Name: functional isolation of single motor units of rat medial gastrocnemius muscle
Uploaded: 2020-12-26T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Functional Isolation of Single Motor Units of Rat Medial Gastrocnemius Muscle at JoVE.com

This work was supported by Polish National Research Centre grant 2018/31/B/NZ7/01028.

All procedures need to be approved by the local ethics committee and adhered to the European Union guidelines on animal care as well as the national law on the protection of animals.
NOTE: Each experimenter involved in this procedure must be trained in basic surgical procedures and has to obtain a valid license for performing animal experiments.
1. Anesthesia
<ol>
	<li>Anesthetize the rat with an intraperitoneal injection of sodium pentobarbital (an initial dose o...

<ol>
	<li>Burke, R. E., Levine, D. N., Tsairis, P., Zajac, F. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physiological+types+and+histochemical+profiles+in+motor+units+of+the+cat+gastrocnemius.">Physiological types and histochemical profiles in motor units of the cat gastrocnemius.</a> Journal of Physiology. 234, 723-748 (1973).</li><li>Celichowski, J., Drzyma&#322;a-Celichowska, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+number+of+motor+units+in+the+medial+gastrocnemius+muscle+of+male+and+female+rats.">The number of motor units in the medial gastrocnemius muscle of male and female rats.</a> Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 58, 821-828 (2007).</li><li>Grottel, K., Celichowski, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Division+of+motor+units+in+medial+gastrocnemius+muscle+of+the+rat+in+light+of+variability+of+their+principal+properties.">Division of motor units in medial gastrocnemius muscle of the rat in light of variability of their principal properties.</a> Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis. 50, 571-588 (1990).</li><li>Celichowski, J., Krutki, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Variability+and+plasticity+of+motor+unit+properties+in+mammalian+skeletal+muscle.">Variability and plasticity of motor unit properties in mammalian skeletal muscle.</a> Biocybernetics and Biomedical Engineering. 32 (4), 33-45 (2012).</li><li>Gardiner, P. F., Olha, A. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contractile+and+electromyographic+characteristics+of+rat+plantaris+motor+unit+types+during+fatigue+in+situ.">Contractile and electromyographic characteristics of rat plantaris motor unit types during fatigue in situ.</a> Journal of Physiology. 385, 13-34 (1987).</li><li>Drzyma&#322;a-Celichowska, H., Kaczmarek, P., Krutki, P., Celichowski, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Summation+of+slow+motor+unit+forces+at+constant+and+variable+interpulse+intervals+in+rat+soleus+muscle.">Summation of slow motor unit forces at constant and variable interpulse intervals in rat soleus muscle.</a> Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 30, 1-8 (2016).</li><li>Krutki, P., Celichowski, J., &#321;ochy&#324;ski, D., Pogrzebna, M., Mr&#243;wczy&#324;ski, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interspecies+differences+of+motor+units+properties+in+the+medial+gastrocnemius+muscle+of+cat+and+rat.">Interspecies differences of motor units properties in the medial gastrocnemius muscle of cat and rat.</a> Archives Italiennes de Biologie. 144, 11-23 (2006).</li><li>Burke, R. E., Rudomin, P., Zajac, F. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+activation+history+on+tension+production+by+individual+muscle+units.">The effect of activation history on tension production by individual muscle units.</a> Brain Research. 109, 515-529 (1976).</li><li>Celichowski, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanisms+underlying+the+regulation+of+motor+unit+contraction+in+the+skeletal+muscle.">Mechanisms underlying the regulation of motor unit contraction in the skeletal muscle.</a> Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 51, 17-33 (2000).</li><li>Burke, R. E., Levine, D. N., Salcman, M., Tsairis, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Motor+units+in+cat+soleus+muscle:+physiological,+histochemical+and+morphological+characteristics.">Motor units in cat soleus muscle: physiological, histochemical and morphological characteristics.</a> Journal of Physiology. 238, 503-514 (1974).</li><li>Milner-Brown, H. S., Stein, R. B., Yemm, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+contractile+properties+of+human+motor+units+during+voluntary+isometric+contractions.">The contractile properties of human motor units during voluntary isometric contractions.</a> Journal of Physiology. 228, 285-306 (1973).</li><li>Taylor, A., Stephens, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Study+of+human+motor+unit+contractions+by+controlled+intramuscular+microstimulation.">Study of human motor unit contractions by controlled intramuscular microstimulation.</a> Brain Research. 117, 331-335 (1976).</li><li>Westling, G., Johansson, R. S., Thomas, C. K., Bigland-Ritchie, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Measurement+of+contractile+and+electrical+properties+of+single+human+thenar+motor+units+in+response+to+intraneural+motor-axon+stimulation.">Measurement of contractile and electrical properties of single human thenar motor units in response to intraneural motor-axon stimulation.</a> Journal of Neurophysiology. 64, 1331-1338 (1990).</li><li>Burke, R. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Motor+units:+anatomy,+physiology+and+functional+organization.">Motor units: anatomy, physiology and functional organization.</a> APS Handbook of Physiology Series, Section 1, The Nervous System. 11, 345-422 (1981).</li><li>Celichowski, J., Grottel, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+dependence+of+the+twitch+course+of+medial+gastrocnemius+muscle+of+the+rat+and+its+motor+units+on+stretching+of+the+muscle.">The dependence of the twitch course of medial gastrocnemius muscle of the rat and its motor units on stretching of the muscle.</a> Archives Italiennes de Biologie. 130, 315-325 (1992).</li><li>Celichowski, J., Grottel, K., Bichler, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differences+in+the+profile+of+unfused+tetani+of+fast+motor+units+with+respect+to+their+resistance+to+fatigue+in+the+rat+medial+gastrocnemius+muscle.">Differences in the profile of unfused tetani of fast motor units with respect to their resistance to fatigue in the rat medial gastrocnemius muscle.</a> Journal of Muscle Research and Cell Motility. 20, 681-685 (1999).</li><li>Krutki, P., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Division+of+motor+units+into+fast+and+slow+on+the+basis+of+profile+of+20+Hz+unfused+tetanus.">Division of motor units into fast and slow on the basis of profile of 20 Hz unfused tetanus.</a> Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology. 59, 353-363 (2008).</li><li>Drzyma&#322;a-Celichowska, H., Krutki, P., Celichowski, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Summation+of+motor+unit+forces+in+the+rat+medial+gastrocnemius+muscle.">Summation of motor unit forces in the rat medial gastrocnemius muscle.</a> Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 20, 599-607 (2010).</li><li>Kaczmarek, P., Celichowski, J., Drzyma&#322;a-Celichowska, H., Kasi&#324;ski, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+image+of+motor+unit+architecture+in+the+mechanomyographic+signal+during+single+motor+unit+contraction.+In+vivo+and+simulation+study.">The image of motor unit architecture in the mechanomyographic signal during single motor unit contraction. In vivo and simulation study.</a> Journal of Electromyography and Kinesiology. 19, 553-563 (2009).</li><li>Celichowski, J., Krutki, P., Bichler, E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Axonal+conduction+velocity+of+motor+units+of+rat's+medial+gastrocnemius+muscle.">Axonal conduction velocity of motor units of rat's medial gastrocnemius muscle.</a> Journal of Physiology (Paris). 90, 75-78 (1996).</li></ol>

If performed correctly by experienced scientists, the surgical component of the described protocol should be completed within approximately two hours. One should take particular care to maintain stable physiological conditions of the animal during the surgery, particularly body temperature and depth of anesthesia, which should be systematically controlled by assessing pinna and withdrawal reflexes. Following the surgery, it should be possible to maintain stable recording conditions for at least six hours.
<p class="j...

Motor units (MUs) are the smallest functional units of skeletal muscles. Therefore, understanding their function, plasticity and contractile properties, as well as the mechanisms of their force regulation, is crucial for progress in muscle physiology. The basic contractile properties of MUs and the proportions of their physiological types have been documented for numerous muscles, predominantly the hindlimb muscles in experimental animals. However, both the plasticity of MU properties and the mechanisms of MU force regulation are still not fully understood.
The principle of the described method is extensive denervation of the hindlimb muscles except the investigated one and laminectomy at the lumbar vertebrae in order to prepare thin ventral rootlets, each one containing a single &#34;functional&#34; motor axon, stimulated electrically to record the force and action potential of the MU. Using the technique described in this paper, it is possible to isolate more than half of the MUs of the medial gastrocnemius muscle in a successful experiment. The rat medial gastrocnemius is composed of on average 52 MUs (females) or 57 MUs (males) of three physiological types: S (slow), FR (fast resistant) and FF (fast fatigable)1,2, and have variable contractile properties3. For experiments comparing mean values for MUs in the control and experimental groups, isolation and recording of 10-30 MUs for each of these groups are necessary. Critically, individual MUs may be accessible for stimulation for time periods exceeding one hour. Moreover, since this technique allows for recording both MU force and action potentials, this method is suitable for studying phenomena associated with force production, assessing the effect of fatigue, and observing the relationship between the force and action potentials.
Previous studies have confirmed that MU contractile properties are plastic and may be modulated by numerous interventions. Experiments using the technique described here have been performed on rat medial gastrocnemius4 or other hindlimb muscles of the rat5,6 as well as on cat muscles7, using a similar method of single MU isolation. Another series of experiments using trains of stimuli delivered at variable inter-pulse intervals provided observations concerning motor control processes, and the results in general turn attention to the history of stimulation, including considerable effects of a shift in time scale of even one stimulus, crucial for force production8,9.
MUs may also be studied using alternative methods. First, one method is direct stimulation of motoneurons. Burke used intracellular stimulation of motoneurons in cat medial gastrocnemius and soleus with glass microelectrodes used in parallel to determine the electrophysiological properties of these neurons1,10. Other methods have been proposed to study MUs in human muscles, which require considerably lower intervention. For all these methods, the stimulating and recordings electrodes are inserted into the muscle or nerve, and force is recorded from the finger or from the foot. The first of these methods was used to study MUs in the first dorsal interosseous muscle. For this muscle, contracting with a low force, in the electromyogram recorded with the needle electrode inserted into the muscle the action potentials of only one active motor unit were identified. Then the fragments of a muscle force recorded in parallel and following each action potential were averaged (spike-triggered averaging). This method enables extraction of the force of one motor unit from the muscle force recording11. However, the methodological weakness of this procedure is that no single twitch force but rather fragments of tetanic contractions were averaged. Human MUs may also be studied using the second method of intramuscular electrical microstimulation using an electrode inserted into the muscle12, which stimulates a fragment of an axonal tree, leading to activation of a single motor unit. The third method is microstimulation with an electrode inserted into the nerve. When the electrode activates only one motor axon in the nerve, only one motor unit contracts13. These last methods have some limitations, including stability and quality of the recording, ethical restrictions and access to the experimental material. This protocol has been extensively used in cats in the 70&#39;s and 80&#39;s14.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Force transducer</td>
			<td>custom-made</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 11255-20</td>
			<td>Dumont #55 with extra light and fine shanks</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 11150-10</td>
			<td>Extra Fine Greafe Forceps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 11026-15</td>
			<td>Special cupped pattern for superior grip</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 11023-10</td>
			<td>Slim 1x2 teeth</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 11251-20</td>
			<td>Dumont #5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemostats</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 13003-10</td>
			<td>Hartman</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isolation Unit</td>
			<td>Grass Instruments</td>
			<td>S1U5A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low Noise Bioamplifer</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td>Order code 74030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Needle holders</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 12503-15</td>
			<td>With tungsten carbide jaws</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rongeurs</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 16021-14</td>
			<td>Friedman-Pearson</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 14101-14</td>
			<td>Straight sharp/blunt with large finger loops</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 14075-11</td>
			<td>Curved blunt/blunt</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 14084-08</td>
			<td>Extra fine bonn</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>No. 15000-00</td>
			<td>Straight, ideal for cutting nerves</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stimulator</td>
			<td>Grass Instruments</td>
			<td>S88</td>
			<td>Dual Output Square Pulse Stimulator</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

functional isolation of single motor units of rat medial gastrocnemius muscle

This work outlines functional isolation of motor units (MUs), a standard electrophysiological method for determining characteristics of motor units in hindlimb muscles (such as the medial gastrocnemius, soleus, or plantaris muscle) in experimental rats. A crucial element of the method is the application of electrical stimuli delivered to a motor axon isolated from the ventral root. The stimuli may be delivered at constant or variable inter-pulse intervals. This method is suitable for experiments on animals at varying stages of maturity (young, adult or old). Moreover, this protocol can be used in experiments studying variability and plasticity of motor units evoked by a large spectrum of interventions. The results of these experiments may both augment basic knowledge in muscle physiology and be translated into practical applications. This procedure focuses on the surgical preparation for the recording and stimulation of MUs, with an emphasis on the necessary steps to achieve preparation stability and reproducibility of results.

Parameters of motor unit contractions and action potentials can be calculated on the basis of recordings when stable conditions of recordings are ensured. Figure 1 presents a representative recording of the single twitch of a fast MU. The upper trace shows the motor unit action potential. The delay between stimulus delivery and onset of the motor unit action potential is due to conduction time from ventral root to muscle. Figure 2 shows a representative recordin...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Functional Isolation of Single Motor Units of Rat Medial Gastrocnemius Muscle at JoVE.com

Functional Isolation of Single Motor Units of Rat Medial Gastrocnemius Muscle

This method allows the recording of the force of twitch and tetanic contractions and action potentials in three types of motor units in the rat medial gastrocnemius muscle. The functional isolation of a single motor unit is induced by electrical stimulation of the axon.

This work outlines functional isolation of motor units (MUs), a standard electrophysiological method for determining characteristics of motor units in ...

This method allows the functional isolation of single motor units in handling masses of experimental animals. The main advantage of this technique is recording of force and action potentials of individual motor units of identified physiological type. Helping to demonstrate the procedure will be Professor Jan Celichowski, head of the department of neurobiology.Begin by cutting the skin along the spinal column, from the sacrum up to the thoracic vertebrae, with sharp-blunt scissors. Identify the S1 vertebra as the lowest segment. Then cut and remove the longissimus muscles, and the spinous processes from L6 to L2 vertebrae.Use fine rongeurs to remove the transverse processes from L6 to L2, and perform a laminectomy over L6 to L2 segments to expose the lumbar segments of the spinal cord covered by the dura mater. Using sharp scissors, cut the spinal cord and the dorsal and ventral roots at L2 vertebrae segment, level at the upper border of the laminectomy. Place small pieces of dry gel foam to stop the bleeding.Next, use sharp-blunt scissors to make a longitudinal cuddle on the posterior side of the left hind limb, from the Achilles tendon to the hip. Locate the popliteal fossa at the back of the knee joint, which is covered by the biceps femoris muscle, and make a cup between the anterior and posterior part of this muscle. Moving upwards, cut the two heads of the biceps femoris all the way to the hip to expose the sciatic nerve.Using blunt forceps and scissors, separate the lateral from the medial head of the gastrocnemius muscle, and cut the distal insertion of the medial gastrocnemius muscle. Identify the medial gastrocnemius or MG nerve, then use forceps and scissors to cut all remaining collaterals of the sciatic nerve including collaterals to posterior biceps and semitendinosus. Bred a non elastic ligature through the Achilles tendon and make three knots.Then make a two centimeter incision in the skin and underlying connective tissue along the anterior side of the left hind limb for a mobilization with a middle clan. Fix the left hind limb by putting a steel clamp on the tibia. Place the rat in a custom made adjustable frame.Pull the skin flaps around the laminectomy with four ligatures. And suture them to the frame in order to form a pool for paraffin oil over the exposed spinal cord. Use a Dumont 55 forceps to lift the dura mater at the intersection of the spinal cord.Then cut it caudally up to the sacral bone and retract it. Separate the left and right dorsal and ventral roots at successive levels with a blunt glass rod. Fill the pool over the spinal cord with warm paraffin oil, covering the exposed ventral and dorsal roots.Place the rat on a custom made aluminum plate with a pool for its hind limbs, connected to the closed loop heating system. Fix the clamp on the left hind limb with the metal bar to immobilize it. Fix the vertebral column by putting steel clamps at the sacral bone and the L1 vertebra.Then connect the left medial gastrocnemius muscle with the non elastic ligature to the force transducer via the Achilles tendon. Insert a bipolar silver wire or electrode through the middle part of the muscle, perpendicular to its long axis, and fill the chamber for hind limbs with warm paraffin oil to cover the medial gastrocnemius muscle. Stretch the operated muscle to a passive tension of 100 millinewton, controlled by the force transducer.Then use sharp-blunt scissors to make a two centimeter incision in the skin of the right hind limb, and insert a silver wire electrode to be used as a reference electrode. Place and fix a custom made insulated metal plate above the exposed spinal roots. Put left pairs of ventral and dorsal roots on the plate.And add saline to the pool formed by the skin around the laminectomy. Place a silver wire stimulating electrode over the exposed spinal roots, then place a positive pole three millimeters above the plate in oil, and the negative pole in the saline. Stimulate the ventral roots with electrical rectangular pulses, evoking contraction of muscles.Use a pair of Dumont 55 forceps and magnifying glasses to split L5 or L4 ventral roots into very fine bundles of axons. Place one of these bundles on a silver wire electrode and stimulate it to observe activity of a single motor unit. By progressively increasing the intensity of the stimulus, identify a single motor unit on the basis of the evoked all-or-none character of the twitch contraction and action potential stimulus.Parameters of motor unit contractions and action potentials can be calculated using recordings when stable conditions of recordings are insured. A representative recording of the single twitch of a fast motor unit is shown here. The upper trays shows the motor unit action potential.The delay between stimulus delivery and onset of the motor unit action potential is due to conduction time from the ventral root to the muscle. A representative recording of the unfused tetanus force of a fast motor unit and a train of motor unit action potentials are shown here along with the time positions of the applied stimuli. Before attempting this procedure, keep in mind that the splitting of the ventral root into thin filaments needs some training and experience.

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Axoplasm Isolation from Rat Sciatic Nerve

Isolation of pure axonal cytoplasm (axoplasm) from peripheral nerve is crucial for biochemical studies of many biological processes. In this article, we demonstrate and describe a protocol for axoplasm isolation from adult rat sciatic nerve based on the following steps: (1) dissection of nerve fascicles and separation of connective tissue; (2) incubation of short segments of nerve fascicles in hypotonic medium to release myelin and lyse non-axonal structures; and (3) extraction of the remaining axon-enriched material. Proteomic and biochemical characterization of this preparation has confirmed a high degree of enrichment for axonal components.

We demonstrate a protocol for axoplasm isolation from adult rat sciatic nerve based on dissection of nerve fascicles and incubation in hypotonic medium to release myelin and lyse non-axonal structures, followed by extraction of the remaining axon-enriched material.

Isolation of pure axonal cytoplasm (axoplasm) from peripheral nerve is crucial for biochemical studies of many biological processes. In this article, we ...

Paired Patch Clamp Recordings from Motor-neuron and Target Skeletal Muscle in Zebrafish

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target muscle. This is a direct consequence of the accessibility to both cell types and ability to visually distinguish the single segmental CaP motor-neuron on the basis of morphology and location. This video demonstrates the microscopic methods used to identify a CaP motor-neuron and target muscle cells as well as the methodologies for recording from each cell type. Identification of the CaP motor-neuron type is confirmed by either dye filling or by the biophysical features such as action potential waveform and cell input resistance. Motor-neuron recordings routinely last for one hour permitting long-term recordings from multiple different target muscle cells. Control over the motor-neuron firing pattern enables measurements of the frequency-dependence of synaptic transmission at the neuromuscular junction. Owing to a large quantal size and the low noise provided by whole cell voltage clamp, all of the unitary events can be resolved in muscle. This feature permits study of basic synaptic properties such as release properties, vesicle recycling, as well as synaptic depression and facilitation. The advantages offered by this in vivo preparation eclipse previous neuromuscular model systems studied wherein the motor-neurons are usually stimulated by extracellular electrodes and the muscles are too large for whole cell patch clamp. The zebrafish preparation is amenable to combining electrophysiological analysis with a wide range of approaches including transgenic lines, morpholino knockdown, pharmacological intervention and in vivo imaging. These approaches, coupled with the growing number of neuromuscular disease models provided by mutant lines of zebrafish, open the door for new understanding of human neuromuscular disorders.

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target skeletal muscle. This video demonstrates the microscopic methods used to identify a segmental CaP motor-neuron and target muscle cells as well as the methodologies for recording from each cell type.

Larval zebrafish represent the first vertebrate model system to allow simultaneous patch clamp recording from a spinal motor-neuron and target muscle.  ...

A Functional Motor Unit in the Culture Dish: Co-culture of Spinal Cord Explants and Muscle Cells

Human primary muscle cells cultured aneurally in monolayer rarely contract spontaneously because, in the absence of a nerve component, cell differentiation is limited and motor neuron stimulation is missing1. These limitations hamper the in vitro study of many neuromuscular diseases in cultured muscle cells. Importantly, the experimental constraints of monolayered, cultured muscle cells can be overcome by functional innervation of myofibers with spinal cord explants in co-cultures.
Here, we show the different steps required to achieve an efficient, proper innervation of human primary muscle cells, leading to complete differentiation and fiber contraction according to the method developed by Askanas2. To do so, muscle cells are co-cultured with spinal cord explants of rat embryos at ED 13.5, with the dorsal root ganglia still attached to the spinal cord slices. After a few days, the muscle fibers start to contract and eventually become cross-striated through innervation by functional neurites projecting from the spinal cord explants that connecting to the muscle cells. This structure can be maintained for many months, simply by regular exchange of the culture medium.
The applications of this invaluable tool are numerous, as it represents a functional model for multidisciplinary analyses of human muscle development and innervation. In fact, a complete de novo neuromuscular junction installation occurs in a culture dish, allowing an easy measurement of many parameters at each step, in a fundamental and physiological context.
Just to cite a few examples, genomic and/or proteomic studies can be performed directly on the co-cultures. Furthermore, pre- and post-synaptic effects can be specifically and separately assessed at the neuromuscular junction, because both components come from different species, rat and human, respectively. The nerve-muscle co-culture can also be performed with human muscle cells isolated from patients suffering from muscle or neuromuscular diseases3, and thus can be used as a screening tool for candidate drugs. Finally, no special equipment but a regular BSL2 facility is needed to reproduce a functional motor unit in a culture dish. This method thus is valuable for both the muscle as well as the neuromuscular research communities for physiological and mechanistic studies of neuromuscular function, in a normal and disease context.

Cultured muscle cells are an inadequate model to recapitulate innervated muscle in vivo. A functional motor unit can be reproduced in vitro by innervation of differentiated human primary muscle cells using rat embryo spinal cord explants. This article describes how co-cultures of spinal cord explants and muscle cells are established.

Human primary muscle cells cultured  aneurally in monolayer rarely contract spontaneously because, in the absence of  a nerve component, cell ...

Extracellularly Identifying Motor Neurons for a Muscle Motor Pool in Aplysia californica

In animals with large identified neurons (e.g. mollusks), analysis of motor pools is done using intracellular techniques1,2,3,4. Recently, we developed a technique to extracellularly stimulate and record individual neurons in Aplysia californica5. We now describe a protocol for using this technique to uniquely identify and characterize motor neurons within a motor pool.
This extracellular technique has advantages. First, extracellular electrodes can stimulate and record neurons through the sheath5, so it does not need to be removed. Thus, neurons will be healthier in extracellular experiments than in intracellular ones. Second, if ganglia are rotated by appropriate pinning of the sheath, extracellular electrodes can access neurons on both sides of the ganglion, which makes it easier and more efficient to identify multiple neurons in the same preparation. Third, extracellular electrodes do not need to penetrate cells, and thus can be easily moved back and forth among neurons, causing less damage to them. This is especially useful when one tries to record multiple neurons during repeating motor patterns that may only persist for minutes. Fourth, extracellular electrodes are more flexible than intracellular ones during muscle movements. Intracellular electrodes may pull out and damage neurons during muscle contractions. In contrast, since extracellular electrodes are gently pressed onto the sheath above neurons, they usually stay above the same neuron during muscle contractions, and thus can be used in more intact preparations.
To uniquely identify motor neurons for a motor pool (in particular, the I1/I3 muscle in Aplysia) using extracellular electrodes, one can use features that do not require intracellular measurements as criteria: soma size and location, axonal projection, and muscle innervation4,6,7. For the particular motor pool used to illustrate the technique, we recorded from buccal nerves 2 and 3 to measure axonal projections, and measured the contraction forces of the I1/I3 muscle to determine the pattern of muscle innervation for the individual motor neurons.
We demonstrate the complete process of first identifying motor neurons using muscle innervation, then characterizing their timing during motor patterns, creating a simplified diagnostic method for rapid identification. The simplified and more rapid diagnostic method is superior for more intact preparations, e.g. in the suspended buccal mass preparation8 or in vivo9. This process can also be applied in other motor pools10,11,12 in Aplysia or in other animal systems2,3,13,14.

Extracellularly Identifying Motor Neurons for a Muscle Motor Pool in Aplysia californica

In animals with large identified neurons (e.g. mollusks), analysis of motor pools is done using intracellular techniques1,2,3,4. Recently, we developed a technique to extracellularly stimulate and record individual neurons in Aplysia californica5. We now describe a protocol for using this technique to uniquely identify and characterize motor neurons within a motor pool.

In animals with large  identified neurons (e.g. mollusks), analysis of motor pools is done using  intracellular techniques1,2,3,4. Recently,  we developed ...

Functional and Morphological Assessment of Diaphragm Innervation by Phrenic Motor Neurons

This protocol specifically focuses on tools for assessing phrenic motor neuron (PhMN) innervation of the diaphragm at both the electrophysiological and morphological levels. Compound muscle action potential (CMAP) recording following phrenic nerve stimulation can be used to quantitatively assess functional diaphragm innervation by PhMNs of the cervical spinal cord in vivo in anesthetized rats and mice. Because CMAPs represent simultaneous recording of all myofibers of the whole hemi-diaphragm, it is useful to also examine the phenotypes of individual motor axons and myofibers at the diaphragm NMJ in order to track disease- and therapy-relevant morphological changes such as partial and complete denervation, regenerative sprouting and reinnervation. This can be accomplished via whole-mount immunohistochemistry (IHC) of the diaphragm, followed by detailed morphological assessment of individual NMJs throughout the muscle. Combining CMAPs and NMJ analysis provides a powerful approach for quantitatively studying diaphragmatic innervation in rodent models of CNS and PNS disease.

Compound muscle action potential recording quantitatively assesses functional diaphragm innervation by phrenic motor neurons. Whole-mount diaphragm immunohistochemistry assesses morphological innervation at individual neuromuscular junctions. The goal of this protocol is to demonstrate how these two powerful methodologies can be used in various rodent models of spinal cord disease.

This protocol specifically focuses on tools for assessing phrenic motor neuron (PhMN) innervation of the diaphragm at both the electrophysiological and ...

Isolation of Adult Spinal Cord Nuclei for Massively Parallel Single-nucleus RNA Sequencing

Probing an individual cell&#39;s gene expression enables the identification of cell type and cell state. Single-cell RNA sequencing has emerged as a powerful tool for studying transcriptional profiles of cells, particularly in heterogeneous tissues such as the central nervous system. However, dissociation methods required for single cell sequencing can lead to experimental changes in the gene expression and cell death. Furthermore, these methods are generally restricted to fresh tissue, thus limiting studies on archival and bio-bank material. Single nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNA-Seq) is an appealing alternative for transcriptional studies, given that it accurately identifies cell types, permits the study of tissue that is frozen or difficult to dissociate, and reduces dissociation-induced transcription. Here, we present a high-throughput protocol for rapid isolation of nuclei for downstream snRNA-Seq. This method enables isolation of nuclei from fresh or frozen spinal cord samples and can be combined with two massively parallel droplet encapsulation platforms.

Here, we present a protocol to rapidly isolate high-quality nuclei from the fresh or frozen tissue for downstream massively parallel RNA sequencing. We include detergent-mechanical and hypotonic-mechanical tissue disruption and cell lysis options, both of which can be used for isolation of nuclei.

Probing an individual cell&#39;s gene expression enables the identification of cell type and cell state. Single-cell RNA sequencing has emerged as a ...

Isolation of Primary Murine Skeletal Muscle Microvascular Endothelial Cells

The endothelial cells of skeletal muscle capillaries (muscle microvascular endothelial cells, MMEC) build up the barrier between blood stream and skeletal muscles regulating the exchange of fluids and nutrients as well as the immune response against infectious agents by controlling immune cell migration. For these functions, MMEC form a functional &#34;myovascular unit&#34; (MVU), with further cell types, such as fibroblasts, pericytes and skeletal muscle cells. Consequently, a dysfunction of MMEC and therefore the MVU contributes to a vast variety of myopathies. However, regulatory mechanisms of MMEC in health and disease remain insufficiently understood and their elucidation precedes more specific treatments for myopathies. The isolation and in-depth investigation of primary MMEC functions in the context of the MVU might facilitate a better understanding of these processes.
This article provides a protocol to isolate primary murine MMEC of the skeletal muscle by mechanical and enzymatic dissociation including purification and culture maintenance steps.

Microvascular endothelial cells of skeletal muscles (MMEC) shape the inner wall of muscle capillaries and regulate both, exchange of fluids/molecules and migration of (immune) cells between muscle tissue and blood. Isolation of primary murine MMEC, as described here, enables comprehensive in vitro investigations of the &#34;myovascular unit&#34;.

The endothelial cells of skeletal muscle capillaries (muscle microvascular endothelial cells, MMEC) build up the barrier between blood stream and skeletal ...

3D Kinematic Analysis for the Functional Evaluation in the Rat Model of Sciatic Nerve Crush Injury

Compared to the Sciatic Functional Index (SFI), kinematic analysis is a more reliable and sensitive method for performing functional evaluations of sciatic nerve injury rodent models. In this protocol, we describe a novel kinematic analysis method that uses a three-dimensional (3D) motion capture apparatus for functional evaluations using a rat sciatic nerve crush injury model. First, the rat is familiarized with treadmill walking. Markers are then attached to the designated bone landmarks and the rat is made to walk on the treadmill at the desired speed. Meanwhile, the posterior limb movements of the rat are recorded using four cameras. Depending on the software used, marker tracings are created using both automatic and manual modes and the desired data are produced after subtle adjustments. This method of kinematic analysis, which uses a 3D motion capture apparatus, offers numerous advantages, including superior precision and accuracy. Many more parameters can be investigated during the comprehensive functional evaluations. This method has several shortcomings that require consideration: The system is expensive, can be complicated to operate, and may produce data deviations due to skin shifting. Nevertheless, kinematic analysis using a 3D motion capture apparatus is useful for performing functional anterior and posterior limb evaluations. In the future, this method may become increasingly useful for generating accurate assessments of various traumas and diseases.

We introduce a kinematic analysis method that uses a three-dimensional motion capture apparatus containing four cameras and data processing software for performing functional evaluations during fundamental research involving rodent models.

Compared to the Sciatic Functional Index (SFI), kinematic analysis is a more reliable and sensitive method for performing functional evaluations of ...

Acquisition of Resting-State Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Data in the Rat

Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) has become an increasingly popular method to study brain function in a resting, non-task state. This protocol describes a preclinical survival method for obtaining rs-fMRI data. Combining low dose isoflurane with continuous infusion of the &#945;2 adrenergic receptor agonist dexmedetomidine provides a robust option for stable, high-quality data acquisition while preserving brain network function. Furthermore, this procedure allows for spontaneous breathing and near-normal physiology in the rat. Additional imaging sequences can be combined with resting-state acquisition creating experimental protocols with anesthetic stability of up to 5 h using this method. This protocol describes the setup of equipment, monitoring of rat physiology during four distinct phases of anesthesia, acquisition of resting-state scans, quality assessment of data, recovery of the animal, and a brief discussion of post-processing data analysis. This protocol can be used across a wide variety of preclinical rodent models to help reveal the resulting brain network changes that occur at rest.

This protocol describes a method for obtaining stable resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) data from a rat using low dose isoflurane in combination with low dose dexmedetomidine.

Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) has become an increasingly popular method to study brain function in a resting, non-task ...

Generation of Human Motor Units with Functional Neuromuscular Junctions in Microfluidic Devices

Neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are specialized synapses between the axon of the lower motor neuron and the muscle facilitating the engagement of muscle contraction. In motor neuron disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), NMJs degenerate, resulting in muscle atrophy and progressive paralysis. The underlying mechanism of NMJ degeneration is unknown, largely due to the lack of translatable research models. This study aimed to create a versatile and reproducible in vitro model of a human motor unit with functional NMJs. Therefore, human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC)-derived motor neurons and human primary mesoangioblast (MAB)-derived myotubes were co-cultured in commercially available microfluidic devices. The use of fluidically isolated micro-compartments allows for the maintenance of cell-specific microenvironments while permitting cell-to-cell contact through microgrooves. By applying a chemotactic and volumetric gradient, the growth of motor neuron-neurites through the microgrooves promoting myotube interaction and the formation of NMJs were stimulated. These NMJs were identified immunocytochemically through co-localization of motor neuron presynaptic marker synaptophysin (SYP) and postsynaptic acetylcholine receptor (AChR) marker &#945;-bungarotoxin (Btx) on myotubes and characterized morphologically using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The functionality of the NMJs was confirmed by measuring calcium responses in myotubes upon depolarization of the motor neurons. The motor unit generated using standard microfluidic devices and stem cell technology can aid future research focusing on NMJs in health and disease.

We describe a method to generate human motor units in commercially available microfluidic devices by co-culturing human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived motor neurons with human primary mesoangioblast-derived myotubes resulting in the formation of functionally active neuromuscular junctions.

Neuromuscular junctions (NMJs) are specialized synapses between the axon of the lower motor neuron and the muscle facilitating the engagement of muscle ...