing+synapse+formation+in+arborizing+optic+axons+in+vivo:+dynamics+and+modulation+by+BDNF.">Visualizing synapse formation in arborizing optic axons in vivo: dynamics and modulation by BDNF.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 4 (11), 1093-1101 (2001).</li><li>Harris, W. A., Holt, C. E., Bonhoeffer, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Retinal+axons+with+and+without+their+somata,+growing+to+and+arborizing+in+the+tectum+of+Xenopus+embryos:+a+time-lapse+video+study+of+single+fibres+in+vivo.">Retinal axons with and without their somata, growing to and arborizing in the tectum of Xenopus embryos: a time-lapse video study of single fibres in vivo.</a> Development. 101 (1), 123-133 (1987).</li><li>Sakaguchi, D. S., Murphey, R. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Map+formation+in+the+developing+Xenopus+retinotectal+system:+an+examination+of+ganglion+cell+terminal+arborizations.">Map formation in the developing Xenopus retinotectal system: an examination of ganglion cell terminal arborizations.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 5 (12), 3228-3245 (1985).</li><li>Elul, T. M., Kimes, N. E., Kohwi, M., Reichardt, L. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=N-and+C-terminal+domains+of+&#946;-catenin,+respectively,+are+required+to+initiate+and+shape+axon+arbors+of+retinal+ganglion+cells+in+vivo.">N-and C-terminal domains of &#946;-catenin, respectively, are required to initiate and shape axon arbors of retinal ganglion cells in vivo.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 23 (16), 6567-6575 (2003).</li><li>Wiley, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GSK-3&#946;+and+&#945;-catenin+binding+regions+of+&#946;-catenin+exert+opposing+effects+on+the+terminal+ventral+optic+axonal+projection.">GSK-3&#946; and &#945;-catenin binding regions of &#946;-catenin exert opposing effects on the terminal ventral optic axonal projection.</a> Developmental Dynamics. 237 (5), 1434-1441 (2008).</li><li>Jin, T., Peng, G., Wu, E., Mendiratta, S., Elul, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=N-terminal+and+central+domains+of+APC+function+to+regulate+branch+number,+length+and+angle+in+developing+optic+axonal+arbors+in+vivo.">N-terminal and central domains of APC function to regulate branch number, length and angle in developing optic axonal arbors in vivo.</a> Brain research. 1697, 34-44 (2018).</li><li>Marshak, S., Nikolakopoulou, A. M., Dirks, R., Martens, G. J., Cohen-Cory, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cell-autonomous+TrkB+signaling+in+presynaptic+retinal+ganglion+cells+mediates+axon+arbor+growth+and+synapse+maturation+during+the+establishment+of+retinotectal+synaptic+connectivity.">Cell-autonomous TrkB signaling in presynaptic retinal ganglion cells mediates axon arbor growth and synapse maturation during the establishment of retinotectal synaptic connectivity.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 27 (10), 2444-2456 (2007).</li><li>Holt, C. E., Garlick, N., Cornel, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipofection+of+cDNAs+in+the+Embryonic+Vertebrate+Central+Nervous+System.">Lipofection of cDNAs in the Embryonic Vertebrate Central Nervous System.</a> Neuron. 4 (2), 203-214 (1990).</li><li>Ohnuma, S. I., Mann, F., Boy, S., Perron, M., Harris, W. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipofection+strategy+for+the+study+of+Xenopus+retinal+development.">Lipofection strategy for the study of Xenopus retinal development.</a> Methods. 28 (4), 411-419 (2002).</li><li>Joesch, M., Meister, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+neuronal+circuit+for+colour+vision+based+on+rod-cone+opponency.">A neuronal circuit for colour vision based on rod-cone opponency.</a> Nature. 532 (7598), 236-239 (2016).</li><li>Meyer, M. P., Smith, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evidence+from+in+vivo+imaging+that+synaptogenesis+guides+the+growth+and+branching+of+axonal+arbors+by+two+distinct+mechanisms.">Evidence from in vivo imaging that synaptogenesis guides the growth and branching of axonal arbors by two distinct mechanisms.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 26 (13), 3604-3614 (2006).</li><li>Li, X., Monckton, E. A., Godbout, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ectopic+expression+of+transcription+factor+AP-2&#948;+in+developing+retina:+effect+on+PSA-NCAM+and+axon+routing.">Ectopic expression of transcription factor AP-2&#948; in developing retina: effect on PSA-NCAM and axon routing.</a> Journal of Neurochemistry. 129 (1), 72-84 (2014).</li><li>Haas, K., Jensen, K., Sin, W. C., Foa, L., Cline, H. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeted+electroporation+in+Xenopus+tadpoles+in+vivo-from+single+cells+to+the+entire+brain.">Targeted electroporation in Xenopus tadpoles in vivo-from single cells to the entire brain.</a> Differentiation. 70 (4-5), 148-154 (2002).</li><li>Falk, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electroporation+of+cDNA/Morpholinos+to+targeted+areas+of+embryonic+CNS+in+Xenopus.">Electroporation of cDNA/Morpholinos to targeted areas of embryonic CNS in Xenopus.</a> BMC Developmental Biology. 7, 107 (2007).</li><li>Sive, H. L., Grainger, R. M., Harland, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Early Development of Xenopus laevis: A Laboratory Manual. , (2000).</li><li>Nieuwkoop, P. D., Faber, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Normal table of Xenopus laevis (Daudin). , (1956).</li><li>Zahn, N., Levin, M., Adams, D. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Zahn+drawings:+new+illustrations+of+Xenopus+embryo+and+tadpole+stages+for+studies+of+craniofacial+development.">The Zahn drawings: new illustrations of Xenopus embryo and tadpole stages for studies of craniofacial development.</a> Development. 144 (15), 2708-2713 (2017).</li><li>Piper, M., Dwivedy, A., Leung, L., Bradley, R. S., Holt, C. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NF-protocadherin+and+TAF1+regulate+retinal+axon+initiation+and+elongation+in+vivo.">NF-protocadherin and TAF1 regulate retinal axon initiation and elongation in vivo.</a> Journal of Neuroscience. 28 (1), 100-105 (2008).</li><li>Dwivedy, A., Gertler, F. B., Miller, J., Holt, C. E., Lebrand, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ena/VASP+function+in+retinal+axons+is+required+for+terminal+arborization+but+not+pathway+navigation.">Ena/VASP function in retinal axons is required for terminal arborization but not pathway navigation.</a> Development. 134 (11), 2137-2146 (2007).</li><li>Leung, L. C., Harris, W. A., Holt, C. E., Piper, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=NF-Protocadherin+Regulates+Retinal+Ganglion+Cell+Axon+Behaviour+in+the+Developing+Visual+System.">NF-Protocadherin Regulates Retinal Ganglion Cell Axon Behaviour in the Developing Visual System.</a> PLOS One. 10 (10), e0141290 (2015).</li><li>Lee, P. C., He, H. Y., Lin, C. Y., Ching, Y. T., Cline, H. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Computer+aided+alignment+and+quantitative+4D+structural+plasticity+analysis+of+neurons.">Computer aided alignment and quantitative 4D structural plasticity analysis of neurons.</a> Neuroinformatics. 11 (2), 249-257 (2013).</li></ol>

In this article, we demonstrate how to express exogenous DNA constructs in single or small numbers of optic neurons and how to image individual GFP expressing optic axonal arbors with normal and altered molecular signaling in intact, living tadpoles of the frog X. laevis. We also explain how to reconstruct and quantify the morphology of GFP expressing optic axonal arbors from images captured in vivo. To express exogenous DNA plasmids in small number of optic neurons, we microinject a DNA/lipofection reagent mixt...

During development of the nervous system, axons of presynaptic neurons navigate through diverse regions of the brain to reach their target areas. When axons invade their target tissues, they establish synaptic connections with postsynaptic target neurons. In many types of neurons, axons increase the number and spatial extent of synaptic connections they can make by elaborating networks of terminal branches or arbors1. The retino-tectal projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis is a powerful vertebrate model for examining mechanisms underlying terminal axon arborization and synaptic connectivity2,3,4. Individual GFP expressing optic axonal arbors with normal and altered molecular signaling can be observed directly in intact, living Xenopus tadpoles5,6,7,8. To express GFP alone or together with full-length or truncated versions of genes in small number of optic neurons, we use a technique involving microinjection/lipofection of DNA into eyebuds of one day old Xenopus embryos9,10. This technique was originally developed to study mechanisms of optic axon pathfinding in young Xenopus tadpoles, and has since been applied by us and others to determine cell-autonomous molecular mechanisms underlying optic axon arborization in Xenopus tadpoles5,6,7,8,9,10.
Alternate techniques to express exogenous genes in a small number of optic neurons have been developed in other model species, as well as in X. laevis. However, each of these approaches presents challenges and limitations when compared to microinjection of DNA/lipofection reagent in eyebuds of Xenopus embryos. In mice, transgenesis can be used to express genes in a small number of optic neurons, but the generation of transgenic mice is costly and time consuming and transgenic mice often present with undesirable side effects11. Transgenic zebrafish that express exogenous genes in optic neurons can also be created by injecting plasmids into early cleavage stage embryos12. However, this process requires cloning of a specific promoter to express genes in a mosaic pattern in optic neurons in zebrafish larvae12. The frequency of expression of exogenous DNA in optic neurons in transgenic zebrafish is also somewhat lower (&#60;30%) compared to Xenopus tadpoles that were microinjected with DNA/liposomal reagent (30&#8722;60%)12. In ovo electroporation has also been used to express genes in small numbers of optic neurons in chicks13. However, this procedure has failed to fully characterize mechanisms that establish optic projections because optic axon arborization cannot be imaged in intact, living chick embryos. Finally, several laboratories have used electroporation to transfect genes into small number of optic neurons in Xenopus tadpoles14,15. Yet, electroporation requires optimization of equipment and protocols (stimulator, electrodes, spatial and temporal patterns of wave pulses) beyond that used for microinjection of DNA/lipofection reagent into eyebuds of Xenopus embryos.
We and others previously used the technique of microinjection/lipofection of DNA into eyebuds of Xenopus embryos to determine cell autonomous signaling mechanisms that establish optic axon arborization5,6,7,8. We initially used this approach to dissect the functions of the Cadherin and Wnt adaptor protein &#946;-catenin in optic axonal arborization in Xenopus tadpoles5,6. In one study, we showed that &#946;-catenin binding to &#945;-catenin and to PDZ is required, respectively, for initiating and shaping optic axonal arbors in vivo5. In a second report, we demonstrated that the &#946;-catenin binding domains for &#945;-catenin and GSK-3&#946; oppositely modulate projection patterns of ventral optic axonal arbors6. More recently, we identified roles for the Wnt factor, adenomatous poliposis coli (APC), in regulating morphological features of optic axonal arbors in Xenopus tadpoles7. By co-expressing the N-terminal and central domains of APC that modulate &#946;-catenin stability and microtubule organization together with GFP in individual optic neurons, we determined shared and distinct roles for these APC interaction domains on branch number, length, and angle in optic axonal arbors in vivo7. Another laboratory used the microinjection/lipofection technique to determine cell autonomous roles for signaling by the BDNF receptor, TrkB, in optic axonal arbors in Xenopus tadpoles8. This group showed that expression of a dominant-negative TrkB perturbed branching and synaptic maturation in individual optic axon arbors in vivo8. Overall, the lipofection technique in Xenopus has already illuminated the specific roles of different genes in optic axon branching in the native environment.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>3.5&#34; Micropipettes</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific</td>
			<td>3-000-203 - G/X</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#956;-manager software (Version )</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>www.micro-manager.org</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD camera</td>
			<td>Scion Corporation</td>
			<td>CFW-1312 M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chorulon (Human Chorionic Gonadotropin)</td>
			<td>AtoZ Vet Supply</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cysteine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>168149-100G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DOTAP</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>11202375001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont Forceps #5</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>11250-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Eclipse E800 epifluoresence microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Objectives: Nikon Plan Apo 20X/0.75, Nikon Plan Fluor 40/0.75</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GNU Image Manipulation Program (Version 2.10.10)</td>
			<td>GIMP</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illustrator (2017 Creative Cloud)</td>
			<td>Adobe</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image J (Version 1.46r)</td>
			<td>NIH</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microfil</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>MF 34G-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micromanipulator with universal adaptor and support base</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific</td>
			<td>3-000-024-R</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3-000-025-SB</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>3-000-024-A</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Micropipette Puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument</td>
			<td>P-30</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Miniprep Kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>27104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Motorized z-stage</td>
			<td>Applied Scientific Instrumentation</td>
			<td>MFC-2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nanoject II injector</td>
			<td>Drummond Scientific</td>
			<td>3-000-204</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Powerpoint (Version 15.31)</td>
			<td>Microsoft</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xenopus laevis embryos</td>
			<td>Nasco</td>
			<td>LM00490</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

microinjection of dna into eyebuds in xenopus laevis embryos and imaging of gfp expressing optic axonal arbors in intact, living xenopus tadpoles

The primary visual projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis serves as an excellent model system for studying mechanisms that regulate the development of neuronal connectivity. During establishment of the retino-tectal projection, optic axons extend from the eye and navigate through distinct regions of the brain to reach their target tissue, the optic tectum. Once optic axons enter the tectum, they elaborate terminal arbors that function to increase the number of synaptic connections they can make with target interneurons in the tectum. Here, we describe a method to express DNA encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP), and gain- and loss-of-function gene constructs, in optic neurons (retinal ganglion cells) in Xenopus embryos. We explain how to microinject a combined DNA/lipofection reagent into eyebuds of one day old embryos such that exogenous genes are expressed in single or small numbers of optic neurons. By tagging genes with GFP or co-injecting with a GFP plasmid, terminal axonal arbors of individual optic neurons with altered molecular signaling can be imaged directly in brains of intact, living Xenopus tadpoles several days later, and their morphology can be quantified. This protocol allows for determination of cell-autonomous molecular mechanisms that underlie the development of optic axon arborization in vivo.

The protocol described in this article yields a success rate of 30&#8722;60% of injected Xenopus embryos expressing GFP (alone or together with an additional DNA constructs) in one to ten optic axonal arbors. In Figure 3, we show representative confocal images of GFP expressing control and mutant optic axonal arbors in intact Xenopus tadpoles from our recently published study7. For this study, we cloned two domain mutants of APC (APCNTERM and APC&#94...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles at JoVE.com

Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles

This protocol aims to demonstrate how to microinject a DNA/DOTAP mixture into eyebuds of one day old Xenopus laevis embryos, and how to image and reconstruct individual green fluorescent protein (GFP) expressing optic axonal arbors in tectal midbrains of intact, living Xenopus tadpoles.

Microinjection of DNA into Eyebuds in Xenopus laevis Embryos and Imaging of GFP Expressing Optic Axonal Arbors in Intact, Living Xenopus Tadpoles

The primary visual projection of tadpoles of the aquatic frog Xenopus laevis serves as an excellent model system for studying mechanisms that regulate the ...

In this video, we demonstrate how to express exogenous DNA constructs in optic neurons and how to image individual GFP-expressing optic axonal arbors in intact, living Xenopus laevis tadpoles. This is an inexpensive, simple procedure for transient cell-specific transgenesis that allows determination of cell autonomous gene function in individual optic axonal arbors, developing in a living vertebrate model system. Demonstrating the procedure will be myself, Sophia Dao, Research Assistant, and Dr.Tamira Elul, Lab Principal Investigator.To begin, gently clip the tip of a pulled glass micro capillary pipette with fine forceps. Backfill the glass micro capillary pipette with mineral oil using a MICROFIL such that a tiny drop of mineral oil appears at the clipped tip of the micro pipette. Fill the glass micro capillary pipette halfway with mineral oil.In an injector, eject the plunger halfway and load the pulled glass micro capillary pipette into the injection holder. Then extend the plunger to the full extent to confirm that the micro capillary pipette is strongly attached to the injector and does not move with the extension of the plunger. Transfer a three microliter drop of the DNA/DOTAP mixture onto a one inch square sheet of paraffin paper.Under a stereo dissecting microscope, move the tip of the glass micro capillary pipette into the DNA/DOTAP drop. Use the fill option on the injection apparatus, slowly suck the DNA/DOTAP drop into the glass micro capillary pipette. The boundary between the mineral oil and the DNA/DOTAP solution is visible in the glass micro capillary pipette due to the slight opacity of the DNA/DOTAP solution.If needed, stop filling the micro capillary pipette periodically to allow the pressure in the glass micro capillary pipette to recalibrate. First, in a 10 milliliter Petri dish filled with 0.1X MMR, manually de-vitellinize 10 stage 20 to 24 Xenopus embryos with fine forceps. Grasp the vitelline envelope at the waist to avoid injuring the embryos.With forceps in both the experimenter's left and right hand, pop the bubble of the vitelline envelope and release the embryo from the vitelline envelope. Take care not to injure the embryos when removing the vitelline envelope. Then use a plastic transfer pipette with a cut tip to transfer five to 10 de-vitellinized stage 22 to 24 embryos to a 10 milliliter Petri dish filled with 1X MMR.Under a stereo microscope, grasp one of the de-vitellinized embryos in the Petri dish with forceps and arrange the embryo so that its anterior pole is pointed up in the field of view. Then orient the embryo so that it is lying laterally and one of its left to right eye buds is facing upwards. Hold the embryo with the forceps in the experimenter's nondominant hand and with the experimenter's dominant hand, introduce the tip of the glass micro pipette from the ventral or dorsal side just beneath the epidermis into the eye bud.Inject between 70 to 210 nanoliters of the DNA/DOTAP solution. Then turn the embryo around and perform the same micro injection into the other eye bud on the contralateral side of the embryo. Inject both eye buds of six to 10 embryos in each experiment.After micro injection, store embryos in a Petri dish with 1X MMR for approximately 30 minutes to facilitate wound healing. After 30 minutes, transfer the injected embryos with a plastic transfer pipette into a 0.1X MMR solution with 0.001%bleaching agent phenylthiocarbamide to reduce pigmentation. Cover the Petri dish with a lid to culture the embryos for approximately five days until the embryos have developed into tadpoles at stages 46 to 47.This protocol yields a success rate of 30 to 60%of injected Xenopus embryos expressing GFP in one to 10 optic axonal arbors. Representative confocal images of GFP show the expressing control and mutant optic axonal arbors in the intact Xenopus tadpoles. Two domain mutants of APC, APCNTERM, and APBbeta-cat were cloned into pCS2 plasmids.Z-series images of GFP control and APC mutant optic axonal arbors were reconstructed. Plots of number of branches, total arbor branch length, and mean branch length confirm observed differences between control and APC mutant expressing axonal arbors. Additional scatter plots of number of branches versus mean branch length with regression lines show inverse correlation between these parameters and optic axonal arbors expressing APC domains.The tip of the micro capillary pipette must be correctly inserted very superficially into the eye bud so that the gray epidermis overlying the eye bud swells during each micro injection. This procedure can be used to both label and alter specific genetic function in optic neurons while assessing the growing, targeting, and branching of axons from these optic neurons. This DNA micro injection and lipofection technique has allowed researchers in developmental neurobiology to study cell autonomous molecular mechanisms that regulate optic axon arborization in intact, living Xenopus laevis tadpoles.

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Developmental Biology

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during oogenesis. In order to study roles of such maternal factors in early embryonic development, it is desirable to manipulate their functions from the very beginning of embryonic development. Conventional ways of gene interference are achieved by injection of antisense oligonucleotides (oligos) or mRNA into fertilized eggs, enabling under- or over-expression of specific proteins, respectively. However, these methods normally require more than several hours until protein expression is affected, and, hence, the interference of gene functions is not effective during early embryonic stages. Here, we introduce an experimental system in which expression levels of maternal proteins can be altered before fertilization. Xenopus laevis oocytes obtained from ovaries are defolliculated by incubating with enzymes. Antisense oligos or mRNAs are injected into defolliculated oocytes at the germinal vesicle (GV) stage. These oocytes are in vitro matured to eggs at the metaphase II (MII) stage, followed by intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). By this way, up to 10% of ICSI embryos can reach the swimming tadpole stage, thus allowing functional tests of specific gene knockdown or overexpression. This approach can be a useful way to study roles of maternally stored factors in early embryonic development.

Manipulation and In Vitro Maturation of Xenopus laevis Oocytes, Followed by Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection, to Study Embryonic Development

We describe methods of manipulating Xenopus laevis immature oocytes, in vitro maturation of oocytes to eggs, and intracytoplasmic sperm injection. This protocol allows degradation of some maternal proteins and overexpression of genes of interest at fertilization, and hence is valuable to study roles of specific factors in early embryonic development.

Amphibian eggs have been widely used to study embryonic development. Early embryonic development is driven by maternally stored factors accumulated during ...

Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq

The recruitment of chromatin regulators and the assignment of chromatin states to specific genomic loci are pivotal to cell fate decisions and tissue and organ formation during development. Determining the locations and levels of such chromatin features in vivo will provide valuable information about the spatio-temporal regulation of genomic elements, and will support aspirations to mimic embryonic tissue development in vitro. The most commonly used method for genome-wide and high-resolution profiling is chromatin immunoprecipitation followed by next-generation sequencing (ChIP-Seq). This protocol outlines how yolk-rich embryos such as those of the frog Xenopus can be processed for ChIP-Seq experiments, and it offers simple command lines for post-sequencing analysis. Because of the high efficiency with which the protocol extracts nuclei from formaldehyde-fixed tissue, the method allows easy upscaling to obtain enough ChIP material for genome-wide profiling. Our protocol has been used successfully to map various DNA-binding proteins such as transcription factors, signaling mediators, components of the transcription machinery, chromatin modifiers and post-translational histone modifications, and for this to be done at various stages of embryogenesis. Lastly, this protocol should be widely applicable to other model and non-model organisms as more and more genome assemblies become available.

Genome-wide Snapshot of Chromatin Regulators and States in Xenopus Embryos by ChIP-Seq

The question of how chromatin regulators and chromatin states affect the genome in vivo is key to our understanding of how early cell fate decisions are made in the developing embryo. ChIP-Seq&#8212;the most popular approach to investigate chromatin features at a global level&#8212;is outlined here for Xenopus embryos.

The recruitment of chromatin regulators and the assignment of chromatin states to specific genomic loci are pivotal to cell fate decisions and tissue and ...

Using Confocal Analysis of Xenopus laevis to Investigate Modulators of Wnt and Shh Morphogen Gradients

This protocol describes a method to visualise ligands distributed across a field of cells. The ease of expressing exogenous proteins, together with the large size of their cells in early embryos, make Xenopus laevis a useful model for visualising GFP-tagged ligands. Synthetic mRNAs are efficiently translated after injection into early stage Xenopus embryos, and injections can be targeted to a single cell. When combined with a lineage tracer such as membrane tethered RFP, the injected cell (and its descendants) that are producing the overexpressed protein can easily be followed. This protocol describes a method for the production of fluorescently tagged Wnt and Shh ligands from injected mRNA. The methods involve the micro dissection of ectodermal explants (animal caps) and the analysis of ligand diffusion in multiple samples. By using confocal imaging, information about ligand secretion and diffusion over a field of cells can be obtained. Statistical analyses of confocal images provide quantitative data on the shape of ligand gradients. These methods may be useful to researchers who want to test the effects of factors that may regulate the shape of morphogen gradients.

Using Confocal Analysis of Xenopus laevis to Investigate Modulators of Wnt and Shh Morphogen Gradients

The manuscript here provides a simple set of methods for analysing the secretion and diffusion of fluorescently tagged ligands in Xenopus. This provides a context for testing the ability of other proteins to modify ligand distribution and allowing experiments that may give insight into mechanisms regulating morphogen gradients.

This protocol describes a method to visualise ligands distributed across a field of cells. The ease of expressing exogenous proteins, together with the ...

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus embryos are large, develop externally, and can be easily manipulated by microinjection or surgical procedures. In addition, fate maps have been established for early Xenopus embryos. Targeted microinjection into the individual blastomere that will eventually give rise to an organ or tissue of interest can be used to selectively overexpress or knock down gene expression within this restricted region, decreasing secondary effects in the rest of the developing embryo. In this protocol, we describe how to utilize established Xenopus fate maps to target the developing Xenopus kidney (the pronephros), through microinjection into specific blastomere of 4- and 8-cell embryos. Injection of lineage tracers allows verification of the specific targeting of the injection. After embryos have developed to stage 38 - 40, whole-mount immunostaining is used to visualize pronephric development, and the contribution by targeted cells to the pronephros can be assessed. The same technique can be adapted to target other tissue types in addition to the pronephros.

Technique to Target Microinjection to the Developing Xenopus Kidney

Here, we present a protocol to use fate maps and lineage tracers to target injections into individual blastomeres that give rise to the kidney of Xenopus laevis embryos.

The embryonic kidney of Xenopus&#160;laevis (frog), the pronephros, consists of a single nephron, and can be used as a model for kidney disease. Xenopus ...

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The efficient in vivo visualization of blood vessels and the reliable quantification of their complexity are key to understanding the biology and disease of the vascular network. Here, we provide a detailed method to visualize blood vessels with a commercially available fluorescent dye, human plasma acetylated low density lipoprotein DiI complex (DiI-AcLDL), and to quantify their complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be labeled by a simple injection of DiI-AcLDL into the beating heart of an embryo, and blood vessels in the entire embryo can be imaged in live or fixed embryos. Combined with gene perturbation by the targeted microinjection of nucleic acids and/or the bath application of pharmacological reagents, the roles of a gene or of a signaling pathway on vascular development can be investigated within one week without resorting to sophisticated genetically engineered animals. Because of the well-defined venous system of Xenopus and its stereotypic angiogenesis, the sprouting of pre-existing vessels, vessel complexity can be quantified efficiently after perturbation experiments. This relatively simple protocol should serve as an easily accessible tool in diverse fields of cardiovascular research.

Visualization and Quantitative Analysis of Embryonic Angiogenesis in Xenopus tropicalis

This protocol demonstrates a fluorescence-based method to visualize the vasculature and to quantify its complexity in Xenopus tropicalis. Blood vessels can be imaged minutes after the injection of a fluorescent dye into the beating heart of an embryo after genetic and/or pharmacological manipulations to study cardiovascular development in vivo.

Blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients throughout the body, and the formation of the vascular network is under tight developmental control. The ...

Induction of Hypoxia in Living Frog and Zebrafish Embryos

Here, we introduce a novel system for hypoxia induction, which we developed to study the effects of hypoxia in aquatic organisms such as frog and zebrafish embryos. Our system comprises a chamber featuring a simple setup that is nevertheless robust to induce and maintain a specific oxygen concentration and temperature in any experimental solution of choice. The presented system is very cost-effective but highly functional, it allows induction and sustainment of hypoxia for direct experiments in vivo and for various time periods up to 48 h.
To monitor and study the effects of hypoxia, we have employed two methods - measurement of levels of hypoxia-inducible factor 1alpha (HIF-1&#945;) in whole embryos or specific tissues and determination of retinal stem cell proliferation by 5-ethynyl-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation into the DNA. HIF-1&#945; levels can serve as a general hypoxia marker in the whole embryo or tissue of choice, here embryonic retina. EdU incorporation into the proliferating cells of embryonic retina is a specific output of hypoxia induction. Thus, we have shown that hypoxic embryonic retinal progenitors decrease proliferation within 1 h of incubation under 5% oxygen of both frog and zebrafish embryos.
Once mastered, our setup can be employed for use with small aquatic model organisms, for direct in vivo experiments, any given time period and under normal, hypoxic or hyperoxic oxygen concentration or under any other given gas mixture.

We introduce a novel hypoxic chamber system for use with aquatic organisms such as frog and zebrafish embryos. Our system is simple, robust, cost-effective and allows the induction and sustainment of hypoxia in vivo and for up to 48 h. We present 2 reproducible methods to monitor the effectiveness of hypoxia.

Here, we introduce a novel system for hypoxia induction, which we developed to study the effects of hypoxia in aquatic organisms such as frog and ...

Single-cell Photoconversion in Living Intact Zebrafish

Animal and plant tissue is composed of distinct populations of cells. These cells interact over time to build and maintain the tissue and can cause disease when disrupted. Scientists have developed clever techniques to investigate characteristics and natural dynamics of these cells within intact tissue by expressing fluorescent proteins in subsets of cells. However, at times, experiments require more selected visualization of cells within the tissue, sometimes at the single-cell or population-of-cells manner. To achieve this and visualize single cells within a population of cells, scientists have utilized single-cell photoconversion of fluorescent proteins. To demonstrate this technique, we show here how to direct UV light to an Eos-expressing cell of interest in an intact, living zebrafish. We then image those photoconverted Eos+ cells 24 h later to determine how they changed in the tissue. We describe two techniques: single cell photoconversion and photoconversions of populations of cell. These techniques can be used to visualize cell-cell interactions, cell-fate and differentiation, and cell migrations, making it a technique that is applicable in numerous biological questions.

Here, we present a protocol to show how cell photoconversion is achieved through UV exposure to specific areas expressing the fluorescent protein, Eos, in living animals.

Animal and plant tissue is composed of distinct populations of cells. These cells interact over time to build and maintain the tissue and can cause ...

Fluorescent Calcium Imaging and Subsequent In Situ Hybridization for Neuronal Precursor Characterization in Xenopus laevis

Spontaneous intracellular calcium activity can be observed in a variety of cell types and is proposed to play critical roles in a variety of physiological processes. In particular, appropriate regulation of calcium activity patterns during embryogenesis is necessary for many aspects of vertebrate neural development, including proper neural tube closure, synaptogenesis, and neurotransmitter phenotype specification. While the observation that calcium activity patterns can differ in both frequency and amplitude suggests a compelling mechanism by which these fluxes might transmit encoded signals to downstream effectors and regulate gene expression, existing population-level approaches have lacked the precision necessary to further explore this possibility. Furthermore, these approaches limit studies of the role of cell-cell interactions by precluding the ability to assay the state of neuronal determination in the absence of cell-cell contact. Therefore, we have established an experimental workflow that pairs time-lapse calcium imaging of dissociated neuronal explants with a fluorescence in situ hybridization assay, allowing the unambiguous correlation of calcium activity pattern with molecular phenotype on a single-cell level. We were successfully able to use this approach to distinguish and characterize specific calcium activity patterns associated with differentiating neural cells and neural progenitor cells, respectively; beyond this, however, the experimental framework described in this article could be readily adapted to investigate correlations between any time-series activity profile and expression of a gene or genes of interest.

Fluorescent Calcium Imaging and Subsequent In Situ Hybridization for Neuronal Precursor Characterization in Xenopus laevis

We present a two-part protocol that combines fluorescent calcium imaging with in situ hybridization, allowing the experimenter to correlate patterns of calcium activity with gene expression profiles on a single-cell level.

Spontaneous intracellular calcium activity can be observed in a variety of cell types and is proposed to play critical roles in a variety of physiological ...

Analysis of Transforming Growth Factor &#223; Family Cleavage Products Secreted Into the Blastocoele of Xenopus laevis Embryos

The two arms of the Transforming Growth Factor &#223; (Tgf&#223;) superfamily, represented by Tgf&#223;/Nodal or Bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp) ligands, respectively, play essential roles in embryonic development and adult homeostasis. Members of the Tgf&#223; family are made as inactive precursors that dimerize and fold within the endoplasmic reticulum. The precursor is subsequently cleaved into ligand and prodomain fragments. Although only the dimeric ligand can engage Tgf&#223; receptors and activate downstream signaling, there is growing recognition that the prodomain moiety contributes to ligand activity. This article describes a protocol that can be used to identify cleavage products generated during activation of Tgf&#223; precursor proteins. RNA encoding Tgf&#223; precursors are first microinjected into X. laevis embryos. The following day, cleavage products are collected from the blastocoele of&#160;gastrula stage embryos and analyzed on Western blots. This protocol can be completed relatively quickly, does not require expensive reagents and provides a source of concentrated Tgf&#223; cleavage products under physiologic conditions.

Analysis of Transforming Growth Factor &amp;#223; Family Cleavage Products Secreted Into the Blastocoele of Xenopus laevis Embryos

When Transforming Growth Factor &#223; family precursor proteins are ectopically expressed in Xenopus laevis embryos, they dimerize, get cleaved and are secreted into the blastocoele, which begins at the late blastula to early gastrula stage. We describe a method for aspirating cleavage products from the blastocoele cavity for immunoblot analysis.

The two arms of the Transforming Growth Factor &#223; (Tgf&#223;) superfamily, represented by Tgf&#223;/Nodal or Bone morphogenetic protein (Bmp) ligands, ...

Generating Retinal Degeneration to Investigate Cellular Repair Strategies in &lt;em&gt;Xenopus&lt;/em&gt;

Generating Retinal Injury Models in Xenopus Tadpoles

Retinal neurodegenerative diseases are the leading causes of blindness. Among numerous therapeutic strategies being explored, stimulating self-repair recently emerged as particularly appealing. A cellular source of interest for retinal repair is the M&#252;ller glial cell, which harbors stem cell potential and an extraordinary regenerative capacity in anamniotes. This potential is, however, very limited in mammals. Studying the molecular mechanisms underlying retinal regeneration in animal models with regenerative capabilities should provide insights into how to unlock the latent ability of mammalian M&#252;ller cells to regenerate the retina. This is a key step for the development of therapeutic strategies in regenerative medicine. To this aim, we developed several retinal injury paradigms in Xenopus: a mechanical retinal injury, a transgenic line allowing for nitroreductase-mediated photoreceptor conditional ablation, a retinitis pigmentosa model based on CRISPR/Cas9-mediated rhodopsin knockout, and a cytotoxic model driven by intraocular CoCl2 injections. Highlighting their advantages and disadvantages, we describe here this series of protocols that generate various degenerative conditions and allow the study of retinal regeneration in Xenopus.

Author Spotlight: Exploring Retinal Regeneration Mechanisms in the Xenopus Frog 

We have developed several protocols to induce retinal damage or retinal degeneration in Xenopus laevis tadpoles. These models offer the possibility of studying retinal regeneration mechanisms.

Retinal neurodegenerative diseases are the leading causes of blindness. Among numerous therapeutic strategies being explored, stimulating self-repair ...