Name: fluorescence-based measurements of phosphatidylserine/phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate exchange between membranes
Uploaded: 2021-03-14T13:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fluorescence-Based Measurements of Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate Exchange Between Membranes at JoVE.com

We are grateful to Dr. A. Cuttriss for her careful proofreading of the manuscript. This work is funded by the French National Research Agency grant ExCHANGE (ANR-16-CE13-0006) and by the CNRS.

1. Purification of NBD-C2Lact
NOTE: Although this protocol details the use of a cell disruptor to break bacteria, it can be modified to use other lysis strategies (e.g., a French press). At the beginning of the purification, it is mandatory to use buffer that is freshly degassed, filtered, and supplemented with 2 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) to prevent the oxidation of cysteine. However, for the protein labelling step, it is crucial to completely remove DTT. Many steps must be car...

The outcomes of these assays directly rely on the signals of the fluorescent lipid sensors. Thus, the purification of these probes labelled at a 1:1 ratio with NBD and without free NBD fluorophore contamination is a critical step in this protocol. It is also mandatory to check whether the LTP under examination is properly folded and not aggregated. The amount of LTP tested in the extraction assays must be equal to or higher than that of accessible PS or PI(4)P molecules to properly measure whether this LTP efficiently ex...

The precise distribution of lipids between different membranes and within the membranes of eukaryotic cells1,2&#160;has profound biological implications. Decrypting how LTPs function is an important issue in cell biology3,4,5,6, and in vitro approaches are of great value in addressing this issue7,8,9,10,11. Here, an in vitro, fluorescence-based strategy is presented that has been instrumental in establishing that several ORP/Osh proteins effect PS/PI(4)P exchange between cell membranes12 and thereby constitute a new class of LTPs. PS is an anionic glycerophospholipid that represents 2-10% of total membrane lipids in eukaryotic cells13,14,16. It is distributed along a gradient between the ER and the PM, where it represents 5-7% and up to 30% of glycerophospholipids, respectively17,18,19. Moreover, PS is essentially concentrated in the cytosolic leaflet of the PM. This build-up and the uneven partition of PS in the PM are critical for cellular signaling processes19. Owing to the negative charge of PS molecules, the cytosolic leaflet of the PM is much more anionic than the cytosolic leaflet of other organelles1,2,19,20. This enables the recruitment, via electrostatic forces, of signaling proteins such as myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate (MARCKS)21, sarcoma (Src)22, Kirsten-rat sarcoma viral oncogene (K-Ras)23, and Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1)24 that contain a stretch of positively charged amino acids and a lipidic tail.
PS is also recognized by conventional protein kinase C in a stereoselective manner via a C2 domain25. However, PS is synthesized in the ER26, indicating that it must be exported to the PM before it can play its role. It was not known how this was accomplished19 until the finding that, in yeast, Osh6p and Osh7p transfer PS from the ER to the PM27. These LTPs belong to an evolutionarily conserved family in eukaryotes whose founding member is OSBP and that contains proteins (ORPs in human, Osh proteins in yeast) integrating an OSBP-related domain (ORD) with a pocket to host a lipid molecule. Osh6p and Osh7p consist only of an ORD whose structural features are adapted to specifically bind PS and transfer it between membranes. Nevertheless, how these proteins directionally transferred PS from the ER to the PM was unclear. Osh6p and Osh7p can trap PI(4)P as an alternative lipid ligand12. In yeast, PI(4)P is synthesized from phosphatidylinositol (PI) in the Golgi and the PM&#160;by PI 4-kinases, Pik1p and Stt4p, respectively. In contrast, there is no PI(4)P in the ER membrane, as this lipid is hydrolyzed to PI by the Sac1p phosphatase. Hence, a PI(4)P gradient exists at both the ER/Golgi and ER/PM interfaces. Osh6p and Osh7p transfer PS from the ER to the PM via PS/PI(4)P exchange cycles using the PI(4)P gradient that exists between these two membranes12.
Within one cycle, Osh6p extracts PS from the ER, exchanges PS for PI(4)P at the PM and transfers PI(4)P back to the ER to extract another PS molecule. Osh6p/Osh7p interact with Ist2p28, one of the few proteins that connect and bring the ER membrane and the PM into close proximity with each other to create ER-PM contact sites in yeast29,30,31. In addition, the association of Osh6p with negatively charged membranes becomes weak as soon as the protein extracts one of its lipid ligands due to a conformational change that modifies its electrostatic features32. This aids Osh6p by shortening its membrane dwell time, thereby maintaining the efficiency of its lipid transfer activity. Combined with the binding to Ist2p, this mechanism could allow Osh6p/7p to both quickly and accurately execute lipid exchange at the ER/PM interface. In human cells, ORP5 and ORP8 proteins execute PS/PI(4)P exchange at ER-PM contact sites via distinct mechanisms33. They have a central ORD, akin to Osh6p, but are directly anchored to the ER via a C-terminal transmembrane segment33 and dock into the PM via an N-terminal Pleckstrin homology (PH) domain that recognizes PI(4)P and PI(4,5)P233,34,35. ORP5/8 use PI(4)P to transfer PS, and it has been shown that ORP5/8 additionally regulate PM PI(4,5)P2 levels and presumably modulate signaling pathways. In turn, a decrease in PI(4)P and PI(4,5)P2 levels lowers ORP5/ORP8 activity as these proteins associate with the PM in a PIP-dependent fashion. Abnormally high PS synthesis, which leads to Lenz-Majewski syndrome, impacts PI(4)P levels through ORP5/836. When the activity of both proteins is blocked, PS becomes less abundant at the PM, lowering the oncogenic capability of signaling proteins37.
Conversely, ORP5 overexpression seems to promote cancer cell invasion and metastatic processes38. Thus, alterations to ORP5/8 activity can severely modify cellular behavior through changes in lipid homeostasis. Further, ORP5 and ORP8 occupy ER-mitochondria contact sites and preserve some mitochondrial functions, possibly by supplying PS39. Additionally, ORP5 localizes to ER-lipid droplet contact sites to deliver PS to lipid droplets by PS/PI(4)P exchange40. The strategy described herein to measure (i) PS and PI(4)P extraction from liposomes and (ii) PS and PI(4)P transport between liposomes has been devised to establish and analyze the PS/PI(4)P exchange activity of Osh6p/Osh7p12,32 and used by other groups to analyze the activity of ORP5/ORP835 and other LTPs10,41. It is based on the use of a fluorescence plate reader, a standard L-format spectrofluorometer, and two fluorescent sensors, NBD-C2Lact and NBD-PHFAPP, that can detect PS and PI(4)P, respectively.
NBD-C2Lact corresponds to the C2 domain of the glycoprotein, lactadherin, that was reengineered to include a unique solvent-exposed cysteine near the presumed PS binding site; a polarity-sensitive NBD (7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol) fluorophore is covalently linked to this residue (Figure 1A)12. To be more precise, the C2 domain of lactadherin (Bos taurus, UniProt: Q95114,residues 270-427) was cloned into a pGEX-4T3 vector to be expressed in fusion with glutathione S-transferase (GST) in Escherichia coli. The C2Lact sequence was then mutated to substitute two solvent-accessible cysteine residues (C270, C427) with alanine residues and to introduce a cysteine residue into a region near the putative PS-binding site (H352C mutation) that can be subsequently labeled with N,N&#39;-dimethyl-N-(iodoacetyl)-N&#39;-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl) ethylene diamine (IANBD)&#160;12. A cleavage site for thrombin is present between the GST protein and the N-terminus of the C2 domain. A major advantage is that this domain selectively recognizes PS in a Ca2+-independent manner contrary to other known C2 domains or Annexin A542. NBD-PHFAPP is derived from the PH domain of the human&#160;four-phosphate-adaptor protein 1 (FAPP1), which was reengineered to include a single solvent-exposed cysteine that can be labeled with an NBD group near the PI(4)P binding site (Figure 1A)43. The nucleotide sequence of the PH domain of the human FAPP protein (UniProt: Q9HB20, segment [1-100]) has been cloned into a pGEX-4T3 vector to be expressed in tandem with a GST tag. The PHFAPP sequence has been modified to insert a unique cysteine residue within the membrane-binding interface of the protein43. Moreover, a nine-residue linker has been introduced between the thrombin cleavage site and the N-terminus of the PH domain to ensure accessibility to the protease.
To measure PS extraction from liposomes, NBD-C2Lact is mixed with liposomes made of phosphatidylcholine (PC) containing trace amounts of PS. Owing to its affinity for PS, this construct binds to the liposomes, and the NBD fluorophore experiences a change in polarity as it comes into contact with the hydrophobic environment of the membrane, which elicits a blue-shift and an increase in fluorescence. If PS is extracted almost completely by a stoichiometric amount of LTP, the probe does not associate with liposomes, and the NBD signal is lower (Figure 1B)32. This difference in signal is used to determine whether an LTP (e.g., Osh6p) extracts PS. A similar strategy is used with NBD-PHFAPP to measure PI(4)P extraction (Figure 1B), as described previously12,32. Two FRET-based assays were designed to (i) measure PS transport from LA to LB liposomes, which mimic the ER membrane and the PM, respectively, and (ii) PI(4)P transport in the reverse direction. These assays are performed under the same conditions (i.e., same buffer, temperature, and lipid concentration) to measure PS/PI(4)P exchange. To measure PS transport, NBD-C2Lact is mixed with LA liposomes composed of PC and doped with 5 mol% PS and 2 mol% of a fluorescent rhodamine-labelled phosphatidylethanolamine&#160;(Rhod-PE)-and LB liposomes incorporating 5 mol% PI(4)P.
At time zero, FRET with Rhod-PE quenches the NBD fluorescence. If PS is transported from LA to LB liposomes (e.g., upon injecting Osh6p), a fast dequenching occurs due to the translocation of NBD-C2Lact molecules from LA to LB liposomes (Figure 1C). Given the amount of accessible PS, NBD-C2Lact remains essentially in a membrane-bound state over the course of the experiment12. Thus, the intensity of the NBD signal directly correlates with the distribution of NBD-C2Lact between LA and LB liposomes and can be easily normalized to determine how much PS is transferred. To measure the transfer of PI(4)P in the opposite direction, NBD-PHFAPP is mixed with LA and LB liposomes; given that it only binds to LB liposomes that contain PI(4)P, but not Rhod-PE, its fluorescence is high. If PI(4)P is transferred to LA liposomes, it translocates to these liposomes, and the signal decreases due to FRET with Rhod-PE (Figure 1C). The signal is normalized to determine how much PI(4)P is transferred43.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;L-cysteine &#8805;97 % (FG)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>W326305-100G</td>
			<td>Prepare a 10 mM L-cysteine stock solution in water. Aliquots are stored at -20 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 mL Amber Vial, PTFE/Rub Lnr, for lipids storage in CHCL3</td>
			<td>Wheaton</td>
			<td>W224681</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4 mm-diameter glass beads</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>Z265934-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL conical centrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#196;KTA purifier</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>FPLC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminium foil</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra-15 with a MWCO of 3 and 10 kDa</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>UFC900324, UFC901024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra-4 with a MWCO of 3 and 10 kDa</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>UFC800324, UFC801024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prepare a 50 mg/mL stock solution with filtered and sterilized water and store it at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bestatin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B8385-10mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BL21 Gold Competent Cells</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C16:0 Liss&#160; (Rhod-PE) in CHCl3 (1 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>810158C-5MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C16:0/C16:0-PI(4)P&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Echelon Lipids</td>
			<td>P-4016-3</td>
			<td>Dissolve 1 mg of C16:0/C16:0-PI(4)P powder in 250 &#181;L of MeOH and 250 &#181;L of CHCl3. Then complete with CHCl3 to 1 mL. The solution must become clear.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C16:0/C18:1-PS (POPS) in CHCl3 (10 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840034C-25mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C18:1/C18:1-PC (DOPC) in CHCl3 (25 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850375C-500mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prepare 10 mM CaCl2 stock solution in water.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Disruptor</td>
			<td>Constant Dynamics</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform (CHCl3) RPE-ISO</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>438601</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Complete EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>5056489001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized (Milli-Q) water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethylformamide (DMF), anhydrous, &#62;99% pure</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNAse I Recombinant, RNAse free, in powder</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10104159001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DTT</td>
			<td>Euromedex</td>
			<td>EU0006-B</td>
			<td>Prepare 1 M DTT stock solution in Milli-Q water.&#160; Prepare 1 mL aliquots and store them at -20 &#176;C.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Econo-Pac chromatography columns (1.5 &#215; 12 cm).</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>7321010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electroporation cuvette 2 mm</td>
			<td>Ozyme</td>
			<td>EP102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electroporator Eppendorf 2510</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fixed-Angle Rotor Ti45 and Ti45 tubes</td>
			<td>Beckman</td>
			<td>Spinning the batcerial lysates</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass-syringes (10, 25, and 50 &#181;L) for fluorescence experiment</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass-syringes (25 , 100, 250, 500, and 1000 &#181;L) to handle lipid stock solutions</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>1702RNR, 1710RNR, 1725RNR, 1750RN type3, 1001RN</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutathione Sepharose 4B beads</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>17-0756-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol (99% pure)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G5516-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemolysis tubes with a cap</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES , &#62;99 % pure</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H3375-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illustra NAP 10 desalting column</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td>GE17-0854-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl &#946;-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)&#160;</td>
			<td>Euromedex</td>
			<td>EU0008-B</td>
			<td>Prepare 1 M IPTG stock solution in Milli-Qwater. Prepare 1 mL aliquots and store them at -20 &#176;C.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K-Acetate</td>
			<td>Prolabo</td>
			<td>26664.293</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lennox LB Broth medium without glucose</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prepared with milli-Q water and autoclaved.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid nitrogen</td>
			<td>Linde</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol (MeOH) &#8805;99.8%</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20847.24</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prepare a 2 M MgCl2 solution. Filter the solution using a 0.45 &#181;m filter.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microplate 96 Well PS F-Botom Black Non-Binding</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio-one</td>
			<td>655900</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-Extruder with two 1 mL gas-tight Hamilton syringes</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>610023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monochromator-based fluorescence plate reader</td>
			<td>TECAN</td>
			<td>M1000 Pro</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N&#39;-Dimethyl-N-(Iodoacetyl)-N&#39;-(7-Nitrobenz-2-Oxa-1,3-Diazol-4-yl)Ethylenediamine) (IANBD Amide)</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Dissolve 25 mg of IANBD in 2.5 mL of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and prepare 25 aliquot of 100 &#181;L in 1.5 mL screw-cap tubes. Do not completely screw the cap. Then, remove DMSO in a freeze-dryer to obtain 1 mg of dry IANBD per tube. Tubes are closed and stored at -20 &#176;C in the dark.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S3014-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM NaH2PO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4, autoclaved and stored at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pear-shaped glass flasks (25 mL, 14/23, Duran glass)</td>
			<td>Duran Group</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pepstatin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>p5318-25mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pGEX-C2LACT&#160; plasmid</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Available on request from our lab</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pGEX-PHFAPP plasmid</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Available on request from our lab</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) &#8805;98.5% (GC)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P7626-25g</td>
			<td>Prepare a 200 mM PMSF stock solution in isopropanol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphoramidon</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>R7385-10mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polycarbonate filters (19 mm in diameter) with pore size of 0.2 &#181;m</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>610006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-Prep chromatography column (with a 0-2 mL bed volume and a 10 mL reservoir)</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>7311550</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prefilters (10 mm in diameter).</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>610014</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PyMOL</td>
			<td>http://pymol.org/</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Construction of the 3D models of the proteins (Figure 1A)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quartz cuvette for UV/visible fluorescence (minimum volume of 600 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Hellma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quartz cuvettes</td>
			<td>Hellma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refrigerated centrifuge&#160; Eppendorf 5427R</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary evaporator</td>
			<td>Buchi</td>
			<td>B-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Screw-cap microcentriguge tubes (1.5 mL)</td>
			<td>Sarsted</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small magnetic PFTE stirring bar (5 &#215; 2 mm)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Snap-cap microcentriguge tubes (0.5, 1, and 2 mL)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SYPRO orange</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>fluorescent stain to detect protein in SDS-PAGE gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer</td>
			<td>Starlab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>THROMBIN, FROM HUMAN PLASMA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>10602400001</td>
			<td>Dissolve 20 units in 1 mL of milli-Q water and prepare 25 &#181;L aliquots in 0.5 mL Eppendorf tubes. Then freeze and store at -80 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris, ultra pure</td>
			<td>MP</td>
			<td>819623</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultracentrifuge L90K</td>
			<td>Beckman</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV/Visible absorbance spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>SAFAS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV/visible spectrofluorometer with a temperature-controlled cell holder and stirring device</td>
			<td>Jasco or Shimadzu</td>
			<td>Jasco FP-8300 or Shimadzu RF-5301PC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum chamber</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath</td>
			<td>Julabo</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XK 16/70 column packed with Sephacryl S200HR</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

fluorescence-based measurements of phosphatidylserine/phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate exchange between membranes

Several members of the evolutionarily conserved oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP)-related proteins(ORP)/OSBP homologs (Osh) family have recently been found to represent a novel lipid transfer protein (LTP) group in yeast and human cells. They transfer phosphatidylserine (PS) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the plasma membrane (PM) via PS/phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI(4)P) exchange cycles. This finding allows a better understanding of how PS, which is critical for signaling processes, is distributed throughout the cell and the investigation of the link between this process and phosphoinositide (PIP) metabolism. The development of new fluorescence-based protocols has been instrumental in the discovery and characterization of this new cellular mechanism in vitro at the molecular level. This paper describes the production and the use of two fluorescently labelled lipid sensors, NBD-C2Lact and NBD-PHFAPP, to measure the ability of a protein to extract PS or PI(4)P and to transfer these lipids between artificial membranes. First, the protocol describes how to produce, label, and obtain high-purity samples of these two constructs. Secondly, this paper explains how to use these sensors with a fluorescence microplate reader to determine whether a protein can extract PS or PI(4)P from liposomes, using Osh6p as a case study. Finally, this protocol shows how to accurately measure the kinetics of PS/PI(4)P exchange between liposomes of defined lipid composition and to determine lipid transfer rates by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) using a standard fluorometer.

<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62177/62177fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1:&#160;Description of the fluorescent lipid sensors and in vitro assays. (A) Three-dimensional models of NBD-C2Lact and NBD-PHFAPP based on the crystal structure of the C2 domain of bovine lactadherin (PDB ID: 3BN648) and the NMR structure of the PH domain of the human FAPP1 ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fluorescence-Based Measurements of Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate Exchange Between Membranes at JoVE.com

Fluorescence-Based Measurements of Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate Exchange Between Membranes

Here, we describe protocols using fluorescent lipid sensors and liposomes to determine whether a protein extracts and transports phosphatidylserine or phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate in vitro.

Several members of the evolutionarily conserved oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP)-related proteins(ORP)/OSBP homologs (Osh) family have recently been found ...

This method use fluorescence to determine if a protein transfer to biologically important liqids between synthetic membrane and thus contribute to the distribution of these lipids inside eukaryotic cells. This technique makes it possible to the extraction and transport of a natural lipid by a protein, it requires and fluorescence cells and liposomes that are easy to make. This method can be used and modified to get insight into cellular biology by proteins behind the distribution of some essential lipids between organ and membranes.Visual demonstration is critical to explain how to perform real-time measurements of lipid transfer by fluorescence. So demonstrating the procedure will also be Maud Magdeleine, an engineer for my laboratory. Begin by preparing fresh filtered and de-gassed HEPES potassium acetate buffer, supplemented with one millimolar magnesium chloride to form HKM buffer.Then, prepare liposomes only made of PC or additionally doped with two molar percent PS or PI(4)P. Now, place the flask on a rotary evaporator to dry the lipid under vacuum. In one well, mix liposomes containing two molar percent PS with lipid sensor, NBD-C2 Lact, to a final concentration of 250 nanomolar and a volume of 100 microliters.Fill a second well with the same amount of liposome and NBD-C2 lact mixed with three micromolar lipid transfer protein or LTP. Fill a third well with 250 nanomolar NBD-C2 lact mixed with pure 80 micromolar PC liposomes and a fourth well with pure 80 micromolar PC liposomes. Repeat these steps to prepare three additional series of four wells.Then place the multi-well plate in the fluorescence reader. For each well record an NBD spectrum from 505 to 650 nanometers with a five nanometer bandwidth upon excitation at 490 nanometers at 25 degrees Celsius. For each series subtract the spectrum recorded with only liposomes from the other spectra.For the PI(4)P extraction assay prepare liposomes doped with two molar percent phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate and carry out measurements with the NBD-PH FAPP probe. Perform control experiments and determine the extraction percentage. After finishing extruding liposomes fill a tube With these extruded liposomes.Prepare freshly de-gassed and filtered HKM buffer and keep the tubes containing extruded liposomes at room temperature. Wrap tubes containing liposomes with rhodamine labeled phosphatidylethanolamine in aluminum foil and store them in an opaque box to prevent any photo bleaching. Set the temperature between 25 and 37 degrees Celsius and adjust the excitation monochromemeters to 460 nanometers with a short bandwidth of one to three nanometers and emission to 530 nanometers with a large bandwidth of greater than 10 nanometers.Set the acquisition time to twenty five minutes with the time resolution of at most one second. In the quartz cuvette dilute 30 microliters of the LA liposome suspension and NBD-C2 lact stock solution and prewarm HKM buffer to prepare a 570 microliter sample that contains 200 micromolar total lipids and 250 nanomolar or NBD-C2 lact. Add a small magnetic stirring bar and position the cuvette in the fluorometer holder.Once the sample is thermally equilibrated trigger the measurement. After one minute, add 30 microliters of the LB liposome suspension to the sample. After three minutes inject LTP into the sample so that the final concentration of the LTP is 200 nanomolar, then acquire the signal for the remaining 21 minutes.Carry out a parallel experiment to normalize the NBD signal. Mix 30 microliters of LA equilibrium liposome suspension with 250 nanomolar NBD-C2 lact in HKM buffer at a final volume of 570 microliters. After one minute, inject 30 microliters of LB equilibrium liposome suspension.Convert the kinetic curves measured with an LTP of interest to determine the amount of PS transferred from LA to LB liposomes over time. Then normalize each data point of the curve. Perform the PI(4)P experiment using the same floor emitter settings and conditions as for the PS transfer assay.In the cuvette, mix 30 microliters of lb liposome suspension and NBD-PH FAPP probe with pre warmed HKM buffer to obtain a final volume of 570 microliters. Once the thermal equilibration of the sample is reached, start the measurement. After one minute, inject 30 microliters of LA liposome suspension.After three minutes, inject the LTP of interest and record the signal. Perform a second experiment to normalize the NBD signal. Mix 30 microliters of lb equilibrium liposome suspension with 250 nanomolar NBD-PH FAPP and 570 microliters of HKM buffer.After one minute, inject 30 microliters of LA equilibrium liposome suspension. Convert the kinetic curves to determine the amount of PI(4)P transferred from LB to LA liposomes over time, then normalize each data point. To quantify the extent of which an LTP is efficient.Perform a linear regression of the first data points of the transfer kinetics to obtain a slope. Divide the slope value by the LTP concentration in the reaction mixture to determine the number of lipid molecules transferred per protein per time unit. Efficient recovery of C2 lact from the beads was verified with SDS page analysis.The ultraviolet visible absorbent spectrum of C2 lact labeled with NBD confirmed that all C2 lact molecules were labeled with an NBD group. The purity of NBD-C2 lact and its fluorescence were determined by SDS page analysis. The fluorescence of NBD-C2 lact or NBD-PH FAPP was maximal when only liposomes containing PS or PI(4)P were used for incubation, indicating that the sensor was membrane-bound.A low fluorescence was seen when Osh6p was also present indicating that this protein efficiently extracted PS or PI(4)P from liposomes. The results from a PS transfer assay using Osh6p as an LTP are shown. The average kinetic curves of PS transfer from LA liposomes to LB liposomes, doped, or not doped with phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate were calculated.The mean initial PS transport rate was determined from three distinct experiments. Similarly, results from a PI(4)P transfer assay using Osh6p as an LTP are shown here. Along with the average kinetic curves obtained after signal normalization.Mean transfer rates were measured with LA liposomes that were doped or not doped with PS.When performing this protocol use fresh buffer and prepare the same days. Minimize light exposition of florescent liposomes and proteins, use well purified NBD labeled protein and keep them on ice. can be confirmed by measuring PS and PI(4)P transfer between organelle inside the prokaryotic cell using genetically encoded fluorescent lipid sensors.This technique paves a way to a better understanding of PS and PI(4)are distributed within the cell, and their activity undergo specificity of several LTPS.

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

A Fluorescence-based Assay of Phospholipid Scramblase Activity

Scramblases translocate phospholipids across the membrane bilayer bidirectionally in an ATP-independent manner. The first scramblase to be identified and biochemically verified was opsin, the apoprotein of the photoreceptor rhodopsin. Rhodopsin is a G protein-coupled receptor localized in rod photoreceptor disc membranes of the retina where it is responsible for the perception of light. Rhodopsin&#39;s scramblase activity does not depend on its ligand 11-cis-retinal, i.e., the apoprotein opsin is also active as a scramblase. Although constitutive and regulated phospholipid scrambling play an important role in cell physiology, only a few phospholipid scramblases have been identified so far besides opsin. Here we describe a fluorescence-based assay of opsin&#39;s scramblase activity. Opsin is reconstituted into large unilamellar liposomes composed of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylglycerol and a trace quantity of fluorescent NBD-labeled PC (1-palmitoyl-2-{6-[7-nitro-2-1,3-benzoxadiazole-4-yl)amino]hexanoyl}-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine). Scramblase activity is determined by measuring the extent to which NBD-PC molecules located in the inner leaflet of the vesicle are able to access the outer leaflet where their fluorescence is chemically eliminated by a reducing agent that cannot cross the membrane. The methods we describe have general applicability and can be used to identify and characterize scramblase activities of other membrane proteins.

We describe a fluorescence-based assay to measure phospholipid scrambling in large unilamellar liposomes reconstituted with opsin.

Scramblases translocate phospholipids across the membrane bilayer bidirectionally in an ATP-independent manner. The first scramblase to be identified and ...

Online Size-exclusion and Ion-exchange Chromatography on a SAXS Beamline

Biological small angle X-ray scattering (BioSAXS) is a powerful technique in molecular and structural biology used to determine solution structure, particle size and shape, and surface-to-volume ratio of macromolecules. The technique is applicable to a very wide variety of solution conditions spanning a broad range of concentrations, pH values, ionic strengths, temperatures, additives, etc., but the sample is required to be monodisperse. This caveat led to the implementation of liquid chromatography systems on SAXS beamlines. Here, we describe the upstream integration of size-exclusion (SEC) and ion-exchange chromatography (IEC) on a beamline, different methods for optimal background subtraction, and data reduction. As an example, we describe how we use SEC- and IEC-SAXS on a fragment of the essential vaccinia virus protein D5, consisting of a D5N helicase domain. We determine its overall shape and molecular weight, showing the hexameric structure of the protein.

The determination of the solution structure of a protein by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) requires monodisperse samples. Here, we present two possibilities to ensure minimal delays between sample preparation and data acquisition: online size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and online ion-exchange chromatography (IEC).

Biological small angle X-ray scattering (BioSAXS) is a powerful technique in molecular and structural biology used to determine solution structure, ...

Time-resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Hydrogen-deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry for Studying Protein Structure and Dynamics

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange (HDX) measured at rapid time scales is uniquely suited to detect structures and hydrogen bonding networks that are briefly populated, allowing for the characterization of transient conformers in native ensembles. Coupling of HDX to mass spectrometry offers several key advantages, including high sensitivity, low sample consumption and no restriction on protein size. This technique has advanced greatly in the last several decades, including the ability to monitor HDX labeling times on the millisecond time scale. In addition, by incorporating the HDX workflow onto a microfluidic platform housing an acidic protease microreactor, we are able to localize dynamic properties at the peptide level. In this study, Time-Resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TRESI-MS) coupled to HDX was used to provide a detailed picture of residual structure in the tau protein, as well as the conformational shifts induced upon hyperphosphorylation.

Conformational flexibility plays a critical role in protein function. Herein, we describe the use of time-resolved electrospray ionization mass spectrometry coupled to hydrogen-deuterium exchange for probing the rapid structural changes that drive function in ordered and disordered proteins.

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. ...

Atomic Scale Structural Studies of Macromolecular Assemblies by Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Supramolecular protein assemblies play fundamental roles in biological processes ranging from host-pathogen interaction, viral infection to the propagation of neurodegenerative disorders. Such assemblies consist in multiple protein subunits organized in a non-covalent way to form large macromolecular objects that can execute a variety of cellular functions or cause detrimental consequences. Atomic insights into the assembly mechanisms and the functioning of those macromolecular assemblies remain often scarce since their inherent insolubility and non-crystallinity often drastically reduces the quality of the data obtained from most techniques used in structural biology, such as X-ray crystallography and solution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). We here present magic-angle spinning solid-state NMR spectroscopy (SSNMR) as a powerful method to investigate structures of macromolecular assemblies at atomic resolution. SSNMR can reveal atomic details on the assembled complex without size and solubility limitations. The protocol presented here describes the essential steps from the production of 13C/15N isotope-labeled macromolecular protein assemblies to the acquisition of standard SSNMR spectra and their analysis and interpretation. As an example, we show the pipeline of a SSNMR structural analysis of a filamentous protein assembly.

Structures of supramolecular protein assemblies at atomic resolution are of high relevance because of their crucial roles in a variety of biological phenomena. Herein, we present a protocol to perform high-resolution structural studies on insoluble and non-crystalline macromolecular protein assemblies by magic-angle spinning solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS SSNMR).

Supramolecular protein assemblies play fundamental roles in biological processes ranging from host-pathogen interaction, viral infection to the ...

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the oxidation of reduced compounds such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2). The complete annotation of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome has established it as the most widely used plant model system, and thus the need to purify mitochondria from a variety of organs (leaf, root, or flower) is necessary to fully utilize the tools that are now available for Arabidopsis to study mitochondrial biology. Mitochondria are isolated by homogenization of the tissue using a variety of approaches, followed by a series of differential centrifugation steps producing a crude mitochondrial pellet that is further purified using continuous colloidal density gradient centrifugation. The colloidal density material is subsequently removed by multiple centrifugation steps. Starting from 100 g of fresh leaf tissue, 2 - 3 mg of mitochondria can be routinely obtained. Respiratory experiments on these mitochondria display typical rates of 100 - 250 nmol O2 min-1 mg total mitochondrial protein-1 (NADH-dependent rate) with the ability to use various substrates and inhibitors to determine which substrates are being oxidized and the capacity of the alternative and cytochrome terminal oxidases. This protocol describes an isolation method of mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana leaves using continuous colloidal density gradients and an efficient respiratory measurements of purified plant mitochondria.

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

As mitochondria are only a small percentage of the plant cell, they need to be purified for a range of studies. Mitochondria can be isolated from a variety of plant organs by homogenization, followed by differential and density gradient centrifugation to obtain a highly purified mitochondrial fraction.

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from ...

Detection of Detergent-sensitive Interactions Between Membrane Proteins

Our ability to explore protein-protein interactions is the key to understanding regulatory connections in the cell. However, detection of protein-protein interactions in many cases is associated with significant experimental challenges. In particular, sorting receptors interact with their protein cargo in the lumen of the membrane compartments often in a detergent-sensitive fashion, making co-immunoprecipitation of these proteins unusable. Binding of the sorting receptor sortilin to glucose transporter GLUT4 may serve as an example of weak luminal interactions between membrane proteins. Here, we describe a fast, simple, and inexpensive assay to validate the interaction between sortilin and GLUT4. For that, we have designed and chemically synthesized the myc-tagged peptide corresponding to the potential sortilin-binding epitope in the luminal part of GLUT4. Sortilin tagged with six histidines was expressed in mammalian cells, and isolated from cell lysates using Cobalt beads. Sortilin immobilized on the beads was incubated with the peptide solution at different pH values, and the eluted material was analyzed by Western blotting. This assay can be easily adapted to study other detergent-sensitive protein-protein interactions.

We describe a protocol for detection of detergent-sensitive interactions between membrane proteins using binding of the sorting receptor, sortilin, to the first luminal loop of the glucose transporter protein, GLUT4, as an example.

Our ability to explore protein-protein interactions is the key to understanding regulatory connections in the cell. However, detection of protein-protein ...

Rapid Fluorescence-based Characterization of Single Extracellular Vesicles in Human Blood with Nanoparticle-tracking Analysis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, are specialized membranous nano-sized vesicles found in bodily fluids that are constitutively released from many cell types and play a pivotal role in regulating cell-cell communication and a diverse range of biological processes. Many different methods for the characterization of EVs have been described. However, most of these methods have the disadvantage that the preparation and characterization of the samples are very time-consuming, or it is extremely difficult to analyze specific markers of interest due to their small size and due to the lack of discrete populations. While methods for analysis of EVs have been considerably improved over the last decade, there is still no standardized method for characterization of single EVs. Here, we demonstrate a semi-automated method for characterization of single EVs by fluorescence-based nanoparticle-tracking analysis. The protocol that is presented addresses the common problem of many researchers in this field and provides the complete workflow for rapid isolation of EVs and characterization with PKH67, a general cell membrane linker, as well as with specific surface markers such as CD63, CD9, vimentin, and lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP-1). The presented results show a high level of reproducibility, as confirmed by other methods, such as Western blotting. In the conducted experiments, we exclusively used EVs isolated from human serum samples, but this method is also suitable for plasma or other body fluids and can be adjusted for characterization of EVs from cell culture supernatants. Irrespective of the future progress of research on EV biology, the protocol that is presented here provides a rapid and reliable method for rapid characterization of single EVs with specific markers.

In this protocol, we describe the complete workflow for rapid isolation of extracellular vesicles from human whole blood and characterization of specific markers by fluorescence-based nanoparticle-tracking analysis. The presented results show a high level of reproducibility and can be adjusted to cell culture supernatants.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, are specialized membranous nano-sized vesicles found in bodily fluids that are constitutively released ...

Real-time Observation of the DNA Strand Exchange Reaction Mediated by Rad51

The DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 is a critical step of homologous recombination. In this reaction, Rad51 forms a nucleoprotein filament on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and captures double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) non-specifically to interrogate it for a homologous sequence. After encountering homology, Rad51 catalyzes DNA strand exchange to mediate pairing of the ssDNA with the complementary strand of the dsDNA. This reaction is highly regulated by numerous accessary proteins in vivo. Although conventional biochemical assays have been successfully employed to examine the role of such accessory protein in vitro, kinetic analysis of intermediate formation and its progression into a final product has proven challenging due to the unstable and transient nature of the reaction intermediates. To observe these reaction steps directly in solution, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based real-time observation systems of this reaction were established. Kinetic analysis of real-time observations shows that the DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 obeys a three-step reaction model involving the formation of a three-strand DNA intermediate, maturation of this intermediate, and the release of ssDNA from the mature intermediate. The Swi5-Sfr1 complex, an accessary protein conserved in eukaryotes, strongly enhances the second and third steps of this reaction. The FRET-based assays presented here enable us to uncover the molecular mechanisms through which recombination accessary proteins stimulate the DNA strand exchange activity of Rad51. The primary goal of this protocol is to enhance the repertoire of techniques available to researchers in the field of homologous recombination, particularly those working with proteins from species other than Schizosaccharomyces pombe, so that the evolutionary conservation of the findings presented herein can be determined.

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based real-time observation systems of the DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 were developed. Using the protocols presented here, we are able to detect the formation of reaction intermediates and their conversion into products, while also analyzing the enzymatic kinetics of the reaction.

The DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 is a critical step of homologous recombination. In this reaction, Rad51 forms a nucleoprotein filament ...

Acyl-PEGyl Exchange Gel Shift Assay for Quantitative Determination of Palmitoylation of Brain Membrane Proteins

Activity-dependent alterations in the levels of synaptic AMPA receptors (AMPARs) within the postsynaptic density (PSD) is thought to represent a cellular mechanism for learning and memory. Palmitoylation regulates localization and function of many synaptic proteins including AMPA-Rs, auxiliary factors and synaptic scaffolds in an activity-dependent manner. We identified the synapse differentiation induced gene (SynDIG) family of four genes (SynDIG1-4) encoding brain-specific transmembrane proteins that associate with AMPARs and regulate synapse strength. SynDIG1 is palmitoylated at two cysteine residues located at positions 191 and 192 in the juxta-transmembrane region important for activity-dependent excitatory synapse development. Here, we describe an innovative biochemical approach, the acyl-PEGyl exchange gel shift (APEGS) assay, to investigate the palmitoylation state of any protein of interest and demonstrate its utility with the SynDIG family of proteins in mouse brain lysates.

Palmitoylation entails the incorporation of a 16-carbon palmitate moiety to cysteine residues of target proteins in a reversible manner. Here, we describe a biochemical approach, the acyl-PEGyl exchange gel shift (APEGS) assay, to investigate the palmitoylation state of any protein of interest in mouse brain lysates.

Activity-dependent alterations in the levels of synaptic AMPA receptors (AMPARs) within the postsynaptic density (PSD) is thought to represent a cellular ...

Continuous Fluorescence-Based Endonuclease-Coupled DNA Methylation Assay to Screen for DNA Methyltransferase Inhibitors

DNA methylation, a form of epigenetic gene regulation, is important for normal cellular function. In cells, proteins called DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) establish and maintain the DNA methylation pattern. Changes to the normal DNA methylation pattern are linked to cancer development and progression, making DNMTs potential cancer drug targets. Thus, identifying and characterizing novel small molecule inhibitors of these enzymes is of great importance. This paper presents a protocol that can be used to screen for DNA methyltransferase inhibitors. The continuous coupled kinetics assay allows for initial velocities of DNA methylation to be determined in the presence and absence of potential small molecule inhibitors. The assay uses the methyl-sensitive endonuclease Gla I to couple methylation of a hemimethylated DNA substrate to fluorescence generation.
This continuous assay allows for enzyme activity to be monitored in real time. Conducting the assay in small volumes in microtiter plates reduces the cost of reagents. Using this assay, a small example screen was conducted for inhibitors of DNMT1, the most abundant DNMT isozyme in humans. The highly substituted anthraquinone natural product, laccaic acid A, is a potent, DNA-competitive inhibitor of DNMT1. Here, we examine three potential small molecule inhibitors &#8212; anthraquinones or anthraquinone-like molecules with one to three substituents &#8212; at two concentrations to describe the assay protocol. Initial velocities are used to calculate the percent activity observed in the presence of each molecule. One of three compounds examined exhibits concentration-dependent inhibition of DNMT1 activity, indicating that it is a potential inhibitor of DNMT1.

DNA methyltransferases are potential cancer drug targets. Here, a protocol is presented to assess small molecules for DNA methyltransferase inhibition. This assay utilizes an endonuclease to couple DNA methylation to fluorescence generation and allows for enzyme activity to be monitored in real time.&#160;

DNA methylation, a form of epigenetic gene regulation, is important for normal cellular function. In cells, proteins called DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) ...