This study was supported by NIH grants 5R01AI096966-06S1 (PS, EC, and EB), 1UM1AI26617 (PS, EC and EB), P51OD011106/P51RR000167 (ER), MN REACH grant 5U01HL127479-03 (PS), 1R01A143380-01 (PS and EB), 1UM14126617 (PS and EC) as well as funds provided by the NIAID Division of Intramural Research and the NIH Intramural AIDS Targeted Antiviral Program. Anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 used in these studies was provided by the NIH Nonhuman Primate Reagent Resource (R24 OD010976, U24 AI126683). IL-2 used in these studies was provided by The NCI Preclinical Repository. We thank our collaborators in this CD4-MBL CAR/CXCR5 project, Dr. Elizabeth Connick at the University of Arizona, Dr. Edward A Berger at NIAID, NIH, Dr. Eva G Rakasz at the Wisconsin National Primate Research Center and Dr. Geoff Hart and Ms. Preethi Haran at the University of Minnesota, Dr. Leslie Kean at Harvard Medical School and Dr. Catherine Bollard at the Children&#39;s Research Institute. We also thank Dr. Scott McIvor at the University of Minnesota, Dr. Christopher Peterson at the Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Dr. Matthew Trivett at the NIH, Dr. Agne Taraseviciute at Seattle Children&#39;s Hospital, and Dr. Conrad Russell Cruz at The Children&#39;s Research Institute for their very helpful assistance in optimizing this protocol. We also gratefully acknowledge Ms. Chi Phan and Ms. Jhomary Alegria-Berrocal at the University of Minnesota for gammaretroviral production, and Ms. Kim Weisgrau at the University of Wisconsin-Madison for isolation of rhesus macaque PBMC.

NOTE: This rhesus PBMC transduction protocol requires the use of a gammaretroviral vector. Note that gammaretrovirus can either be produced in the lab or outsourced to a viral production company. In lab production can be carried out with the protocol outlined in step 1 and the virus can be titered as outlined in step 2. Whether the virus is produced on site or by a production company, an MOI (ratio of infectious virions to cells in culture) should be determined, as outlined in step 3, for each newly produced viral preparation and the cells of interest.
CAUTION: Work with gammaretroviral vectors or other retroviral vectors requires proper safety precautions such as use of lab coats and double layers of gloves. All handling of the virus must occur in the biosafety hood. All pipets should be decontaminated in a solution of 10% bleach for 30 min. All liquid infectious waste should be decontaminated with a final concentration of 10% bleach. Secondary containment, with a seal that prevents release of microbiological aerosols, is required for centrifugation
1. Producing the Gammaretroviral Stock
<ol>
	<li>Plate 293T cells for transfection. A full virus preparation requires 12 T75 flasks at 4.5 x 106 cells/flask in Dulbecco&#39;s modified Eagle medium (DMEM) + 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) without antibiotics.</li>
	<li>Allow the cells to grow overnight at 37 &#176;C before transfection.</li>
	<li>Dilute 60 &#956;L of transfection reagent in 1.5 mL reduced serum media. Prepare one tube for each flask. Incubate for 5 minutes at RT.</li>
	<li>For each flask, prepare a tube containing 1.5 mL of reduced serum media and the following plasmids: 9.0 &#956;g of a transfer plasmid containing the gene(s) of interest, 3 &#956;g of RD114 and 1.2 &#956;g of VSV-G (envelope plasmids), and 3 &#181;g of gag/pol. 
	NOTE: The envelope and gag/pol genes are needed for retroviral packaging. For our retroviral production, we add both the RD114 envelope and, for added stability, a small amount of VSV-G envelope.</li>
	<li>Add diluted plasmids (step 1.4) to diluted transfection reagent (step 1.3). Mix gently. Incubate for 20 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Feed cells 5 mL of fresh complete media and add 3 mL of transfection reagent/plasmid mixture dropwise per flask and incubate for 5&#8211;6 h at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Add an additional 5 mL of fresh medium to the flasks and incubate for 42&#8211;43 h at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>After a total transfection time of 48 h, collect media and centrifuge at 1282 x g for 3 min at 4 &#176;C to remove cell debris.</li>
	<li>Aliquot into appropriate volumes for future use, flash freeze the virus in an ethanol/dry ice bath and store at -80 &#176;C.</li>
</ol>
2. Titering the Gammaretrovirus
NOTE: Several dilutions of virus may be needed to obtain a valid titer.
<ol>
	<li>Plate 293T cells at 600,000 cells/well in a 6-well plate and incubate the plates for 24 h at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Remove the medium from the cells and add desired amount of DMEM + 10% FBS to the 293T (2 mL total volume of virus).</li>
	<li>Add the virus to the corresponding well and swirl gently to mix. For example, add 200 &#181;L, 100 &#181;L, 50 &#181;L and 25 &#181;L respectively to 4 wells. Include a well without virus for flow cytometry (mock sample).</li>
	<li>Incubate for 48 h at 37 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Trypsinize the 293T cells by adding 0.5 mL of Trypsin-EDTA and incubating for 4 min at 37 &#176;C. Stop the trypsin by adding 1.5 mL of DMEM + 10% FBS. Count the cells and determine viability with an automated cell counter or a hemocytometer.
	<ol>
		<li>To use the cell counter, add 10 &#181;L of cells to 10 &#181;L of trypan blue, mix, load the chamber slide, and insert into the counter. Push the &#34;capture&#34; button to count the cells.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Collect 0.5&#8211;1 x 106 cells and evaluate levels of CAR and CXCR5 by flow cytometry (see step 9.5). Expression of CD4 or MBL along with CXCR5 will identify transduced 293T cells co-expressing the CAR and CXCR5. See reactive antibodies in step 9.5.1.</li>
	<li>Calculate viral titer. 
	NOTE: Choose the sample with a transduction level of 20% or less for calculation of titer.
	<ol>
		<li>Use the following formula to calculate titer: 
		transduction units/mL = (number of cells in culture)(% of cells transduced)/volume of virus added to the culture</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. Determining the Optimal MOI for a Newly Produced Viral Preparation and the Cells of Interest
<ol>
	<li>Follow the transduction protocol (sections 4&#8211;9) with primary PBMCs and twofold dilutions of the gammaretroviral preparation.</li>
	<li>Assess the level of expression of the genes of interest by flow cytometry (step 9.5).</li>
	<li>Choose a concentration of virus that allows maximal transduction without loss of cell viability.</li>
</ol>
4. Preparing Plates for T Cell Activation by Coating Wells with Anti-CD3 Antibodies
<ol>
	<li>Prepare anti-macaque CD3 antibody (FN18) by diluting the stock to 10 &#181;g/mL in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS).</li>
	<li>Dispense 2 mL/well in 6-well plates. Incubate at 37 &#176;C for 2 h. Alternatively, the plates can be incubated overnight at 4 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the PBS and unbound antibodies. Rinse wells twice with 2 mL of PBS and use immediately to plate PBMCs.</li>
</ol>
5. Stimulating Rhesus PBMCs with Plate-bound Anti-CD3 and Soluble Anti-CD28
<ol>
	<li>Thaw primary rhesus PBMCs in a 37 &#176;C waterbath, with gentle agitation, until just a small amount of ice remains.</li>
	<li>In the hood, gently pipette cells into a conical tube. Rinse the vial with 1 mL of basic medium and add it slowly to the cells. Next, slowly add an additional 9 mL of warm basic medium to the cells. 
	NOTE: This step can be scaled up but never thaw more than 4 vials at one time.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge at 600 x g for 5 min at 22 &#176;C to pellet the cells. Aspirate the supernatant and then resuspend the pellet in a small amount of growth medium. Choose a volume such that the concentration of cells will exceed 2 x 106 cells/mL at this point since the final concentration should be 2 x 106 cells/mL.</li>
	<li>Stain cells with trypan blue and count the cells to determine the number of viable cells. 
	NOTE: This can be done with a standard hemocytometer or an automated cell counter. We use an automated cell counter which displays the viability and number of live cells.
	<ol>
		<li>To use the counter, add 10 &#181;L of cells to 10 &#181;L trypan blue, mix, load the chamber slide and insert into the counter. Push the &#34;capture&#34; button to count the cells.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Calculate the total number of cells by multiplying cell concentration by volume and then dilute the cells to 2 x 106 cells/mL in growth medium. Prior to plating, add anti-CD28 to a final concentration of 5 &#181;g/mL in order to provide a necessary co-stimulatory signal for T cell activation.</li>
	<li>Pipette cells into anti-CD3 coated plates. Add 3&#8211;6 x 106 cells per well (a good target is 4 x 106 cells in 2 mL media per well) and incubate for 2 days at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2.</li>
</ol>
6. Preparing Fibronectin-coated Plates
NOTE: PBMC and T cells express integrin receptors VLA-4 or VLA-5 and are good targets for fibronectin-mediated transduction.
<ol>
	<li>Prior to coating the plates, first prepare fibronectin reagent by diluting it 1:100 in sterile PBS.</li>
	<li>Pipette 2 mL of the sterile fibronectin solution into each well of a 6-well plate. Gently rock plates for 2 h at room temperature. 
	NOTE: Non-treated, cell culture-grade tissue culture plates or dishes should be used in this step.</li>
	<li>Remove the fibronectin solution by aspiration and then block with 1 mL of sterile 2% bovine serum albumin (BSA, Fraction V) in PBS. Rock the plates at room temperature for 30 min.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the BSA solution and wash the plate with 2 mL of PBS. After aspiration of the PBS, the fibronectin-coated plates can be sealed with seal wrap and stored at 4 &#176;C for up to a week. 
	NOTE: We usually prepare the plates one day before transduction.</li>
</ol>
7. Transduction of activated rhesus PBMCs
CAUTION: Work with viral vectors or with rhesus macaque PBMCs requires utilization of proper safety precautions such as use of lab coats and double layers of gloves. All handling of the virus and the cells must occur in the biosafety hood. All pipets should be decontaminated in a solution of 10% bleach for 30 min. All liquid infectious waste should be decontaminated with a final concentration of 10% bleach. Secondary containment with a seal that prevents release of microbiological aerosols, is required for centrifugation.
<ol>
	<li>Attach the gammaretroviral transducing vector to the fibronectin-coated well.
	<ol>
		<li>Warm a centrifuge to 32 &#176;C by running at 2000 x g for about 30 min.</li>
		<li>Warm both serum free and growth media in a 37 &#176;C waterbath.</li>
		<li>Thaw the virus on ice or by gently swirling the vial in a 37 &#176;C waterbath until only small amount of ice remains. To avoid degradation of the viral preparation, do not allow the contents to warm up.</li>
		<li>Dilute the retrovirus to a predetermined optimal multiplicity of infection (MOI) in serum-free medium. 
		NOTE: With our gammaretrovirus and rhesus PBMC, we have found that an MOI of 0.5 is optimal.
		<ol>
			<li>Example dilution: To coat 4 wells with virus and add 1.5 x 106 cells, (4)(1.5 x 106)(0.5) = 3 x 106 TU are needed. If the viral titer is 1.1 TU/mL, then use 2.7 mL virus in 5.3 mL media for a total volume of 8 mL.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>Add 2 mL diluted retrovirus to each well of the fibronectin-coated plate.</li>
		<li>For negative control mock-transduced cells, add media alone to the fibronectin-coated wells.</li>
		<li>Place the plates in the pre-warmed 32 &#176;C centrifuge in microplate carriers with biosafe covers and centrifuge at 2000 x g for 2 h. 
		NOTE: Virus coated plates can be used immediately or stored, with virus, at 4 &#176;C overnight.</li>
		<li>For immediate use, aspirate the virus preparation from the wells and add 2 mL of growth medium. Keep the virus-coated wells from drying.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Plate the stimulated PBMCs.
	<ol>
		<li>Check the cells using an inverted microscope. The cells should look healthy, meaning that they are round, bright and refract light. They should also show a clumped appearance indicating stimulation.</li>
		<li>Collect the target cells and transfer them to a 50 mL conical tube. Rinse the well once with 1 mL growth media and add to the conical tube. Count the number of living cells with the automated cell counter as in step 5.4. 
		NOTE: Stimulated cells will be clumped and this clumping may lead to difficulties in accurately counting the cells.</li>
		<li>Pellet the cells in the tubes by centrifuging at 600 x g for 5 min at 32 &#176;C. Aspirate the media from the cell pellet and resuspend the cells in growth medium at a concentration of 1.5 x 106 cells/mL.</li>
		<li>To each virus-coated well (prepared in the step 7.1) add 1 mL of cell suspension for a total of 1.5 x 106 cells/3 mL. Note that each well already contains 2 mL growth medium. Perform the same steps for mock-transduced cells but plate them onto fibronectin-coated wells which received no virus.</li>
		<li>Centrifuge the plates at 1000 x g for 10 min at 32 &#176;C.</li>
		<li>Incubate the plates for 48 h at 37 &#176;C under 5% CO2.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
8. Expansion of the transduced cells
<ol>
	<li>Draw the contents of the wells up and down with a 5 mL pipet in order to resuspend the cells and then transfer to a 50 mL conical tube.</li>
	<li>Add 1 mL of growth media to each well and draw up and down with a sterile transfer pipet to remove adherent cells.</li>
	<li>Count cells to determine the total cell number and viability using an automated cell counter as in step 5.4.</li>
	<li>If desired, remove 1 x 106 cells for flow cytometry to assess gene expression and phenotype. See step 9.5.1 and the Table of Materials for recommended antibodies and gating strategy.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge the cells at 600 x g for 10 min at 25 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Aspirate the media and resuspend the cells in expansion media to a concentration of 1 x 106 cells/mL. Seed each gas-permeable well of a 6-well plate with 5 mL of cells. Carefully layer an additional 25 mL of expansion media per well. 
	NOTE: We add the cells in a small volume and then layer remaining media so that the cells remain on the bottom of the well.</li>
	<li>Incubate the cells undisturbed at 37 &#176;C in 5% CO2 incubator for 4 days.</li>
</ol>
9. Collection of expanded cells and evaluating the phenotype of the transduced cell population
<ol>
	<li>Collect cells from gas permeable wells by removing and discarding 20 mL media. Caution should be taken to avoid disturbing the cells. 
	NOTE: We expand the cells for only 4 days and collect the cells at this point. However, if additional days of culture are desired, remove 20 mL of media without disturbing the cells and replace it with 20 mL of fresh expansion media.</li>
	<li>Pipet the remaining media up and down to dislodge the cells. The media should be very cloudy if cells have grown well.</li>
	<li>Using a sterile transfer pipet, rinse each well with 3 mL media to collect any residual cells.</li>
	<li>Count the cells with the automated counter or a hemocytometer to check for viability and cell number.</li>
	<li>Perform flow cytometry to determine transduced gene expression and cell phenotype.
	<ol>
		<li>In this example, determine rhesus macaque PBMC phenotype using antibodies directed against CD4 (M-T477), a clone that is reactive with both endogenous rhCD4 and the rhCD4-MBL CAR; against CD3 (SP34-2) and CD8 (RPA-T8) which stain total T cells and CD8 T cells respectively; against the death receptor CD95 (DX2) and the co-stimulatory molecule CD28 (CD28.2) which are used to determine the memory phenotype of the cells; and against CXCR5 (MU5UBEE) and MBL (3E7) to detect the CXCR5 and CD4-MBL CAR on the transduced cells.</li>
		<li>Assess viability was assessed with a fixable viability dye.</li>
		<li>Prepare cells for flow cytometry.
		<ol>
			<li>Make up an antibody master mix for the total number of tubes. Bring up to total volume using PBS.</li>
			<li>Add the cells to flow tubes. Place 0.5&#8211;1 x 106 cells per tube. Include negative controls such as unstained cells as well as stained mock transduced cells.</li>
			<li>Add 2 mL of PBS to the cells, centrifuge at 400 x g for 5 min at room temperature (RT) and decant.</li>
			<li>Add 100 &#181;L of antibody mix to the tubes and incubate for 30 min at RT.</li>
			<li>Add 2 mL of PBS, centrifuge at 400 x g for 5 min at RT and decant.</li>
			<li>Add 300 &#181;L of 1% paraformaldehyde and incubate for 15 min.</li>
			<li>Centrifuge at 400 x g for 5 min at RT and decant. Add 300 &#181;L of PBS and mix.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
		<li>On a flow cytometer, acquire 150,000 events for each sample.</li>
		<li>Analyze the data with flow analysis software. 
		NOTE: The gating strategy was previously published20.
		<ol>
			<li>For identification of transduced cells, gate cells on lymphocytes, singlets, live, CD3+, and MBL+CXCR5+.</li>
			<li>For identification of the central memory population, gate cells on lymphocytes, singlets, live CD3+, CD8+, CD28+ CD95+.</li>
		</ol>
		</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Use cells as needed. Cells can be used for in vitro assays of function, such as a transwell migration assay9 or in vitro cell killing assays5,9. Cells can be used for infusion into animals. Alternatively, freeze any remaining cells in 90% FBS with 10% dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) for later use or analysis 
	NOTE: While a target dose for infusion of adoptively transferred cells into a rhesus macaque is not yet established, published adoptive transfer studies in non-human primates have used 0.6 to 1.2 x 107 cells/kg21, 1 to 5 x 108 cells/kg22 and 1.4 to 8 x 108 cells/kg10. With this range as a guideline, enough cells for infusion can be produced with this 9-day protocol.</li>
</ol>

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P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+transduction+and+expansion+of+transduced+T+cells+with+maintenance+of+central+memory+populations.">Rapid transduction and expansion of transduced T cells with maintenance of central memory populations.</a> Molecular Therapy - Methods and Clinical Development. 16, 1-10 (2019).</li><li>Taraseviciute, A., Tkachev, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chimeric+antigen+receptor+T+cell-mediated+neurotoxicity+in+nonhuman+primates.">Chimeric antigen receptor T cell-mediated neurotoxicity in nonhuman primates.</a> Cancer Discovery. 8 (6), 750-763 (2018).</li><li>Berger, C., Sommermeyer, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Safety+of+targeting+ROR1+in+primates+with+chimeric+antigen+receptor-modified+T+cells.">Safety of targeting ROR1 in primates with chimeric antigen receptor-modified T cells.</a> Cancer Immunology Research. 3 (2), 206-216 (2015).</li></ol>

Dr. Pamela Skinner is the co-founder and chief scientific officer of MarPam Pharma.

This protocol outlines a T cell immunotherapy production strategy which utilizes a gammaretroviral vector to transduce rhesus macaque PBMC leading to T cell population that expresses an antiviral CAR as well as the follicular homing receptor, CXCR5. With a total of 8 days of ex vivo culture time, viable, functional CAR T cells are produced in a quantity that is within the published range10,21,22 used for infusion into non-human primates for preclinical efficacy testing.
The success of the transduction protocol relies on both healthy, stimulated PBMCs and on quality preparations of gammaretrovirus. In order to achieve successful stimulation and transduction, it is essential that proper care is taken in freezing and transport of the PBMCs after collection. Ideally, if the cells are collected off site, they are shipped in liquid nitrogen and quickly placed in long term liquid nitrogen storage. PBMCs must be mitotically active in order to be successfully transduced by a gammaretrovirus. One should monitor visually for clustering of the cells after stimulation with anti-CD3/anti-CD28. A failure to activate properly will cause low efficiency of transduction. It is also important to monitor the viability in the stimulated cells. Poor viability after the stimulation step usually leads to a less successful transduction. Whether virus preparations are produced in the lab or outsourced, they should be stored at -80 &#176;C in single use aliquots to avoid freeze thaw cycles that can damage the virus and impair transduction efficiency. The virus must be titered so that consistent amounts of virus can be used in each experiment. When using the virus for transduction, thaw the virus quickly and store on ice until needed. The choice of promoter, enhancer and envelope proteins may all impact transduction efficiency and expression of transgene in target cells. Thus, a MOI must be empirically determined. In addition, the use of a media designed to support T cells and plates with gas permeable wells for expansion have led to excellent expansion of the transduced cells. However, there is animal to animal variability in the cell expansion rate. We recommend a trial study to determine the ability of a particular cell preparation to be transduced and expanded. Expansion levels are consistent in both small-and large-scale transductions.
With the use of this protocol, we have produced up to 2.5 x 109 cells for infusion into test animals. Although we have found it unnecessary to scale-up the protocol at this time, the use of 6 well plates is a limitation to large-scale cell preparation and the protocol would require modification to produce greater numbers of cells. Examples of potential modifications include carrying out the transduction in a fibronectin-coated culture bag to increase the number of cells transduced and to utilize a larger gas permeable culture vessel for the expansion step. Although we have not yet made these alterations, they utilize commercially available products and are feasible modifications to the current protocol.
Using this method, we have produced transduced cells from PBMC isolated from uninfected animals, SIV-infected animals and from SIV-infected animals treated with antiretroviral therapy (ART). However, we have noted a reduction in transduction efficiency in the ART treated cells20. This reduction is presumably due to the inhibition of reverse transcriptase and/or integrase by the drugs. Transductions of cells from ART-treated animals will require modifications to this protocol such as reducing the intracellular levels of the ART drugs by stopping ART for several days prior to collecting the PBMC or through the use of an alternative vector which is not impacted by the ART drugs commonly in use.
It is important that cells produced for immunotherapy be of a minimally differentiated phenotype so that they will persist post-infusion12. Although many protocols for adoptive transfer of cells require long culture times, a reduced ex vivo culture time has been correlated with both a reduction in differentiation and an improvement in CAR T cell function13. The relatively rapid timeframe of this transduction and expansion protocol allows maintenance of the desired central memory phenotype while still producing sufficient cells for testing of their immunotherapeutic potential20.
The goal of the production strategy for this T cell immunotherapy product is to manufacture T cells that will recognize SIV-infected cells, will traffic to the site of viral replication in the B cell follicle and will persist in the animal resulting in a long-term functional cure without need for anti-retroviral drugs. For translation to a human immunotherapy product, this protocol can be modified to transduce human T cells through the use of human-specific antibodies and cytokines and the implementation of GMP standards with the ultimate goal of a producing a functional cure for HIV.

Cellular immunotherapies are emerging as a new means to treat diseases including cancers and infectious diseases. These immunotherapy methods often involve genetically manipulating therapeutic cells to express specific molecules. For example, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T cells are engineered to express a CAR molecule that has an extracellular domain that specifically binds molecules on diseased cells and a signaling domain that triggers the immune cells to kill the diseased cell. CAR T cells are being used successfully in cancer immunotherapies, and have been particularly effective in treating B cell leukemias1,2,3. CAR-T cells are also being developed to treat viral infections such as HIV. HIV-specific CARs target the envelope proteins on the surface of virally infected cells4. Immunotherapeutic cells can also be engineered to express homing molecules to target therapeutic cells to specific tissue locations. We have developed vectors that transduce both a virus-specific CAR as well as the lymphoid follicle homing molecule CXCR55.
Viral replication of some viruses, including human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), is concentrated within B cell follicles in secondary lymphoid tissues6. B cell follicles are somewhat immune privileged sites in which low levels of virus-specific CTL permit ongoing viral replication7,8. For these reasons, targeting HIV/SIV-specific T cells into the follicle through expression of CXCR5 is a strategy for elimination of the follicular reservoir of virally infected cells9,10. Specifically, we are targeting SIV-specific CAR T cells to B cell follicles via CXCR5 co-expression.
In this protocol we describe a method to transduce CAR/CXCR5 and expand PBMCs to produce CAR/CXCR5 T cells of sufficient quantities for therapeutic infusion. Cells transduced with these methods maintain a central memory phenotype. Studies have shown that cells with a less differentiated phenotype, such as central memory T cells and T memory stem cells better persist than more differentiated cells11,12. In addition, many protocols designed to produce adoptively transferred cells have relatively long culture times that result in cells that have a more differentiated phenotype and reduced persistence13. Furthermore, adoptively transferred cells with long culture times accumulated within the lungs instead of target lymphoid tissues in rhesus macaque14,15. In the methods we describe and demonstrate here, we rapidly transduce and expand rhesus macaque PBMCs to produce transduced T cells that maintain a central memory phenotype.
Both CD4 and CD8 T cells are included in our immunotherapy approach. This mixed cell population was chosen because, in clinical trials, the absence of CD4+ T cells in the CD8+ T cell product was correlated with a failure of infused CD8 T cells to persist 16. The methods described here begin by activating PBMCs with anti-CD3 and anti-CD28 antibodies which potently stimulate the T cell receptor and provide a co-stimulatory signal to avoid clonal anergy17,18.
After activation, cells are transduced with a gammaretroviral vector encoding a virus-specific CAR and the lymphoid homing molecule CXCR5. Transduced cells are then expanded using plates designed for non-adherent cell propagation which have a gas permeable membrane at the base. This membrane permits gas exchange at the bottom of the well leading to enhanced cell survival and nutrient availability19. Using these methods, sufficient functional cells can be produced in a 9-day timeframe for in vivo infusion studies. While this protocol is designed for transducing and expanding rhesus macaque T cells, with slight modification of the species-specific activating antibodies, it can be used with cells from other species. These methods are based on our previously published studies9,20.

<table><tbody><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Gammaretrovirus preparation&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>0.025% Trypsin, 0.01% EDTA</td><td>Gibco</td><td>R-001-100</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>293T cells</td><td>ATCC</td><td>CRL-3216</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6 well plates, treated</td><td>CytoOne</td><td>CC7682-7506</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>DMEM</td><td>Gibco</td><td>10569-010</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Heat-inactivated FBS</td><td>Hyclone</td><td>Sh30088.03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Lipofectamine</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>11668019</td><td>transfection reagent</td></tr><tr><td>Opti-Mem</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>31985070</td><td>reduced serum media</td></tr><tr><td>pBS-CMV-gagpol</td><td>Addgene</td><td>35614</td><td>A gift from Dr. Patrick Salmon</td></tr><tr><td>pMSGV1 containing CAR P2A CXCR5</td><td>custom order from GenScript</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>RD114</td><td></td><td></td><td>A gift from Dr. Ed Berger</td></tr><tr><td>T75 flasks</td><td>CytoOne</td><td>CC7682-4875</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>VSV-G</td><td></td><td>pMD.G</td><td>A gift from Dr. Scott McIvor</td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;T cell stimulation&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6 well plates, untreated</td><td>CytoOne</td><td>CC7672-7506</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Anti-CD28</td><td>NHP Reagent Resource</td><td>Clone: CD28.2</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Anti-macaque CD3</td><td>NHP Reagent Resource</td><td>Clone: FN18</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Phosphate buffered saline</td><td>Gibco</td><td>14190-144</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Rhesus macaque PBMC or CD8 T cells</td><td>WNPRC</td><td></td><td>Primary cells</td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;For Fibronectin coating&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>6 well plates, untreated</td><td>CytoOne</td><td>CC7672-7506</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>BSA (Fraction V)</td><td>HyClone</td><td>SH 30574.02</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>RetroNectin (1 mg/ml)</td><td>TaKaRa</td><td>T100A</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;For T cell Expansion&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>G-Rex 6 Well Plate</td><td>Wilson Wolf</td><td>P/N 80240M</td><td>Plates with gas permeable wells</td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Media Components&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>b mercaptoethanol</td><td>Gibco</td><td>21985-023</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Heat-inactivated FBS</td><td>Hyclone</td><td>Sh30088.03</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>IL-2</td><td>NCI Preclinical Repository</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Penicillin/Streptomycin/Glutamine</td><td>Gibco</td><td>10378-016</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>X-Vivo-15 medium</td><td>Lonza</td><td>04-418Q</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Variations of Media used&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Basic medium:</td><td>X-Vivo 15 medium, 10% heat-inactivated FBS, 1 x Penicillin/Streptomycin/L-Glutamine</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Expansion medium:</td><td>Growth medium + 50 mM b mercaptoethanol</td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Growth medium:</td><td>Basic medium + 50 IU/ml IL-2</td><td></td><td>Completion of media by addition of anti-CD28, IL-2 or b-mercaptoethanol should occur on the day of use.</td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Cell counting&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Countess cell counting chambers</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>AMQAF1000</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Countess II FL Automated Cell Counter</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>T10282</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Trypan blue, 0.4% solution</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>T10282</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Flow Cytometry&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Alexa Fluor 647 Antibody Labeling Kit</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>A20186</td><td>for conjugation of MBL antibody</td></tr><tr><td>anti-CD28-BV605</td><td>BD Biosciences</td><td>562976</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-CD3-AF700</td><td>BD Biosciences</td><td>557917</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-CD4-FITC</td><td>BD Biosciences</td><td>556615</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-CD8-BV788</td><td>BD Biosciences</td><td>563824</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-CD95-PerCP Cy5.5</td><td>BD Biosciences</td><td>561655</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-CXCR5-PE</td><td>eBioscience</td><td>12-1985-42</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>anti-MBL</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>MA1-40145-S6</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Flow Analysis software</td><td>FlowJo, LLC</td><td>FlowJo v10</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Flow Cytometer</td><td>Beckman</td><td>CytoFlex</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Live/Dead Near IR</td><td>Invitrogen</td><td>L10119</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>&lt;strong&gt;Other equipment&lt;/strong&gt;</td><td></td><td></td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Aerosolve canisters to contain aerosol leakage</td><td>Beckman</td><td>SX4750</td><td>Safety equipment</td></tr><tr><td>Beckman Allegra Centrifuge</td><td>Beckman</td><td>Sterilgard e3</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Cell culture incubator</td><td>Thermo Fisher</td><td>Everlast 247</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Class II Laminar flow hood</td><td>Baker</td><td>Heracell Vios 160i</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Extra-Safe Disposable lab coat</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>359232</td><td>Personal protective equipment</td></tr><tr><td>Microplate carriers with biocertified covers</td><td>Beckman</td><td>SX4750A</td><td>Safety equipment</td></tr><tr><td>Rocking platform</td><td>Benchmark</td><td>C10228</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>Swinging bucket rotor</td><td>Beckman</td><td>X13-R</td><td></td></tr><tr><td>X-Gen Nitrile gloves</td><td>Genesee</td><td></td><td>Personal protective equipment</td></tr></tbody></table>

transduction and expansion of primary t cells in nine days with maintenance of central memory phenotype

Emerging immunotherapies to treat infectious diseases and cancers often involve transduction of cellular populations with genes encoding disease-targeting proteins. For example, chimeric antigen receptor (CAR)-T cells to treat cancers and viral infections involve the transduction of T cells with synthetic genes encoding CAR molecules. The CAR molecules make the T cells specifically recognize and kill cancer or virally infected cells. Cells can also be co-transduced with other genes of interest. For example, cells can be co-transduced with genes encoding proteins that target cells to specific locations. Here, we present a protocol to transduce primary peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) with genes encoding a virus-specific CAR and the B cell follicle homing molecule chemokine receptor type 5 (CXCR5). This procedure takes nine days and results in transduced T cell populations that maintain a central memory phenotype. Maintenance of a central memory or less differentiated phenotype has been shown to associate with persistence of cells post-infusion. Furthermore, cells produced with this method show high levels of viability, high levels of co-expression of the two transduced genes, and large enough quantities of cells for immunotherapeutic infusion. This nine-day protocol may be broadly used for CAR-T cell and other T cell immunotherapy approaches. The methods described here are based on studies presented in our previous publications.

Cell production 
Results presented in this publication are similar to those in our previously published work9,20. Utilizing the protocol presented here, we expect at least an 8-fold expansion of cells between days 5 and 9 (median 11.1 fold, range 8.7&#8211;13 fold). Gas permeable wells were seeded at a starting density of 5 x 106 cells and after 4 days of growth, we achieved a median density of 55.6 x 106 cells per well (range 43.5&#8211;64.8 x 106) (Figure 1A). Cell counting with Trypan Blue exclusion shows that the cells maintain high viability throughout the protocol (day 9 median 85.8%, range 83&#8211;95%) (Figure 1B). We find animal to animal variability in the ability of the cells to expand; however, with a starting population of 50&#8211;100 x 106 cells on day 1, we have used this protocol to produce enough cells for rhesus macaque infusion of 1&#8211;2 x 108 cells/kg.
Co-expression of the transduced genes was monitored with flow cytometry (Figure 2A). Expression of the CAR and CXCR5 on the surface of the transduced cells was relatively stable between days 5 and 9 of this expansion protocol. On day 5, a median of 42.8% (range 36.5&#8211;46.9%) of the cells were transduced with both CD4-MBL CAR and CXCR5 while on day 9, median expression was 47.6% (range 44.5&#8211;64.5%) with a single round of transduction (Figure 2B). Although some protocols call for a second round of transduction, we have not seen a benefit in terms of total transduced cells at the conclusion of the protocol (data not shown).
Cell phenotype 
Transduced cells were analyzed by flow cytometry to monitor their memory phenotype. Prior to transduction and expansion, naive, central memory and effector memory populations are identified (data not shown) but the na&#239;ve population is lost with culturing and the cells are primarily central memory cells by day 5 (Figure 3A) and day 9 (Figure 3B) as identified by CD95+ CD28+ expression. The use of this rapid transduction and expansion protocol has produced cells which are primarily central memory cells and thus will be more likely to proliferate and persist when infused into a test animal.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60400/60400fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: The transduction and expansion protocol produces abundant transduced cells which are highly viable. (A) Expansion of the transduced cells from 6 different animals from days 5 to 9 in the gas permeable vessels and (B) viability of the transduced PBMC from the same 6 animals. Trypan blue exclusion using an automated cell counter was used to monitor cell number and viability. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60400/60400fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60400/60400fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2: The transduction protocol produces cells which maintain co-expression of the two transduced genes. (A) A representative flow plot of rhesus PBMC on day 9 of the transduction and expansion protocol demonstrating expression of both the CD4-MBL CAR and CXCR5. (B) Expression of the CD4-MBL CAR and CXCR5 on transduced rhesus PBMC from 6 different animals on days 5 and 9 in culture as measured by flow cytometry. Gates were set on live, CD3+ cells. Transduced cells are identified as MBL+ CXCR5+. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60400/60400fig02large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/60400/60400fig03.jpg" /> 
Figure 3: The majority of the cells produced in the 9-day protocol have a central memory phenotype. Representative flow cytometry plots of (A) day 5 and (B) day 9 CAR/CXCR5-transduced rhesus PBMC. Gates were set on live, CD3+, CD8+ cells. Central memory was defined as CD28+ CD95+. Effector memory was defined as CD28-, CD95+. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/60400/60400fig03large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Transduction and Expansion of Primary T Cells in Nine Days with Maintenance of Central Memory Phenotype at JoVE.com

Transduction and Expansion of Primary T Cells in Nine Days with Maintenance of Central Memory Phenotype

We outline a 9-day protocol for the transduction and expansion of rhesus macaque peripheral blood mononuclear cells which yields cells with excellent co-expression of the genes of interest in sufficient number for infusion studies of cell efficacy.

Emerging immunotherapies to treat infectious diseases and cancers often involve transduction of cellular populations with genes encoding disease-targeting ...

transduction-expansion-primary-t-cells-nine-days-with-maintenance

Nanyang Technological University

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

11.0K Views.  University of Minnesota. We outline a 9-day protocol for the transduction and expansion of rhesus macaque peripheral blood mononuclear cells which yields cells with excellent co-expression of the genes of interest in sufficient number for infusion studies of cell efficacy.

Video: Transduction and Expansion of Primary T Cells in Nine Days with Maintenance of Central Memory Phenotype

Murine Superficial Lymph Node Surgery

In the field of immunology, to understand the progression of an immune response against a vaccine, an infection or a tumour, the response is often followed over time. Similarly, the study of lymphocyte homeostasis requires time course experiments. Performing these studies within the same mouse is ideal to reduce the experimental variability as well as the number of mice used. Blood withdrawal allows performance of time course experiments, but it only gives information about circulating lymphocytes and provides a limited number of cells1-4. Since lymphocytes circulating through the body and residing in the lymph nodes have different properties, it is important to examine both locations. The sequential removal of lymph nodes by surgery provides a unique opportunity to follow an immune response or immune cell expansion in the same mouse over time. Furthermore, this technique yields between 1-2x106 cells per lymph node which is sufficient to perform phenotypic characterization and/or functional assays. Sequential lymph node surgery or lymphadenectomy has been successfully used by us and others5-11. Here, we describe how the brachial and inguinal lymph nodes can be removed by making a small incision in the skin of an anesthetised mouse. Since the surgery is superficial and done rapidly, the mouse recovers very quickly, heals well and does not experience excessive pain. Every second day, it is possible to harvest one or two lymph nodes allowing for time course experiments. This technique is thus suitable to study the characteristics of lymph node-residing lymphocytes over time. This approach is suitable to various experimental designs and we believe that many laboratories would benefit from performing sequential lymph node surgeries.

To follow the progression of an immune response over time within the same mouse, lymph nodes can be sequentially removed by surgery. Here, we describe how this technique can be performed.

In the field of immunology, to understand the progression of an immune response against a vaccine, an infection or a tumour, the response is often ...

Immunology and Infection

Generation of Induced Regulatory T Cells from Primary Human Na&iuml;ve and Memory T Cells

The development and maintenance of immunosuppressive CD4+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) contribute to the peripheral tolerance needed to remain in immunologic homeostasis with the vast amount of self and commensal antigens in and on the human body. Perturbations in the balance between Tregs and inflammatory conventional T cells can result in immunopathology or cancer. Although therapeutic injection of Tregs has been shown to be efficacious in murine models of colitis1 , type I diabetes2 , rheumatoid arthritis and graft versus host disease,4 several fundamental differences in human versus mouse Treg biology5 has thus far precluded clinical use. The lack of sufficient number, purity, stability and homing specificity of therapeutic Tregs necessitated a dynamic platform of human Treg development on which to optimize conditions for their ex vivo expansion6.
Here we describe a method for the differentiation of induced Tregs (iTregs) from a single human peripheral blood donor which can be broken down into four stages: isolation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells, magnetic selection of CD4+ T cells, in vitro cell culture and fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) of T cell subsets. Since the Treg signature transcription factor forkhead box P3 (FoxP3) is an activation-induced transcription factor in humans7 and no other unique marker exists, a combinatorial panel of markers must be used to identify T cells with suppressor activity. After six days in culture, cells in our system can be demarcated into na&iuml;ve T cells, memory T cells or iTregs based on their relative expression of CD25 and CD45RA. As memory and na&iuml;ve T cells have different reported polarization requirements and plasticities8 , pre-sorting of the initial T cell population into CD45RA+ and CD45RO+ subsets can be used to examine these discrepancies. Consistent with others, our CD25HiCD45RA- iTregs express high levels of FoxP39 , GITR and CTLA-411 and low levels of CD12712 . Following FACS of each population, resultant cells can be used in a suppressor assay which evaluates the relative ability to retard the proliferation of carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE)-labeled autologous T cells.

Generation of Induced Regulatory T Cells from Primary Human Na&#239;ve and Memory T Cells

We describe a method for generating regulatory, memory and na&#239;ve T cells from a single human blood donor. Polarized Tregs can be then compared to other subsets in a variety of genetic and functional applications with genetic homogeneity, including a suppression assay also detailed here.

The development and maintenance of immunosuppressive CD4+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) contribute to the peripheral tolerance needed to remain in ...

Peptide:MHC Tetramer-based Enrichment of Epitope-specific T cells

A basic necessity for researchers studying adaptive immunity with in vivo experimental models is an ability to identify T cells based on their T cell antigen receptor (TCR) specificity. Many indirect methods are available in which a bulk population of T cells is stimulated in vitro with a specific antigen and epitope-specific T cells are identified through the measurement of a functional response such as proliferation, cytokine production, or expression of activation markers1. However, these methods only identify epitope-specific T cells exhibiting one of many possible functions, and they are not sensitive enough to detect epitope-specific T cells at naive precursor frequencies. A popular alternative is the TCR transgenic adoptive transfer model, in which monoclonal T cells from a TCR transgenic mouse are seeded into histocompatible hosts to create a large precursor population of epitope-specific T cells that can be easily tracked with the use of a congenic marker antibody2,3. While powerful, this method suffers from experimental artifacts associated with the unphysiological frequency of T cells with specificity for a single epitope4,5. Moreover, this system cannot be used to investigate the functional heterogeneity of epitope-specific T cell clones within a polyclonal population.
	The ideal way to study adaptive immunity should involve the direct detection of epitope-specific T cells from the endogenous T cell repertoire using a method that distinguishes TCR specificity solely by its binding to cognate peptide:MHC (pMHC) complexes. The use of pMHC tetramers and flow cytometry accomplishes this6, but is limited to the detection of high frequency populations of epitope-specific T cells only found following antigen-induced clonal expansion. In this protocol, we describe a method that coordinates the use of pMHC tetramers and magnetic cell enrichment technology to enable detection of extremely low frequency epitope-specific T cells from mouse lymphoid tissues3,7. With this technique, one can comprehensively track entire epitope-specific populations of endogenous T cells in mice at all stages of the immune response.

This protocol describes the use of peptide:MHC tetramers and magnetic microbeads to isolate low frequency populations of epitope-specific T cells and analyze them by flow cytometry. This method enables the direct study of endogenous T cell populations of interest from in vivo experimental systems.

A  basic necessity for researchers studying adaptive immunity with in vivo experimental models is an  ability to identify T cells based on their T cell ...

Adenoviral Transduction of Naive CD4 T Cells to Study Treg Differentiation

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are essential to provide immune tolerance to self as well as to certain foreign antigens. Tregs can be generated from naive CD4 T cells in vitro with TCR- and co-stimulation in the presence of TGF&beta; and IL-2. This bears enormous potential for future therapies, however, the molecules and signaling pathways that control differentiation are largely unknown.
Primary T cells can be manipulated through ectopic gene expression, but common methods fail to target the most important naive state of the T cell prior to primary antigen recognition. Here, we provide a protocol to express ectopic genes in naive CD4 T cells in vitro before inducing Treg differentiation. It applies transduction with the replication-deficient adenovirus and explains its generation and production. The adenovirus can take up large inserts (up to 7 kb) and can be equipped with promoters to achieve high and transient overexpression in T cells. It effectively transduces naive mouse T cells if they express a transgenic Coxsackie adenovirus receptor (CAR). Importantly, after infection the T cells remain naive (CD44low, CD62Lhigh) and resting (CD25-, CD69-) and can be activated and differentiated into Tregs similar to non-infected cells. Thus, this method enables manipulation of CD4 T cell differentiation from its very beginning. It ensures that ectopic gene expression is already in place when early signaling events of the initial TCR stimulation induces cellular changes that eventually lead into Treg differentiation.

Adenoviral gene transfer into naive CD4 T cells with transgenic expression of the Coxsackie adenovirus receptor enables the molecular analysis of regulatory T cell differentiation in vitro.

Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are essential to provide immune tolerance to self as well as to certain foreign antigens. Tregs can be generated from naive CD4 ...

Mouse Na&#239;ve CD4+ T Cell Isolation and In vitro Differentiation into T Cell Subsets

Antigen inexperienced (na&#239;ve) CD4+ T cells undergo expansion and differentiation to effector subsets at the time of T cell receptor (TCR) recognition of cognate antigen presented on MHC class II. The cytokine signals present in the environment at the time of TCR activation are a major factor in determining the effector fate of a na&#239;ve CD4+ T cell. Although the cytokine environment during na&#239;ve T cell activation may be complex and involve both redundant and opposing signals in vivo, the addition of various cytokine combinations during naive CD4+ T cell activation in vitro can readily promote the establishment of effector T helper lineages with hallmark cytokine and transcription factor expression. Such differentiation experiments are commonly used as a first step for the evaluation of targets believed to promote or inhibit the development of certain CD4+ T helper subsets. The addition of mediators, such as signaling agonists, antagonists, or other cytokines, during the differentiation process can also be used to study the influence of a particular target on T cell differentiation. Here, we describe a basic protocol for the isolation of na&#239;ve T cells from mouse and the subsequent steps necessary for polarizing na&#239;ve cells to various T helper effector lineages in vitro.

Mouse Na&#239;ve CD4+ T Cell Isolation and In vitro Differentiation into T Cell Subsets

Na&#239;ve CD4+ T cells polarize to various subsets depending on the environment at the time of activation. The differentiation of na&#239;ve CD4+ T cells to various effector subsets can be achieved in vitro through the addition of T cell receptor stimuli and specific cytokine signals.

Antigen inexperienced (na&#239;ve) CD4+ T cells undergo expansion and differentiation to effector subsets at the time of T cell receptor (TCR) recognition ...

Isolation and Ex Vivo Culture of V&#948;1+CD4+&#947;&#948; T Cells, an Extrathymic &#945;&#946;T-cell Progenitor

The thymus, the primary organ for the generation of &#945;&#946; T cells and backbone of the adaptive immune system in vertebrates, has long been considered as the only source of &#945;&#946;T cells. Yet, thymic involution begins early in life leading to a drastically reduced output of na&#239;ve &#945;&#946;T cells into the periphery. Nevertheless, even centenarians can build immunity against newly acquired pathogens. Recent research suggests extrathymic &#945;&#946;T cell development, however our understanding of pathways that may compensate for thymic loss of function are still rudimental. &#947;&#948; T cells are innate lymphocytes that constitute the main T-cell subset in the tissues. We recently ascribed a so far unappreciated outstanding function to a &#947;&#948; T cell subset by showing that the scarce entity of CD4+ V&#948;1+&#947;&#948; T cells can transdifferentiate into &#945;&#946;T cells in inflammatory conditions. Here, we provide the protocol for the isolation of this progenitor from peripheral blood and its subsequent cultivation. V&#948;1 cells are positively enriched from PBMCs of healthy human donors using magnetic beads, followed by a second step wherein we target the scarce fraction of CD4+ cells with a further magnetic labeling technique. The magnetic force of the second labeling exceeds the one of the first magnetic label, and thus allows the efficient, quantitative and specific positive isolation of the population of interest. We then introduce the technique and culture condition required for cloning and efficiently expanding the cells and for identification of the generated clones by FACS analysis. Thus, we provide a detailed protocol for the purification, culture and ex vivo expansion of CD4+ V&#948;1+&#947;&#948; T cells. This knowledge is prerequisite for studies that relate to this &#945;&#946;T cell progenitor`s biology and for those who aim to identify the molecular triggers that are involved in its transdifferentiation.

Isolation and Ex Vivo Culture of V&#948;1+CD4+&#947;&#948; T Cells, an Extrathymic &#945;&#946;T-cell Progenitor

Here, we provide an optimized protocol for the isolation and cloning of the scarce T-cell entity of peripheral V&#948;1+CD4+ T cells that is, as we showed recently, an extrathymic &#945;&#946; T-cell progenitor. This technique allows to quantitatively isolate, clone and efficiently expand these cells in ex vivo culture.

The thymus, the primary organ for the generation of &#945;&#946; T cells and backbone of the adaptive immune system in vertebrates, has long been ...

Preparation and Applications of Organotypic Thymic Slice Cultures

Thymic selection proceeds in a unique and highly organized thymic microenvironment resulting in the generation of a functional, self-tolerant T cell repertoire. In vitro models to study T lineage commitment and development have provided valuable insights into this process. However, these systems lack the complete three-dimensional thymic milieu necessary for T cell development and, therefore, are incomplete approximations of in vivo thymic selection. Some of the challenges related to modeling T cell development can be overcome by using in situ models that provide an intact thymic microenvironment that fully supports thymic selection of developing T cells. Thymic slice organotypic cultures complement existing in situ techniques. Thymic slices preserve the integrity of the thymic cortical and medullary regions and provide a platform to study development of overlaid thymocytes of a defined developmental stage or of endogenous T cells within a mature thymic microenvironment. Given the ability to generate ~20 slices per mouse, thymic slices present a unique advantage in terms of scalability for high throughput experiments. Further, the relative ease in generating thymic slices and potential to overlay different thymic subsets or other cell populations from diverse genetic backgrounds enhances the versatility of this method. Here we describe a protocol for the preparation of thymic slices, isolation and overlay of thymocytes, and dissociation of thymic slices for flow cytometric analysis. This system can also be adapted to study non-conventional T cell development as well as visualize thymocyte migration, thymocyte-stromal cell interactions, and TCR signals associated with thymic selection by two-photon microscopy.

We describe the preparation of thymic slices that, in combination with flow cytometry, can be used to model positive and negative selection of developing T cells. Thymic slices can also be adapted for the in situ analysis of thymocyte migration, localization, and signaling via immunofluorescence and two-photon microscopy.

Thymic selection proceeds in a unique and highly organized thymic microenvironment resulting in the generation of a functional, self-tolerant T cell ...

Evaluation of T Follicular Helper Cells and Germinal Center Response During Influenza A Virus Infection in Mice

T Follicular Helper (Tfh) cells are an independent CD4+&#160;T cell subset specialized in providing help for germinal center (GC) development and generation of high-affinity antibodies. In influenza virus infection, robust Tfh and GC B cell responses are induced to facilitate effective virus eradication, which confers a qualified mouse model for Tfh-associated study. In this paper, we described protocols in detection of basic Tfh-associated immune response during influenza virus infection in mice. These protocols include: intranasal inoculation of influenza virus; flow cytometry staining and analysis of polyclonal and antigen-specific Tfh cells, GC B cells and plasma cells; immunofluorescence detection of GCs; enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) of influenza virus-specific antibody in serum. These assays basically quantify the differentiation and function of Tfh cells in influenza virus infection, thus providing help for studies in elucidating differentiation mechanism and manipulation strategy.

This paper describes protocols of evaluating Tfh and GC B response in mouse model of influenza virus infection.

T Follicular Helper (Tfh) cells are an independent CD4+&#160;T cell subset specialized in providing help for germinal center (GC) development and ...

Cells of the Adaptive Immune Response

The T and B lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system develop from common lymphoid progenitor cells in the bone marrow. These progenitors give rise to precursors that eventually develop into both T and B lymphocytes. As these precursors mature, they gain the ability to detect and respond to foreign antigens in the body, a process known as immunocompetence. Additionally, these precursors acquire self-tolerance, a process that ensures they do not react to self-antigens. This intricate system helps maintain a healthy immune response and protect the body from harmful invaders.
Maturation of B and T Cells
During the development of the immune system, B cell precursors undergo a crucial maturation process within the bone marrow. During this process, they develop B cell receptors (BCRs) that can bind to specific antigens. On the other hand, T cell precursors migrate to the thymus, where they mature and develop T cell receptors (TCRs) that can recognize foreign antigens on infected body cells. This maturation process involves rigorous selection to ensure self-tolerance, eliminating cells that strongly react to self-antigens.
Seeding Secondary Lymphoid Organs
Following their maturation process, the newly formed but still naive T and B lymphocytes leave the thymus and bone marrow. They then travel to secondary lymphoid organs, such as the spleen and lymph nodes, or circulate in the bloodstream. These secondary lymphoid sites provide an optimal environment for encountering antigens.
Activation of Naive Lymphocytes
Naive T and B lymphocytes become activated upon encountering their specific foreign antigens. Naive T cells require assistance from antigen-presenting cells (APCs) like dendritic cells, macrophages, or B cells to become activated. These APCs process and present antigens on their surface, facilitating the activation of T cells. B cells can be directly activated by antigens but often require additional signals from helper T cells.
Clonal Expansion and Differentiation
Once activated, lymphocytes rapidly proliferate to form a large population of cloned cells with identical antigen specificity. This clonal expansion produces effector cells and memory cells. Effector cells, such as plasma cells from B lymphocytes and cytotoxic T cells, are primarily responsible for clearing the infection.&#160; Meanwhile, a subset of the cloned cells differentiates into memory cells. These memory cells persist long-term in the body, providing a rapid and robust response if the same antigen is encountered again in the future.

In the bone marrow, the common lymphoid progenitor cells give rise to precursors for T and B lymphocytes.
Next, these precursors mature to gain ...

Education

JoVE Core

Anatomy and Physiology

Unit 1

The Lymphatic and Immune System

KEY TERMS AND CONCEPTS

T Cell Activation and Clonal Selection

T cells are integral to our adaptive immune system, recognizing and effectively responding to foreign antigens. T cell activation and clonal selection are pivotal in orchestrating this immune response. This article elucidates these mechanisms, detailing the roles of cluster of differentiation (CD) markers, major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules, costimulatory signals, and the process of clonal selection.
Naive T cells that have not yet encountered an antigen express two primary CD markers on their surface: CD4 and CD8. The interaction between CD markers and MHC molecules forms the crux of antigen presentation. Antigen-presenting cells (APCs) process antigens and present them using MHC molecules. MHC class II molecules interact with CD4 T cells, while MHC class I molecules interact with CD8 T cells. This interaction is a prerequisite for T cell activation, enabling T cells to recognize and bind to the antigen-MHC complex.
However, recognizing the antigen-MHC complex alone does not lead to full T cell activation. Costimulatory molecules provide an additional secondary signal. For instance, CD80 and CD86 molecules on APCs bind to the CD28 receptor on T cells, delivering this essential second signal. This dual-signaling mechanism ensures that T cells are activated only in response to genuine threats, preventing inappropriate immune reactions.
Upon receiving these signals, T cells undergo clonal selection, leading to the proliferation of T cells specific to the stimulating antigen. The activated T cell divides and produces a large population of effector T cells that mount an immune response against the antigen. Some effector T cells differentiate into memory T cells, ensuring long-term immunity and a rapid response upon re-exposure to the same antigen.
In conclusion, T cell activation and clonal selection processes are fundamental to adaptive immunity. They ensure a targeted, robust, and long-lasting immune response against foreign antigens, safeguarding our bodies against many pathogens. Understanding these mechanisms provides valuable insights into the workings of our immune system, paving the way for advancements in immunology and related medical fields.

Naive T cells express membrane proteins called the cluster of differentiation, or CD markers with the T cell receptor or TCR.
There are two major T cell ...

Transduction and Expansion of Primary T Cells in Nine Days with Maintenance of Central Memory Phenotype

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