This work was supported by the National Science Foundation grant MCB-1715317.

1. Making the flow cell
<ol>
	<li>Washing the coverslips
	<ol>
		<li>Place coverslips in staining jars and sonicate with ethanol (EtOH), then with 1 M KOH (for 30 min each). To avoid KOH precipitation in EtOH, rinse thoroughly with ddH2O between washes.</li>
		<li>Repeat both EtOH and the KOH washing steps 1x for a total number of four washes (two EtOH and two KOH). Store cleaned coverslips in ddH2O in staining jars.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Cut loading and exit tubes (8 cm long) using a clean razor and insert into holes in a clean glass slide. Use PE-20 for inlet and PE-60 for outlet. Epoxy for 5 min to secure tubing and trim off any excess tubing. 
	NOTE: Glass slides measure 2&#39;&#39; x 3&#39;&#39; x 1 mm. Holes are drilled in pairs 15 mm apart. Each pair forms either end of a single channel. The tubing with the smaller ID is used for the inlet, as this reduces the upstream dead volume and thus the mixing time required (Figure 1).</li>
	<li>Line up and apply precut double-sided tape with channel pattern cut out over holes on the glass slide. Smooth out with plastic forceps to achieve a good seal. 
	NOTE: The double-sided tape used in this experiment is 120 &#181;m thick, and the channels are 2 mm wide and 15 mm long. Channels are cut using a knife printer (Table of Materials). It is possible to fit up to four channels on a single coverslip. See Figure 1 for an image of the flow cell.</li>
	<li>After peeling off the backing, apply a clean coverslip (dried with compressed air) over the tape and smooth out again with plastic forceps for a good seal.</li>
	<li>Epoxy the edge off the coverslip to seal the flow cell and let it cure.</li>
</ol>
2. Preparation of labeled DNA for tethering
<ol>
	<li>In a PCR tube, prepare 50 &#181;L of PCR reaction mix containing 0.02 U/&#181;L high fidelity DNA polymerase, 200 &#181;M dNTPs, 0.5 &#181;M forward primer, 0.5 &#181;M reverse primer, and 250 ng of M13mp18 vector DNA. 
	NOTE: Here, the forward primer (biotin-CCAACTTAATCGCCTTGC) and reverse primer (digoxigenin-TGACCATTAGATACATTTCGC) were chosen to amplify a region approximately 1,000 bp long, spanning from positions 6338 to 107 in the circular genome of the M13mp18 DNA. There is a single NdeI site in the middle of the amplified region. The forward primer is 5&#697; labeled with digoxigenin, which binds the anti-digoxigenin on the coverslip. The reverse primer is 5&#697; labeled with biotin, which binds the streptavidin-coated beads.</li>
	<li>Insert the PCR tube in thermocycler and follow the cycle as shown in Table 1.</li>
	<li>Purify the PCR product with a PCR clean-up kit following the manufacturer&#39;s protocol. 
	NOTE: Using the kit specified in the Table of Materials, the typical DNA yield is ~2 &#181;g.</li>
</ol>
3. Tethering of DNA and beads
<ol>
	<li>Prepare 10 mL of buffer A (1 M Tris-HCl [pH = 7.5], 50 mM NaCl, 2 mM MgCl2, 1 mg/mL &#946;-Casein, 1 mg/mL Pluronic F-127). Degas in a vacuum desiccator for at least 1 h.</li>
	<li>To functionalize flow cell, inject 25 &#181;L of anti-digoxigenin FAB fragments (20 &#181;g/mL) in PBS into the flow channel. Use gel loading tips to fit into the PE-60 tubing. Incubate at room temperature (RT) for 30 min.</li>
	<li>After incubation, flush the channel by pulling 0.5 mL of buffer A through the channel using a syringe. Take care not to introduce air into the channel.</li>
	<li>After functionalization, mount the flow cell on an inverted microscope. Hook up the outlet tube to a syringe pump and put the inlet tube into a microcentrifuge tube containing buffer A.</li>
	<li>Manually pull at least 0.5 mL of buffer A to flush the system and prime the pump. Let the pump run at 10 &#181;L/min for at least 5 min to equilibrate the system.</li>
	<li>To prepare the beads (Table of Materials), vortex the stock bottle of beads and pipette 1.6 &#181;L of the 10 mg/mL stock beads into 50 &#181;L of buffer A, then vortex.</li>
	<li>Using a magnetic separator, pipette out the buffer and resuspend in 50 &#181;L of buffer A, then vortex.</li>
	<li>Repeat step 3.7 2x for a total of three washes. For the last wash, resuspend in 100 &#181;L of buffer A and vortex to achieve a final concentration of 160 &#181;g/mL.</li>
	<li>To complex the DNA and beads, first prepare 480 &#181;L of 0.5 pM labeled DNA substrate in buffer A. Then, pipette in 20 &#181;L of 160 &#181;g/mL bead suspension, making sure to vortex the beads before pipetting. Place on a rotator for 3 min.</li>
	<li>After 3 min, immediately load into channel at a flow rate of 10 &#181;L/min for ~15 min or until sufficient bead tethering is observed. 
	NOTE: Beads should not be so densely packed that they interact with each other on the surface (see discussion section).</li>
	<li>To wash the channel of all free beads, switch the inlet tube to a fresh tube of buffer A and flow in at 50 &#181;L/min for at least 10 min or until no loose beads are observed.</li>
</ol>
4. Data collection and analysis
<ol>
	<li>To prepare for data collection, place inlet tube into a microcentrifuge tube containing at least 100 &#181;L of NdeI (0.25&#8211;4.00 U/mL) in buffer A. Lower the permanent magnet over the flow channel, and position the light source off axis for darkfield imaging. 
	NOTE: Two annular rare earth magnets, epoxied together, are held 8 mm above the active surface of the flow channel using a cantilevered optical post during data collection. A goose neck lamp is used for the off-axis light course.</li>
	<li>Use a commercial microscope, video camera, and data collection software (Table of Materials). In the software, click the &#34;Exposure&#34; tab, and set &#34;Exposure Time&#34; to 10 ms. Click &#34;Timelapse&#34; tab and set &#34;Image Count&#34; to 600, &#34;Duration&#34; to 20 min, and &#34;Interval&#34; to 2 s. Click &#34;Run&#34; to start data collection.</li>
	<li>On a syringe pump, set the flow rate to 150 &#181;L/min and injection volume to 80 &#181;L. Press &#34;Run&#34; at 1 min into data collection. After injection, turn off the pump and close the valve to prevent flow during data collection.</li>
	<li>Once data is collected, open image analysis software (Table of Materials). Under the &#34;File&#34; tab, choose &#34;Import&#34; | &#34;Image Sequence&#34;. Locate the image files in the pop-up menu and click &#34;Open&#34;.</li>
	<li>Set the threshold by choosing &#34;Adjust Theshold&#34; under the &#34;Image&#34; pull-down menu. Use the slider bar to set the threshold value to identify bright spots corresponding to beads in the image.</li>
	<li>Count the bright spots in each frame by clicking &#34;Analyze Particles&#34; in the &#34;Analyze&#34; pull-down menu. Click &#34;OK&#34;, then choose &#34;Yes&#34; to process all images. Save the results file. 
	NOTE: This will save a data file that contains the number of beads in each recorded video frame.</li>
	<li>Open data analysis software (Table of Materials) and import the results file by clicking &#34;Import from Text File&#34; in the &#34;File&#34; pull-down menu. Plot the bead count data vs. time.</li>
	<li>Fit the number of beads vs. time by clicking &#34;Curve Fit&#34; in the &#34;Analyze&#34; pull-down menu. Choose the &#34;Natural Exponent&#34; equation and click &#34;Try Fit&#34; | &#34;OK&#34;. 
	NOTE: Only the data recorded after the injection of sample should be included in the fitting region. The fit parameter in the exponent of the fitting function will be the cleavage rate.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

The protocol can be used to measure the kinetics of any SSDC system, provided that the strand separation is observed during the experiment. The detection of cleavage is affected by observing the detachment of the tethered bead and therefore marks the instant of strand separation. All preceding steps occur before the detection of the cleavage; thus, only the total transit time is recorded.
The flow cell coverslip is functionalized via non-specific adsorption of antibody protein to the clean gla...

Site-specific DNA cleavage (SSDC) is a key step in many genomic transactions. For example, bacterial restriction-modification (RM)1 and CRISPR2 systems protect cells from attack by phages and plasmids by recognizing and cleaving foreign DNA at specific sequences. In type II RM, restriction endonucleases (REs) recognize short 4&#8211;8 base pair (bp) sequences via protein-nucleic acid interactions3. CRISPR-associated endonucleases, such as Cas9, bind to sites via hybridization of the target site with crRNAs bound to the endonucleases4. The creation of site-specific double stranded breaks (DSBs) are also the first step in many DNA recombination events5. For example, the diversity of antigen binding regions created by V(D)J recombination requires the recognition and cleavage of specific target sites6. Some transposons are known to target specific DNA sequences, as well7. Not surprisingly, many site-specific nucleases involved in these processes, such as Cas9, are a key component of gene editing technologies8. In addition, novel site-specific endonucleases (i.e., zinc finger nucleases9 and TALENS10) have also been engineered to edit genomes.
Many methods have been employed to measure the kinetics of site-specific cleavage of nucleic acids. These include gel analysis, fluorescence11,12, and sequencing based methods13. A major advancement was achieved with the tethering of microbeads, which allows DSBs in single molecules of DNA to be detected by the motion of a bead after strand separation. In these methods, different types of forces are employed to ensure strand separation and motion of the bead post-cleavage. In one case, optical traps have been used to measure cleavage of DNA by EcoRV14. In these experiments, target search is the objective of the investigation, with conditions optimized so that site-specific binding is the rate limiting step. One drawback of optical traps is that only a single DNA can be observed at a time. In addition, a periodic large pulling force has to be applied to test for the strand separation.
Another technique uses a combination of flow and weak magnetic forces to pull on the bead in a continuous manner15. In this way, diffusion limited cleavage by NdeI is measured. The method employed allows for the simultaneous measurement of several hundred DNAs at once, allowing for statistical significance to be attained in a single experiment. Experiments based on magnetic tweezers have also been used. In one such study, a retroviral integrase was studied by including a DSB in the insertion oligonucleotide16. Successful integration resulted in the incorporation of DSB in the tethered DNA and loss of the attached bead. In a similar study of the ATP-dependent type III restriction endonuclease EcoPI, tens of DNAs were observed in a single experiment17. Magnetic tweezers hold the advantage that tension, as well as DNA looping, can be controlled and monitored during the reaction.
Presented here is a highly parallel single molecule method for measuring SSDC kinetics, which takes advantage of recent improvements in large-scale tethering of DNAs. This method is an improvement and extension of previous methods used to measure DNA replication18, contour length of DNA19, and cleavage by REs15. In this technique, linear DNAs containing a single copy of the recognition sequence are prepared with biotin at one end and digoxigenin at the other. The biotin binds streptavidin, which is covalently attached to a paramagnetic microbead. The DNA-bead complexes are injected into a microfluidic channel that has been functionalized with anti-digoxigenin FAB fragments. The DNA then tethers to the surface attachment points via binding of the digoxigenin to the adsorbed FAB fragments. Weak magnetic forces applied with a permanent magnet keep the bead from sticking non-specifically to the surface. Samples can be injected rapidly (&#60;30 s) into the flow channel to activate the cleavage reaction. Flow is turned off during data collection. As each DNA is cleaved, the exact time of cleavage can be determined by recording the frame in which the bead moves up and out of the focal plan of the objective, thus disappearing from the video record. A frame-by-frame count of remaining beads can be used to quantify the reaction progress.
Presented below is the complete protocol as well as example data collected using NdeI. As an example of how the technique can be applied, cleavage rates for a range of protein concentrations are measured at two different concentrations of magnesium, an essential metal cofactor. Although this application of the protocol uses NdeI, the method can be adapted for use with any site-specific nuclease by varying the DNA substrate design.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>5 minute Epoxy</td>
			<td>Devcon</td>
			<td>14250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>anti-digoxigenin FAB fragments</td>
			<td>Roche Diagnostics</td>
			<td>11214667001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>camera and software</td>
			<td>Jenoptik</td>
			<td>GRYPHAX SUBRA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>data analysis software</td>
			<td>Vernier Inc.</td>
			<td>LP</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>double sided tape</td>
			<td>Grace Biolabs</td>
			<td>SA-S-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dulbeccos Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>21-031-CV</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ethanol 95%</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>89370-082</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>forward primer: digoxigenin-CCAACTTAATCGCCTTGC</td>
			<td>Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>image analysis software</td>
			<td>National Institutes of Health</td>
			<td>ImageJ</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>inverted microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>TE2000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>knife printer</td>
			<td>Silhouette</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M13mp18 DNA</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>N4040S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MyOne streptavidin beads</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>65601</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NdeI enzyme</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>R0111S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR cleanup kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pluronic F-127</td>
			<td>Anatrace</td>
			<td>P305</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>polyethylene tubing PE-20</td>
			<td>BD Intramedic</td>
			<td>427406</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>polyethylene tubing PE-60</td>
			<td>BD Intramedic</td>
			<td>427416</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Q5 Mastermix</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>M0492S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>rare earth magnet 0.5&#34; OD 0.25&#34; ID</td>
			<td>National Imports</td>
			<td>NSN0814</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>rare earth magnet 0.75&#34; OD 0.5&#34; ID</td>
			<td>National Imports</td>
			<td>NSN0615</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>reverse primer: biotin-TGACCATTAGATACATTTCGC</td>
			<td>Integrated DNA Technologies</td>
			<td>n/a</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>syringe pump</td>
			<td>Kent Scientific</td>
			<td>Genie Plus</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#946;-Casein from bovine Milk</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C6905</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

parallel high throughput single molecule kinetic assay for site-specific dna cleavage

Site-specific DNA cleavage (SSDC) is a key step in many cellular processes, and it is crucial to gene editing. This work describes a kinetic assay capable of measuring SSDC in many single DNA molecules simultaneously. Bead-tethered substrate DNAs, each containing a single copy of the target sequence, are prepared in a microfluidic flow channel. An external magnet applies a weak force to the paramagnetic beads. The integrity of up to 1,000 individual DNAs can be monitored by visualizing the microbeads under darkfield imaging using a wide-field, low magnification objective. Injecting of a restriction endonuclease, NdeI, initiates the cleavage reaction. Video microscopy is used to record the exact moment of each DNA cleavage by observing the frame in which the associated bead moves up and out of the focal plane of the objective. Frame-by-frame bead counting quantifies the reaction, and an exponential fit determines the reaction rate. This method allows collection of quantitative and statistically significant data on single molecule SSDC reactions in a single experiment.

Using this technique, the SSDC rates of NdeI were measured for a range of protein concentrations (0.25&#8211;4.00 U/mL) at two different concentrations of magnesium (2 mM and 4 mM). Each of these conditions was replicated at least twice, with a few hundred to 1,000 tethered DNAs per experiment. Figure 2 describes the experimental design. Figure 3 shows examples of data collection and analysis details. Figure 4 illustrates how the ra...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Parallel High Throughput Single Molecule Kinetic Assay for Site-Specific DNA Cleavage at JoVE.com

Parallel High Throughput Single Molecule Kinetic Assay for Site-Specific DNA Cleavage

A highly parallel method for measuring the site-specific cleavage of DNA at the single molecule level is described. This protocol demonstrates the technique using the restriction endonuclease NdeI. The method can easily be modified to study any process that results in site-specific DNA cleavage.

Site-specific DNA cleavage (SSDC) is a key step in many cellular processes, and it is crucial to gene editing. This work describes a kinetic assay capable ...

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JoVE Journal

Biology

3.9K Views.  Emmanuel College. A highly parallel method for measuring the site-specific cleavage of DNA at the single molecule level is described. This protocol demonstrates the technique using the restriction endonuclease NdeI. The method can easily be modified to study any process that results in site-specific DNA cleavage.

Video: Parallel High Throughput Single Molecule Kinetic Assay for Site-Specific DNA Cleavage

Principles of Site-Specific Recombinase (SSR) Technology

Site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology allows the manipulation of gene structure to explore gene function and has become an integral tool of molecular biology. Site-specific recombinases are proteins that bind to distinct DNA target sequences. The Cre/lox system was first described in bacteriophages during the 1980's. Cre recombinase is a Type I topoisomerase that catalyzes site-specific recombination of DNA between two loxP (locus of X-over P1) sites. The Cre/lox system does not require any cofactors. LoxP sequences contain distinct binding sites for Cre recombinases that surround a directional core sequence where recombination and rearrangement takes place. When cells contain loxP sites and express the Cre recombinase, a recombination event occurs. Double-stranded DNA is cut at both loxP sites by the Cre recombinase, rearranged, and ligated ("scissors and glue"). Products of the recombination event depend on the relative orientation of the asymmetric sequences.
SSR technology is frequently used as a tool to explore gene function. Here the gene of interest is flanked with Cre target sites loxP ("floxed"). Animals are then crossed with animals expressing the Cre recombinase under the control of a tissue-specific promoter. In tissues that express the Cre recombinase it binds to target sequences and excises the floxed gene. Controlled gene deletion allows the investigation of gene function in specific tissues and at distinct time points. Analysis of gene function employing SSR technology --- conditional mutagenesis -- has significant advantages over traditional knock-outs where gene deletion is frequently lethal.

Principles of Site-Specific Recombinase SSR Technology

The advent of site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology and the Cre/lox system has led to numerous advances in molecular biology, and has proven itself as a valuable tool for assessing gene function in transgenic animals. This interview discusses the mechanism of site specific recombination by Cyclization recombinase (Cre) and how the use of this enzyme has led to the development of conditional mutagenesis, which has significant advantages over traditional knock out strategies.

Site-specific recombinase (SSR) technology allows the manipulation of gene structure to explore gene function and has become an integral tool of molecular ...

Visualizing Single-molecule DNA Replication with Fluorescence Microscopy

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA template is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and replicated extensively after introduction of replication proteins and nucleotides (Figure 1). The growing product double-strand DNA (dsDNA) is extended with laminar flow and visualized by using an intercalating dye. Measuring the position of the growing DNA end in real time allows precise determination of replication rate (Figure 2). Furthermore, the length of completed DNA products reports on the processivity of replication. This experiment can be performed very easily and rapidly and requires only a fluorescence microscope with a reasonably sensitive camera.


This protocol demonstrates a simple single-molecule fluorescence microscopy technique for visualizing DNA replication by individual replisomes in real time.

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA ...

Direct Observation of Enzymes Replicating DNA Using a Single-molecule DNA Stretching Assay

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system. Linearized &lambda; DNA is modified to have a biotin on the end of one strand, and a digoxigenin moiety on the other end of the same strand. The biotinylated end is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and the digoxigeninated end to a small bead. The assembly of these DNA-bead tethers on the surface of a flow cell allows a laminar flow to be applied to exert a drag force on the bead. As a result, the DNA is stretched close to and parallel to the surface of the coverslip at a force that is determined by the flow rate (Figure 1). The length of the DNA is measured by monitoring the position of the bead. Length differences between single- and double-stranded DNA are utilized to obtain real-time information on the activity of the replication proteins at the fork. Measuring the position of the bead allows precise determination of the rates and processivities of DNA unwinding and polymerization (Figure 2).

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system.

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system. ...

High-throughput Saccharification Assay for Lignocellulosic Materials

Polysaccharides that make up plant lignocellulosic biomass can be broken down to produce a range of sugars that subsequently can be 
used in establishing a biorefinery. These raw materials would constitute a new industrial platform, which is both sustainable and carbon neutral, to replace 
the current dependency on fossil fuel. The recalcitrance to deconstruction observed in lignocellulosic materials is produced by several intrinsic properties 
of plant cell walls. Crystalline cellulose is embedded in matrix polysaccharides such as xylans and arabinoxylans, and the whole structure is encased by the 
phenolic polymer lignin, that is also difficult to digest 1. In order to improve the digestibility of plant materials we need to discover the main bottlenecks 
for the saccharification of cell walls and also screen mutant and breeding populations to evaluate the variability in saccharification 2. These tasks require 
a high throughput approach and here we present an analytical platform that can perform saccharification analysis in a 96-well plate format. This platform has 
been developed to allow the screening of lignocellulose digestibility of large populations from varied plant species. We have scaled down the reaction volumes 
for gentle pretreatment, partial enzymatic hydrolysis and sugar determination, to allow large numbers to be assessed rapidly in an automated system.
This automated platform works with milligram amounts of biomass, performing ball milling under controlled conditions to reduce the plant 
materials to a standardised particle size in a reproducible manner. Once the samples are ground, the automated formatting robot dispenses specified and recorded 
amounts of material into the corresponding wells of 96 deep well plate (Figure 1). Normally, we dispense the same material into 4 wells to have 4 replicates for 
analysis. Once the plates are filled with the plant material in the desired layout, they are manually moved to a liquid handling station (Figure 2). In this 
station the samples are subjected to a mild pretreatment with either dilute acid or alkaline and incubated at temperatures of up to 90&deg;C. The pretreatment solution 
is subsequently removed and the samples are rinsed with buffer to return them to a suitable pH for hydrolysis. The samples are then incubated with an enzyme
mixture for a variable length of time at 50&deg;C. An aliquot is taken from the hydrolyzate and the reducing sugars are automatically determined by the MBTH 
colorimetric method.

A simple, rapid method for determining the saccharification potential of large numbers of plant biomass samples is described. The automated platform for this analysis involves the preparation of the plant biomass for analysis in 96 well plates and the subsequent performance of pretreatment, hydrolysis and quantification of the sugars released.

Polysaccharides that make up plant lignocellulosic biomass can be broken down to produce a range of sugars that subsequently can be 
used in establishing ...

A Faster, High Resolution, mtPA-GFP-based Mitochondrial Fusion Assay Acquiring Kinetic Data of Multiple Cells in Parallel Using Confocal Microscopy

Mitochondrial fusion plays an essential role in mitochondrial calcium homeostasis, bioenergetics, autophagy and quality control. Fusion is quantified in living cells by photo-conversion of matrix targeted photoactivatable GFP (mtPAGFP) in a subset of mitochondria. The rate at which the photoconverted molecules equilibrate across the entire mitochondrial population is used as a measure of fusion activity. Thus far measurements were performed using a single cell time lapse approach, quantifying the equilibration in one cell over an hour. Here, we scale up and automate a previously published live cell method based on using mtPAGFP and a low concentration of TMRE (15 nm). This method involves photoactivating a small portion of the mitochondrial network, collecting highly resolved stacks of confocal sections every 15 min for 1 hour, and quantifying the change in signal intensity. Depending on several factors such as ease of finding PAGFP expressing cells, and the signal of the photoactivated regions, it is possible to collect around 10 cells within the 15 min intervals. This provides a significant improvement in the time efficiency of this assay while maintaining the highly resolved subcellular quantification as well as the kinetic parameters necessary to capture the detail of mitochondrial behavior in its native cytoarchitectural environment.
Mitochondrial dynamics play a role in many cellular processes including respiration, calcium regulation, and apoptosis1,2,3,13. The structure of the mitochondrial network affects the function of mitochondria, and the way they interact with the rest of the cell. Undergoing constant division and fusion, mitochondrial networks attain various shapes ranging from highly fused networks, to being more fragmented. Interestingly, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Charcot Marie Tooth 2A, and dominant optic atrophy have been correlated with altered mitochondrial morphology, namely fragmented networks4,10,13. Often times, upon fragmentation, mitochondria become depolarized, and upon accumulation this leads to impaired cell function18. Mitochondrial fission has been shown to signal a cell to progress toward apoptosis. It can also provide a mechanism by which to separate depolarized and inactive mitochondria to keep the bulk of the network robust14. Fusion of mitochondria, on the other hand, leads to sharing of matrix proteins, solutes, mtDNA and the electrochemical gradient, and also seems to prevent progression to apoptosis9. How fission and fusion of mitochondria affects cell homeostasis and ultimately the functioning of the organism needs further understanding, and therefore the continuous development and optimization of how to gather information on these phenomena is necessary.
Existing mitochondrial fusion assays have revealed various insights into mitochondrial physiology, each having its own advantages. The hybrid PEG fusion assay7, mixes two populations of differently labeled cells (mtRFP and mtYFP), and analyzes the amount of mixing and colocalization of fluorophores in fused, multinucleated, cells. Although this method has yielded valuable information, not all cell types can fuse, and the conditions under which fusion is stimulated involves the use of toxic drugs that likely affect the normal fusion process. More recently, a cell free technique has been devised, using isolated mitochondria to observe fusion events based on a luciferase assay1,5. Two human cell lines are targeted with either the amino or a carboxy terminal part of Renilla luciferase along with a leucine zipper to ensure dimerization upon mixing. Mitochondria are isolated from each cell line, and fused. The fusion reaction can occur without the cytosol under physiological conditions in the presence of energy, appropriate temperature and inner mitochondrial membrane potential. Interestingly, the cytosol was found to modulate the extent of fusion, demonstrating that cell signaling regulates the fusion process 4,5. This assay will be very useful for high throughput screening to identify components of the fusion machinery and also pharmacological compounds that may affect mitochondrial dynamics. However, more detailed whole cell mitochondrial assays will be needed to complement this in vitro assay to observe these events within a cellular environment.
A technique for monitoring whole-cell mitochondrial dynamics has been in use for some time and is based on a mitochondrially-targeted photoactivatable GFP (mtPAGFP)6,11. Upon expression of the mtPAGFP, a small portion of the mitochondrial network is photoactivated (10-20%), and the spread of the signal to the rest of the mitochondrial network is recorded every 15 minutes for 1 hour using time lapse confocal imaging. Each fusion event leads to a dilution of signal intensity, enabling quantification of the fusion rate. Although fusion and fission are continuously occurring in cells, this technique only monitors fusion as fission does not lead to a dilution of the PAGFP signal6. Co-labeling with low levels of TMRE (7-15 nM in INS1 cells) allows quantification of the membrane potential of mitochondria. When mitochondria are hyperpolarized they uptake more TMRE, and when they depolarize they lose the TMRE dye. Mitochondria that depolarize no longer have a sufficient membrane potential and tend not to fuse as efficiently if at all. Therefore, active fusing mitochondria can be tracked with these low levels of TMRE9,15. Accumulation of depolarized mitochondria that lack a TMRE signal may be a sign of phototoxicity or cell death. Higher concentrations of TMRE render mitochondria very sensitive to laser light, and therefore great care must be taken to avoid overlabeling with TMRE. If the effect of depolarization of mitochondria is the topic of interest, a technique using slightly higher levels of TMRE and more intense laser light can be used to depolarize mitochondria in a controlled fashion (Mitra and Lippincott-Schwartz, 2010). To ensure that toxicity due to TMRE is not an issue, we suggest exposing loaded cells (3-15 nM TMRE) to the imaging parameters that will be used in the assay (perhaps 7 stacks of 6 optical sections in a row), and assessing cell health after 2 hours. If the mitochondria appear too fragmented and cells are dying, other mitochondrial markers, such as dsRED or Mitotracker red could be used instead of TMRE.
The mtPAGFP method has revealed details about mitochondrial network behavior that could not be visualized using other methods. For example, we now know that mitochondrial fusion can be full or transient, where matrix content can mix without changing the overall network morphology. Additionally, we know that the probability of fusion is independent of contact duration and organelle dimension, is influenced by organelle motility, membrane potential and history of previous fusion activity8,15,16,17.
In this manuscript, we describe a methodology for scaling up the previously published protocol using mtPAGFP and 15nM TMRE8 in order to examine multiple cells at a time and improve the time efficiency of data collection without sacrificing the subcellular resolution. This has been made possible by the use of an automated microscope stage, and programmable image acquisition software. Zen software from Zeiss allows the user to mark and track several designated cells expressing mtPAGFP. Each of these cells can be photoactivated in a particular region of interest, and stacks of confocal slices can be monitored for mtPAGFP signal as well as TMRE at specified intervals. Other confocal systems could be used to perform this protocol provided there is an automated stage that is programmable, an incubator with CO2, and a means by which to photoactivate the PAGFP; either a multiphoton laser, or a 405 nm diode laser.

Mitochondrial fusion was measured by tracking the equilibration of photoconverted matrix-targeted GFP across the mitochondrial network over time. Thus far, only one cell could be subjected to an hour long kinetic analysis at a time. We present a method that simultaneously measures multiple cells, thereby speeding up the data collection process.

Mitochondrial fusion plays an essential role in mitochondrial calcium homeostasis, bioenergetics, autophagy and quality control. Fusion is quantified in ...

High-throughput Screening for Small-molecule Modulators of Inward Rectifier Potassium Channels

Specific members of the inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channel family are postulated drug targets for a variety of disorders, including hypertension, atrial fibrillation, and pain1,2. For the most part, however, progress toward understanding their therapeutic potential or even basic physiological functions has been slowed by the lack of good pharmacological tools. Indeed, the molecular pharmacology of the inward rectifier family has lagged far behind that of the S4 superfamily of voltage-gated potassium (Kv) channels, for which a number of nanomolar-affinity and highly selective peptide toxin modulators have been discovered3. The bee venom toxin tertiapin and its derivatives are potent inhibitors of Kir1.1 and Kir3 channels4,5, but peptides are of limited use therapeutically as well as experimentally due to their antigenic properties and poor bioavailability, metabolic stability and tissue penetrance. The development of potent and selective small-molecule probes with improved pharmacological properties will be a key to fully understanding the physiology and therapeutic potential of Kir channels.
The Molecular Libraries Probes Production Center Network (MLPCN) supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) Common Fund has created opportunities for academic scientists to initiate probe discovery campaigns for molecular targets and signaling pathways in need of better pharmacology6. The MLPCN provides researchers access to industry-scale screening centers and medicinal chemistry and informatics support to develop small-molecule probes to elucidate the function of genes and gene networks. The critical step in gaining entry to the MLPCN is the development of a robust target- or pathway-specific assay that is amenable for high-throughput screening (HTS).
Here, we describe how to develop a fluorescence-based thallium (Tl+) flux assay of Kir channel function for high-throughput compound screening7,8,9,10.The assay is based on the permeability of the K+ channel pore to the K+ congener Tl+. A commercially available fluorescent Tl+ reporter dye is used to detect transmembrane flux of Tl+ through the pore. There are at least three commercially available dyes that are suitable for Tl+ flux assays: BTC, FluoZin-2, and FluxOR7,8. This protocol describes assay development using FluoZin-2. Although originally developed and marketed as a zinc indicator, FluoZin-2 exhibits a robust and dose-dependent increase in fluorescence emission upon Tl+ binding. We began working with FluoZin-2 before FluxOR was available7,8 and have continued to do so9,10. However, the steps in assay development are essentially identical for all three dyes, and users should determine which dye is most appropriate for their specific needs. We also discuss the assay's performance benchmarks that must be reached to be considered for entry to the MLPCN. Since Tl+ readily permeates most K+ channels, the assay should be adaptable to most K+ channel targets.

Methods for developing and validating a quantitative fluorescence assay for measuring the activity of inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channels for high-throughput compound screening is presented.

Specific members of the inward rectifier potassium (Kir) channel family are postulated drug targets for a variety of disorders, including hypertension, ...

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC)

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method makes it possible to count the numbers of protein molecules produced in one cell during sequential, five-minute time windows. It requires a fluorescence microscope with laser excitation power density of ~0.5 to 1 kW/cm2, which is sufficiently sensitive to detect single fluorescent protein molecules in live cells. The fluorescent reporter used in this method consists of three parts: a membrane targeting sequence, a fast-maturing, yellow fluorescent protein and a protease recognition sequence. The reporter is translationally fused to the N-terminus of a protein of interest. Cells are grown on a temperature-controlled microscope stage. Every five minutes, fluorescent molecules within cells are imaged (and later counted by analyzing fluorescence images) and subsequently photobleached so that only newly translated proteins are counted in the next measurement.
Fluorescence images resulting from this method can be analyzed by detecting fluorescent spots in each image, assigning them to individual cells and then assigning cells to cell lineages. The number of proteins produced within a time window in a given cell is calculated by dividing the integrated fluorescence intensity of spots by the average intensity of single fluorescent molecules. We used this method to measure expression levels in the range of 0-45 molecules in single 5 min time windows. This method enabled us to measure noise in the expression of the &lambda; repressor CI, and has many other potential applications in systems biology.

Single-molecule Imaging of Gene Regulation In vivo Using Cotranslational Activation by Cleavage CoTrAC

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC), to image the production of protein molecules in live cells with single-molecule precision without perturbing the protein's functionality. This method has been used to follow the stochastic expression dynamics of a transcription factor, the &lambda; repressor CI 1.

We describe a fluorescence microscopy method, Co-Translational Activation by Cleavage (CoTrAC) to image the production of protein molecules in live cells ...

Combining Single-molecule Manipulation and Imaging for the Study of Protein-DNA Interactions

The paper describes the combination of optical tweezers and single molecule fluorescence detection for the study of protein-DNA interaction. The method offers the opportunity of investigating interactions occurring in solution (thus avoiding problems due to closeby surfaces as in other single molecule methods), controlling the DNA extension and tracking interaction dynamics as a function of both mechanical parameters and DNA sequence. The methods for establishing successful optical trapping and nanometer localization of single molecules are illustrated. We illustrate the experimental conditions allowing the study of interaction of lactose repressor (lacI), labeled with Atto532, with a DNA molecule containing specific target sequences (operators) for LacI binding. The method allows the observation of specific interactions at the operators, as well as one-dimensional diffusion of the protein during the process of target search. The method is broadly applicable to the study of protein-DNA interactions but also to molecular motors, where control of the tension applied to the partner track polymer (for example actin or microtubules) is desirable.

Here we describe the instrumentation and methods for detecting single fluorescently-labeled protein molecules interacting with a single DNA molecule suspended between two optically trapped microspheres.

The paper describes the combination of optical tweezers and single molecule fluorescence detection for the study of protein-DNA interaction. The method ...

Studying DNA Looping by Single-Molecule FRET

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into nucleosomes. Thermodynamics of dsDNA bending has been studied by a method called cyclization which relies on DNA ligase to covalently join short sticky ends of a dsDNA. However, ligation efficiency can be affected by many factors that are not related to dsDNA looping such as the DNA structure surrounding the joined sticky ends, and ligase can also affect the apparent looping rate through mechanisms such as nonspecific binding. Here, we show how to measure dsDNA looping kinetics without ligase by detecting transient DNA loop formation by FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer). dsDNA molecules are constructed using a simple PCR-based protocol with a FRET pair and a biotin linker. The looping probability density known as the J factor is extracted from the looping rate and the annealing rate between two disconnected sticky ends. By testing two dsDNAs with different intrinsic curvatures, we show that the J factor is sensitive to the intrinsic shape of the dsDNA.

This study presents a detailed experimental procedure to measure looping dynamics of double-stranded DNA using single-molecule Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET). The protocol also describes how to extract the looping probability density called the J factor.

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into ...

A Manual Small Molecule Screen Approaching High-throughput Using Zebrafish Embryos

Zebrafish have become a widely used model organism to investigate the mechanisms that underlie developmental biology and to study human disease pathology due to their considerable degree of genetic conservation with humans. Chemical genetics entails testing the effect that small molecules have on a biological process and is becoming a popular translational research method to identify therapeutic compounds. Zebrafish are specifically appealing to use for chemical genetics because of their ability to produce large clutches of transparent embryos, which are externally fertilized. Furthermore, zebrafish embryos can be easily drug treated by the simple addition of a compound to the embryo media. Using whole-mount in situ hybridization (WISH), mRNA expression can be clearly visualized within zebrafish embryos. Together, using chemical genetics and WISH, the zebrafish becomes a potent whole organism context in which to determine the cellular and physiological effects of small molecules. Innovative advances have been made in technologies that utilize machine-based screening procedures, however for many labs such options are not accessible or remain cost-prohibitive. The protocol described here explains how to execute a manual high-throughput chemical genetic screen that requires basic resources and can be accomplished by a single individual or small team in an efficient period of time. Thus, this protocol provides a feasible strategy that can be implemented by research groups to perform chemical genetics in zebrafish, which can be useful for gaining fundamental insights into developmental processes, disease mechanisms, and to identify novel compounds and signaling pathways that have medically relevant applications.

The zebrafish is an excellent experimental organism to study vertebrate developmental processes and model human disease. Here, we describe a protocol on how to perform a manual high-throughput chemical screen in zebrafish embryos with a whole-mount in situ hybridization (WISH) read-out.

Zebrafish have become a widely used model organism to investigate the mechanisms that underlie developmental biology and to study human disease pathology ...