We are grateful to Dr. A. Cuttriss for her careful proofreading of the manuscript. This work is funded by the French National Research Agency grant ExCHANGE (ANR-16-CE13-0006) and by the CNRS.

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

The outcomes of these assays directly rely on the signals of the fluorescent lipid sensors. Thus, the purification of these probes labelled at a 1:1 ratio with NBD and without free NBD fluorophore contamination is a critical step in this protocol. It is also mandatory to check whether the LTP under examination is properly folded and not aggregated. The amount of LTP tested in the extraction assays must be equal to or higher than that of accessible PS or PI(4)P molecules to properly measure whether this LTP efficiently ex...

The precise distribution of lipids between different membranes and within the membranes of eukaryotic cells1,2&#160;has profound biological implications. Decrypting how LTPs function is an important issue in cell biology3,4,5,6, and in vitro approaches are of great value in addressing this issue7,8,9,10,11. Here, an in vitro, fluorescence-based strategy is presented that has been instrumental in establishing that several ORP/Osh proteins effect PS/PI(4)P exchange between cell membranes12 and thereby constitute a new class of LTPs. PS is an anionic glycerophospholipid that represents 2-10% of total membrane lipids in eukaryotic cells13,14,16. It is distributed along a gradient between the ER and the PM, where it represents 5-7% and up to 30% of glycerophospholipids, respectively17,18,19. Moreover, PS is essentially concentrated in the cytosolic leaflet of the PM. This build-up and the uneven partition of PS in the PM are critical for cellular signaling processes19. Owing to the negative charge of PS molecules, the cytosolic leaflet of the PM is much more anionic than the cytosolic leaflet of other organelles1,2,19,20. This enables the recruitment, via electrostatic forces, of signaling proteins such as myristoylated alanine-rich C-kinase substrate (MARCKS)21, sarcoma (Src)22, Kirsten-rat sarcoma viral oncogene (K-Ras)23, and Ras-related C3 botulinum toxin substrate 1 (Rac1)24 that contain a stretch of positively charged amino acids and a lipidic tail.
PS is also recognized by conventional protein kinase C in a stereoselective manner via a C2 domain25. However, PS is synthesized in the ER26, indicating that it must be exported to the PM before it can play its role. It was not known how this was accomplished19 until the finding that, in yeast, Osh6p and Osh7p transfer PS from the ER to the PM27. These LTPs belong to an evolutionarily conserved family in eukaryotes whose founding member is OSBP and that contains proteins (ORPs in human, Osh proteins in yeast) integrating an OSBP-related domain (ORD) with a pocket to host a lipid molecule. Osh6p and Osh7p consist only of an ORD whose structural features are adapted to specifically bind PS and transfer it between membranes. Nevertheless, how these proteins directionally transferred PS from the ER to the PM was unclear. Osh6p and Osh7p can trap PI(4)P as an alternative lipid ligand12. In yeast, PI(4)P is synthesized from phosphatidylinositol (PI) in the Golgi and the PM&#160;by PI 4-kinases, Pik1p and Stt4p, respectively. In contrast, there is no PI(4)P in the ER membrane, as this lipid is hydrolyzed to PI by the Sac1p phosphatase. Hence, a PI(4)P gradient exists at both the ER/Golgi and ER/PM interfaces. Osh6p and Osh7p transfer PS from the ER to the PM via PS/PI(4)P exchange cycles using the PI(4)P gradient that exists between these two membranes12.
Within one cycle, Osh6p extracts PS from the ER, exchanges PS for PI(4)P at the PM and transfers PI(4)P back to the ER to extract another PS molecule. Osh6p/Osh7p interact with Ist2p28, one of the few proteins that connect and bring the ER membrane and the PM into close proximity with each other to create ER-PM contact sites in yeast29,30,31. In addition, the association of Osh6p with negatively charged membranes becomes weak as soon as the protein extracts one of its lipid ligands due to a conformational change that modifies its electrostatic features32. This aids Osh6p by shortening its membrane dwell time, thereby maintaining the efficiency of its lipid transfer activity. Combined with the binding to Ist2p, this mechanism could allow Osh6p/7p to both quickly and accurately execute lipid exchange at the ER/PM interface. In human cells, ORP5 and ORP8 proteins execute PS/PI(4)P exchange at ER-PM contact sites via distinct mechanisms33. They have a central ORD, akin to Osh6p, but are directly anchored to the ER via a C-terminal transmembrane segment33 and dock into the PM via an N-terminal Pleckstrin homology (PH) domain that recognizes PI(4)P and PI(4,5)P233,34,35. ORP5/8 use PI(4)P to transfer PS, and it has been shown that ORP5/8 additionally regulate PM PI(4,5)P2 levels and presumably modulate signaling pathways. In turn, a decrease in PI(4)P and PI(4,5)P2 levels lowers ORP5/ORP8 activity as these proteins associate with the PM in a PIP-dependent fashion. Abnormally high PS synthesis, which leads to Lenz-Majewski syndrome, impacts PI(4)P levels through ORP5/836. When the activity of both proteins is blocked, PS becomes less abundant at the PM, lowering the oncogenic capability of signaling proteins37.
Conversely, ORP5 overexpression seems to promote cancer cell invasion and metastatic processes38. Thus, alterations to ORP5/8 activity can severely modify cellular behavior through changes in lipid homeostasis. Further, ORP5 and ORP8 occupy ER-mitochondria contact sites and preserve some mitochondrial functions, possibly by supplying PS39. Additionally, ORP5 localizes to ER-lipid droplet contact sites to deliver PS to lipid droplets by PS/PI(4)P exchange40. The strategy described herein to measure (i) PS and PI(4)P extraction from liposomes and (ii) PS and PI(4)P transport between liposomes has been devised to establish and analyze the PS/PI(4)P exchange activity of Osh6p/Osh7p12,32 and used by other groups to analyze the activity of ORP5/ORP835 and other LTPs10,41. It is based on the use of a fluorescence plate reader, a standard L-format spectrofluorometer, and two fluorescent sensors, NBD-C2Lact and NBD-PHFAPP, that can detect PS and PI(4)P, respectively.
NBD-C2Lact corresponds to the C2 domain of the glycoprotein, lactadherin, that was reengineered to include a unique solvent-exposed cysteine near the presumed PS binding site; a polarity-sensitive NBD (7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol) fluorophore is covalently linked to this residue (Figure 1A)12. To be more precise, the C2 domain of lactadherin (Bos taurus, UniProt: Q95114,residues 270-427) was cloned into a pGEX-4T3 vector to be expressed in fusion with glutathione S-transferase (GST) in Escherichia coli. The C2Lact sequence was then mutated to substitute two solvent-accessible cysteine residues (C270, C427) with alanine residues and to introduce a cysteine residue into a region near the putative PS-binding site (H352C mutation) that can be subsequently labeled with N,N&#39;-dimethyl-N-(iodoacetyl)-N&#39;-(7-nitrobenz-2-oxa-1,3-diazol-4-yl) ethylene diamine (IANBD)&#160;12. A cleavage site for thrombin is present between the GST protein and the N-terminus of the C2 domain. A major advantage is that this domain selectively recognizes PS in a Ca2+-independent manner contrary to other known C2 domains or Annexin A542. NBD-PHFAPP is derived from the PH domain of the human&#160;four-phosphate-adaptor protein 1 (FAPP1), which was reengineered to include a single solvent-exposed cysteine that can be labeled with an NBD group near the PI(4)P binding site (Figure 1A)43. The nucleotide sequence of the PH domain of the human FAPP protein (UniProt: Q9HB20, segment [1-100]) has been cloned into a pGEX-4T3 vector to be expressed in tandem with a GST tag. The PHFAPP sequence has been modified to insert a unique cysteine residue within the membrane-binding interface of the protein43. Moreover, a nine-residue linker has been introduced between the thrombin cleavage site and the N-terminus of the PH domain to ensure accessibility to the protease.
To measure PS extraction from liposomes, NBD-C2Lact is mixed with liposomes made of phosphatidylcholine (PC) containing trace amounts of PS. Owing to its affinity for PS, this construct binds to the liposomes, and the NBD fluorophore experiences a change in polarity as it comes into contact with the hydrophobic environment of the membrane, which elicits a blue-shift and an increase in fluorescence. If PS is extracted almost completely by a stoichiometric amount of LTP, the probe does not associate with liposomes, and the NBD signal is lower (Figure 1B)32. This difference in signal is used to determine whether an LTP (e.g., Osh6p) extracts PS. A similar strategy is used with NBD-PHFAPP to measure PI(4)P extraction (Figure 1B), as described previously12,32. Two FRET-based assays were designed to (i) measure PS transport from LA to LB liposomes, which mimic the ER membrane and the PM, respectively, and (ii) PI(4)P transport in the reverse direction. These assays are performed under the same conditions (i.e., same buffer, temperature, and lipid concentration) to measure PS/PI(4)P exchange. To measure PS transport, NBD-C2Lact is mixed with LA liposomes composed of PC and doped with 5 mol% PS and 2 mol% of a fluorescent rhodamine-labelled phosphatidylethanolamine&#160;(Rhod-PE)-and LB liposomes incorporating 5 mol% PI(4)P.
At time zero, FRET with Rhod-PE quenches the NBD fluorescence. If PS is transported from LA to LB liposomes (e.g., upon injecting Osh6p), a fast dequenching occurs due to the translocation of NBD-C2Lact molecules from LA to LB liposomes (Figure 1C). Given the amount of accessible PS, NBD-C2Lact remains essentially in a membrane-bound state over the course of the experiment12. Thus, the intensity of the NBD signal directly correlates with the distribution of NBD-C2Lact between LA and LB liposomes and can be easily normalized to determine how much PS is transferred. To measure the transfer of PI(4)P in the opposite direction, NBD-PHFAPP is mixed with LA and LB liposomes; given that it only binds to LB liposomes that contain PI(4)P, but not Rhod-PE, its fluorescence is high. If PI(4)P is transferred to LA liposomes, it translocates to these liposomes, and the signal decreases due to FRET with Rhod-PE (Figure 1C). The signal is normalized to determine how much PI(4)P is transferred43.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;L-cysteine &#8805;97 % (FG)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>W326305-100G</td>
			<td>Prepare a 10 mM L-cysteine stock solution in water. Aliquots are stored at -20 &#176;C</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>2 mL Amber Vial, PTFE/Rub Lnr, for lipids storage in CHCL3</td>
			<td>Wheaton</td>
			<td>W224681</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4 mm-diameter glass beads</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>Z265934-1EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL conical centrifuge tube</td>
			<td>Falcon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#196;KTA purifier</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>FPLC</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aluminium foil</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra-15 with a MWCO of 3 and 10 kDa</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>UFC900324, UFC901024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Amicon Ultra-4 with a MWCO of 3 and 10 kDa</td>
			<td>Merck</td>
			<td>UFC800324, UFC801024</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ampicillin</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prepare a 50 mg/mL stock solution with filtered and sterilized water and store it at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bestatin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>B8385-10mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BL21 Gold Competent Cells</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C16:0 Liss&#160; (Rhod-PE) in CHCl3 (1 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>810158C-5MG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C16:0/C16:0-PI(4)P&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td>Echelon Lipids</td>
			<td>P-4016-3</td>
			<td>Dissolve 1 mg of C16:0/C16:0-PI(4)P powder in 250 &#181;L of MeOH and 250 &#181;L of CHCl3. Then complete with CHCl3 to 1 mL. The solution must become clear.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C16:0/C18:1-PS (POPS) in CHCl3 (10 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840034C-25mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C18:1/C18:1-PC (DOPC) in CHCl3 (25 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>850375C-500mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CaCl2&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prepare 10 mM CaCl2 stock solution in water.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cell Disruptor</td>
			<td>Constant Dynamics</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Chloroform (CHCl3) RPE-ISO</td>
			<td>Carlo Erba</td>
			<td>438601</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Complete EDTA-free protease inhibitor cocktail</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>5056489001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deionized (Milli-Q) water</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethylformamide (DMF), anhydrous, &#62;99% pure</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DNAse I Recombinant, RNAse free, in powder</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>10104159001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DTT</td>
			<td>Euromedex</td>
			<td>EU0006-B</td>
			<td>Prepare 1 M DTT stock solution in Milli-Q water.&#160; Prepare 1 mL aliquots and store them at -20 &#176;C.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Econo-Pac chromatography columns (1.5 &#215; 12 cm).</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>7321010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electroporation cuvette 2 mm</td>
			<td>Ozyme</td>
			<td>EP102</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electroporator Eppendorf 2510</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fixed-Angle Rotor Ti45 and Ti45 tubes</td>
			<td>Beckman</td>
			<td>Spinning the batcerial lysates</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass-syringes (10, 25, and 50 &#181;L) for fluorescence experiment</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass-syringes (25 , 100, 250, 500, and 1000 &#181;L) to handle lipid stock solutions</td>
			<td>Hamilton</td>
			<td>1702RNR, 1710RNR, 1725RNR, 1750RN type3, 1001RN</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutathione Sepharose 4B beads</td>
			<td>GE Healthcare</td>
			<td>17-0756-05</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycerol (99% pure)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G5516-500ML</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hemolysis tubes with a cap</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES , &#62;99 % pure</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H3375-500G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Illustra NAP 10 desalting column</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td>GE17-0854-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isopropyl &#946;-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG)&#160;</td>
			<td>Euromedex</td>
			<td>EU0008-B</td>
			<td>Prepare 1 M IPTG stock solution in Milli-Qwater. Prepare 1 mL aliquots and store them at -20 &#176;C.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>K-Acetate</td>
			<td>Prolabo</td>
			<td>26664.293</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lennox LB Broth medium without glucose</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prepared with milli-Q water and autoclaved.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Liquid nitrogen</td>
			<td>Linde</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol (MeOH) &#8805;99.8%</td>
			<td>VWR</td>
			<td>20847.24</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MgCl2</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Prepare a 2 M MgCl2 solution. Filter the solution using a 0.45 &#181;m filter.&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microplate 96 Well PS F-Botom Black Non-Binding</td>
			<td>Greiner Bio-one</td>
			<td>655900</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini-Extruder with two 1 mL gas-tight Hamilton syringes</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>610023</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Monochromator-based fluorescence plate reader</td>
			<td>TECAN</td>
			<td>M1000 Pro</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N,N&#39;-Dimethyl-N-(Iodoacetyl)-N&#39;-(7-Nitrobenz-2-Oxa-1,3-Diazol-4-yl)Ethylenediamine) (IANBD Amide)</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Dissolve 25 mg of IANBD in 2.5 mL of dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and prepare 25 aliquot of 100 &#181;L in 1.5 mL screw-cap tubes. Do not completely screw the cap. Then, remove DMSO in a freeze-dryer to obtain 1 mg of dry IANBD per tube. Tubes are closed and stored at -20 &#176;C in the dark.&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NaCl</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S3014-1KG</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 10 mM NaH2PO4, 1.8 mM KH2PO4, autoclaved and stored at 4 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pear-shaped glass flasks (25 mL, 14/23, Duran glass)</td>
			<td>Duran Group</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pepstatin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>p5318-25mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pGEX-C2LACT&#160; plasmid</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Available on request from our lab</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pGEX-PHFAPP plasmid</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Available on request from our lab</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (PMSF) &#8805;98.5% (GC)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P7626-25g</td>
			<td>Prepare a 200 mM PMSF stock solution in isopropanol</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphoramidon</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>R7385-10mg</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polycarbonate filters (19 mm in diameter) with pore size of 0.2 &#181;m</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>610006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-Prep chromatography column (with a 0-2 mL bed volume and a 10 mL reservoir)</td>
			<td>Biorad</td>
			<td>7311550</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Prefilters (10 mm in diameter).</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>610014</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PyMOL</td>
			<td>http://pymol.org/</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Construction of the 3D models of the proteins (Figure 1A)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quartz cuvette for UV/visible fluorescence (minimum volume of 600 &#181;L)</td>
			<td>Hellma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quartz cuvettes</td>
			<td>Hellma</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Refrigerated centrifuge&#160; Eppendorf 5427R</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rotary evaporator</td>
			<td>Buchi</td>
			<td>B-100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Screw-cap microcentriguge tubes (1.5 mL)</td>
			<td>Sarsted</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Small magnetic PFTE stirring bar (5 &#215; 2 mm)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Snap-cap microcentriguge tubes (0.5, 1, and 2 mL)</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SYPRO orange</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>fluorescent stain to detect protein in SDS-PAGE gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Thermomixer</td>
			<td>Starlab</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>THROMBIN, FROM HUMAN PLASMA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>10602400001</td>
			<td>Dissolve 20 units in 1 mL of milli-Q water and prepare 25 &#181;L aliquots in 0.5 mL Eppendorf tubes. Then freeze and store at -80 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris, ultra pure</td>
			<td>MP</td>
			<td>819623</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultracentrifuge L90K</td>
			<td>Beckman</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV/Visible absorbance spectrophotometer</td>
			<td>SAFAS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UV/visible spectrofluorometer with a temperature-controlled cell holder and stirring device</td>
			<td>Jasco or Shimadzu</td>
			<td>Jasco FP-8300 or Shimadzu RF-5301PC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vacuum chamber</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Water bath</td>
			<td>Julabo</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>XK 16/70 column packed with Sephacryl S200HR</td>
			<td>GE healthcare</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
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fluorescence-based measurements of phosphatidylserine/phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate exchange between membranes

Several members of the evolutionarily conserved oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP)-related proteins(ORP)/OSBP homologs (Osh) family have recently been found to represent a novel lipid transfer protein (LTP) group in yeast and human cells. They transfer phosphatidylserine (PS) from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to the plasma membrane (PM) via PS/phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate (PI(4)P) exchange cycles. This finding allows a better understanding of how PS, which is critical for signaling processes, is distributed throughout the cell and the investigation of the link between this process and phosphoinositide (PIP) metabolism. The development of new fluorescence-based protocols has been instrumental in the discovery and characterization of this new cellular mechanism in vitro at the molecular level. This paper describes the production and the use of two fluorescently labelled lipid sensors, NBD-C2Lact and NBD-PHFAPP, to measure the ability of a protein to extract PS or PI(4)P and to transfer these lipids between artificial membranes. First, the protocol describes how to produce, label, and obtain high-purity samples of these two constructs. Secondly, this paper explains how to use these sensors with a fluorescence microplate reader to determine whether a protein can extract PS or PI(4)P from liposomes, using Osh6p as a case study. Finally, this protocol shows how to accurately measure the kinetics of PS/PI(4)P exchange between liposomes of defined lipid composition and to determine lipid transfer rates by fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) using a standard fluorometer.

<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/62177/62177fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1:&#160;Description of the fluorescent lipid sensors and in vitro assays. (A) Three-dimensional models of NBD-C2Lact and NBD-PHFAPP based on the crystal structure of the C2 domain of bovine lactadherin (PDB ID: 3BN648) and the NMR structure of the PH domain of the human FAPP1 ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fluorescence-Based Measurements of Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate Exchange Between Membranes at JoVE.com

Fluorescence-Based Measurements of Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate Exchange Between Membranes

Here, we describe protocols using fluorescent lipid sensors and liposomes to determine whether a protein extracts and transports phosphatidylserine or phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate in vitro.

Several members of the evolutionarily conserved oxysterol-binding protein (OSBP)-related proteins(ORP)/OSBP homologs (Osh) family have recently been found ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Biochemistry

3.8K Views.  Université Côte d’Azur, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Institut de Pharmacologie Moléculaire et Cellulaire. Here, we describe protocols using fluorescent lipid sensors and liposomes to determine whether a protein extracts and transports phosphatidylserine or phosphatidylinositol 4-phosphate in vitro.

Video: Fluorescence-Based Measurements of Phosphatidylserine/Phosphatidylinositol 4-Phosphate Exchange Between Membranes

A Fluorescence-based Assay of Phospholipid Scramblase Activity

Scramblases translocate phospholipids across the membrane bilayer bidirectionally in an ATP-independent manner. The first scramblase to be identified and biochemically verified was opsin, the apoprotein of the photoreceptor rhodopsin. Rhodopsin is a G protein-coupled receptor localized in rod photoreceptor disc membranes of the retina where it is responsible for the perception of light. Rhodopsin&#39;s scramblase activity does not depend on its ligand 11-cis-retinal, i.e., the apoprotein opsin is also active as a scramblase. Although constitutive and regulated phospholipid scrambling play an important role in cell physiology, only a few phospholipid scramblases have been identified so far besides opsin. Here we describe a fluorescence-based assay of opsin&#39;s scramblase activity. Opsin is reconstituted into large unilamellar liposomes composed of phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylglycerol and a trace quantity of fluorescent NBD-labeled PC (1-palmitoyl-2-{6-[7-nitro-2-1,3-benzoxadiazole-4-yl)amino]hexanoyl}-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine). Scramblase activity is determined by measuring the extent to which NBD-PC molecules located in the inner leaflet of the vesicle are able to access the outer leaflet where their fluorescence is chemically eliminated by a reducing agent that cannot cross the membrane. The methods we describe have general applicability and can be used to identify and characterize scramblase activities of other membrane proteins.

We describe a fluorescence-based assay to measure phospholipid scrambling in large unilamellar liposomes reconstituted with opsin.

Scramblases translocate phospholipids across the membrane bilayer bidirectionally in an ATP-independent manner. The first scramblase to be identified and ...

Online Size-exclusion and Ion-exchange Chromatography on a SAXS Beamline

Biological small angle X-ray scattering (BioSAXS) is a powerful technique in molecular and structural biology used to determine solution structure, particle size and shape, and surface-to-volume ratio of macromolecules. The technique is applicable to a very wide variety of solution conditions spanning a broad range of concentrations, pH values, ionic strengths, temperatures, additives, etc., but the sample is required to be monodisperse. This caveat led to the implementation of liquid chromatography systems on SAXS beamlines. Here, we describe the upstream integration of size-exclusion (SEC) and ion-exchange chromatography (IEC) on a beamline, different methods for optimal background subtraction, and data reduction. As an example, we describe how we use SEC- and IEC-SAXS on a fragment of the essential vaccinia virus protein D5, consisting of a D5N helicase domain. We determine its overall shape and molecular weight, showing the hexameric structure of the protein.

The determination of the solution structure of a protein by small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) requires monodisperse samples. Here, we present two possibilities to ensure minimal delays between sample preparation and data acquisition: online size-exclusion chromatography (SEC) and online ion-exchange chromatography (IEC).

Biological small angle X-ray scattering (BioSAXS) is a powerful technique in molecular and structural biology used to determine solution structure, ...

Atomic Scale Structural Studies of Macromolecular Assemblies by Solid-state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Supramolecular protein assemblies play fundamental roles in biological processes ranging from host-pathogen interaction, viral infection to the propagation of neurodegenerative disorders. Such assemblies consist in multiple protein subunits organized in a non-covalent way to form large macromolecular objects that can execute a variety of cellular functions or cause detrimental consequences. Atomic insights into the assembly mechanisms and the functioning of those macromolecular assemblies remain often scarce since their inherent insolubility and non-crystallinity often drastically reduces the quality of the data obtained from most techniques used in structural biology, such as X-ray crystallography and solution Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR). We here present magic-angle spinning solid-state NMR spectroscopy (SSNMR) as a powerful method to investigate structures of macromolecular assemblies at atomic resolution. SSNMR can reveal atomic details on the assembled complex without size and solubility limitations. The protocol presented here describes the essential steps from the production of 13C/15N isotope-labeled macromolecular protein assemblies to the acquisition of standard SSNMR spectra and their analysis and interpretation. As an example, we show the pipeline of a SSNMR structural analysis of a filamentous protein assembly.

Structures of supramolecular protein assemblies at atomic resolution are of high relevance because of their crucial roles in a variety of biological phenomena. Herein, we present a protocol to perform high-resolution structural studies on insoluble and non-crystalline macromolecular protein assemblies by magic-angle spinning solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS SSNMR).

Supramolecular protein assemblies play fundamental roles in biological processes ranging from host-pathogen interaction, viral infection to the ...

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from the oxidation of reduced compounds such as nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2). The complete annotation of the Arabidopsis thaliana genome has established it as the most widely used plant model system, and thus the need to purify mitochondria from a variety of organs (leaf, root, or flower) is necessary to fully utilize the tools that are now available for Arabidopsis to study mitochondrial biology. Mitochondria are isolated by homogenization of the tissue using a variety of approaches, followed by a series of differential centrifugation steps producing a crude mitochondrial pellet that is further purified using continuous colloidal density gradient centrifugation. The colloidal density material is subsequently removed by multiple centrifugation steps. Starting from 100 g of fresh leaf tissue, 2 - 3 mg of mitochondria can be routinely obtained. Respiratory experiments on these mitochondria display typical rates of 100 - 250 nmol O2 min-1 mg total mitochondrial protein-1 (NADH-dependent rate) with the ability to use various substrates and inhibitors to determine which substrates are being oxidized and the capacity of the alternative and cytochrome terminal oxidases. This protocol describes an isolation method of mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana leaves using continuous colloidal density gradients and an efficient respiratory measurements of purified plant mitochondria.

Isolation and Respiratory Measurements of Mitochondria from Arabidopsis thaliana

As mitochondria are only a small percentage of the plant cell, they need to be purified for a range of studies. Mitochondria can be isolated from a variety of plant organs by homogenization, followed by differential and density gradient centrifugation to obtain a highly purified mitochondrial fraction.

Mitochondria are essential organelles involved in numerous metabolic pathways in plants, most notably the production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from ...

Detection of Detergent-sensitive Interactions Between Membrane Proteins

Our ability to explore protein-protein interactions is the key to understanding regulatory connections in the cell. However, detection of protein-protein interactions in many cases is associated with significant experimental challenges. In particular, sorting receptors interact with their protein cargo in the lumen of the membrane compartments often in a detergent-sensitive fashion, making co-immunoprecipitation of these proteins unusable. Binding of the sorting receptor sortilin to glucose transporter GLUT4 may serve as an example of weak luminal interactions between membrane proteins. Here, we describe a fast, simple, and inexpensive assay to validate the interaction between sortilin and GLUT4. For that, we have designed and chemically synthesized the myc-tagged peptide corresponding to the potential sortilin-binding epitope in the luminal part of GLUT4. Sortilin tagged with six histidines was expressed in mammalian cells, and isolated from cell lysates using Cobalt beads. Sortilin immobilized on the beads was incubated with the peptide solution at different pH values, and the eluted material was analyzed by Western blotting. This assay can be easily adapted to study other detergent-sensitive protein-protein interactions.

We describe a protocol for detection of detergent-sensitive interactions between membrane proteins using binding of the sorting receptor, sortilin, to the first luminal loop of the glucose transporter protein, GLUT4, as an example.

Our ability to explore protein-protein interactions is the key to understanding regulatory connections in the cell. However, detection of protein-protein ...

Rapid Fluorescence-based Characterization of Single Extracellular Vesicles in Human Blood with Nanoparticle-tracking Analysis

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, are specialized membranous nano-sized vesicles found in bodily fluids that are constitutively released from many cell types and play a pivotal role in regulating cell-cell communication and a diverse range of biological processes. Many different methods for the characterization of EVs have been described. However, most of these methods have the disadvantage that the preparation and characterization of the samples are very time-consuming, or it is extremely difficult to analyze specific markers of interest due to their small size and due to the lack of discrete populations. While methods for analysis of EVs have been considerably improved over the last decade, there is still no standardized method for characterization of single EVs. Here, we demonstrate a semi-automated method for characterization of single EVs by fluorescence-based nanoparticle-tracking analysis. The protocol that is presented addresses the common problem of many researchers in this field and provides the complete workflow for rapid isolation of EVs and characterization with PKH67, a general cell membrane linker, as well as with specific surface markers such as CD63, CD9, vimentin, and lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (LAMP-1). The presented results show a high level of reproducibility, as confirmed by other methods, such as Western blotting. In the conducted experiments, we exclusively used EVs isolated from human serum samples, but this method is also suitable for plasma or other body fluids and can be adjusted for characterization of EVs from cell culture supernatants. Irrespective of the future progress of research on EV biology, the protocol that is presented here provides a rapid and reliable method for rapid characterization of single EVs with specific markers.

In this protocol, we describe the complete workflow for rapid isolation of extracellular vesicles from human whole blood and characterization of specific markers by fluorescence-based nanoparticle-tracking analysis. The presented results show a high level of reproducibility and can be adjusted to cell culture supernatants.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs), including exosomes, are specialized membranous nano-sized vesicles found in bodily fluids that are constitutively released ...

Real-time Observation of the DNA Strand Exchange Reaction Mediated by Rad51

The DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 is a critical step of homologous recombination. In this reaction, Rad51 forms a nucleoprotein filament on single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) and captures double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) non-specifically to interrogate it for a homologous sequence. After encountering homology, Rad51 catalyzes DNA strand exchange to mediate pairing of the ssDNA with the complementary strand of the dsDNA. This reaction is highly regulated by numerous accessary proteins in vivo. Although conventional biochemical assays have been successfully employed to examine the role of such accessory protein in vitro, kinetic analysis of intermediate formation and its progression into a final product has proven challenging due to the unstable and transient nature of the reaction intermediates. To observe these reaction steps directly in solution, fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based real-time observation systems of this reaction were established. Kinetic analysis of real-time observations shows that the DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 obeys a three-step reaction model involving the formation of a three-strand DNA intermediate, maturation of this intermediate, and the release of ssDNA from the mature intermediate. The Swi5-Sfr1 complex, an accessary protein conserved in eukaryotes, strongly enhances the second and third steps of this reaction. The FRET-based assays presented here enable us to uncover the molecular mechanisms through which recombination accessary proteins stimulate the DNA strand exchange activity of Rad51. The primary goal of this protocol is to enhance the repertoire of techniques available to researchers in the field of homologous recombination, particularly those working with proteins from species other than Schizosaccharomyces pombe, so that the evolutionary conservation of the findings presented herein can be determined.

Fluorescence resonance energy transfer-based real-time observation systems of the DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 were developed. Using the protocols presented here, we are able to detect the formation of reaction intermediates and their conversion into products, while also analyzing the enzymatic kinetics of the reaction.

The DNA strand exchange reaction mediated by Rad51 is a critical step of homologous recombination. In this reaction, Rad51 forms a nucleoprotein filament ...

Acyl-PEGyl Exchange Gel Shift Assay for Quantitative Determination of Palmitoylation of Brain Membrane Proteins

Activity-dependent alterations in the levels of synaptic AMPA receptors (AMPARs) within the postsynaptic density (PSD) is thought to represent a cellular mechanism for learning and memory. Palmitoylation regulates localization and function of many synaptic proteins including AMPA-Rs, auxiliary factors and synaptic scaffolds in an activity-dependent manner. We identified the synapse differentiation induced gene (SynDIG) family of four genes (SynDIG1-4) encoding brain-specific transmembrane proteins that associate with AMPARs and regulate synapse strength. SynDIG1 is palmitoylated at two cysteine residues located at positions 191 and 192 in the juxta-transmembrane region important for activity-dependent excitatory synapse development. Here, we describe an innovative biochemical approach, the acyl-PEGyl exchange gel shift (APEGS) assay, to investigate the palmitoylation state of any protein of interest and demonstrate its utility with the SynDIG family of proteins in mouse brain lysates.

Palmitoylation entails the incorporation of a 16-carbon palmitate moiety to cysteine residues of target proteins in a reversible manner. Here, we describe a biochemical approach, the acyl-PEGyl exchange gel shift (APEGS) assay, to investigate the palmitoylation state of any protein of interest in mouse brain lysates.

Activity-dependent alterations in the levels of synaptic AMPA receptors (AMPARs) within the postsynaptic density (PSD) is thought to represent a cellular ...

A Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry (HDX-MS) Platform for Investigating Peptide Biosynthetic Enzymes

Hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) is a powerful method for the biophysical characterization of enzyme conformational changes and enzyme-substrate interactions. Among its many benefits, HDX-MS consumes only small amounts of material, can be performed under near native conditions without the need for enzyme/substrate labeling, and can provide spatially resolved information on enzyme conformational dynamics&#8722;even for large enzymes and multiprotein complexes. The method is initiated by the dilution of the enzyme of interest into buffer prepared in D2O. This triggers the exchange of protium in peptide bond amides (N-H) with deuterium (N-D). At the desired exchange time points, reaction aliquots are quenched, the enzyme is proteolyzed into peptides, the peptides are separated by ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC), and the change in mass of each peptide (due to the exchange of hydrogen for deuterium) is recorded by MS. The amount of deuterium uptake by each peptide is strongly dependent on the local hydrogen bonding environment of that peptide. Peptides present in very dynamic regions of the enzyme exchange deuterium very rapidly, whereas peptides derived from well-ordered regions undergo exchange much more slowly. In this manner, the HDX rate reports on local enzyme conformational dynamics. Perturbations to deuterium uptake levels in the presence of different ligands can then be used to map ligand binding sites, identify allosteric networks, and to understand the role of conformational dynamics in enzyme function. Here, we illustrate how we have used HDX-MS to better understand the biosynthesis of a type of peptide natural products called lanthipeptides. Lanthipeptides are genetically encoded peptides that are post-translationally modified by large, multifunctional, conformationally dynamic enzymes that are difficult to study with traditional structural biology approaches. HDX-MS provides an ideal and adaptable platform for investigating the mechanistic properties of these types of enzymes.

A Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry HDX-MS Platform for Investigating Peptide Biosynthetic Enzymes

Lanthipeptide synthetases catalyze multistep reactions during the biosynthesis of peptide natural products. Here, we describe a continuous, bottom-up, hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) workflow that can be employed to study the conformational dynamics of lanthipeptide synthetases, as well as other similar enzymes involved in peptide natural product biosynthesis.

Hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry (HDX-MS) is a powerful method for the biophysical characterization of enzyme conformational changes and ...

Continuous Fluorescence-Based Endonuclease-Coupled DNA Methylation Assay to Screen for DNA Methyltransferase Inhibitors

DNA methylation, a form of epigenetic gene regulation, is important for normal cellular function. In cells, proteins called DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) establish and maintain the DNA methylation pattern. Changes to the normal DNA methylation pattern are linked to cancer development and progression, making DNMTs potential cancer drug targets. Thus, identifying and characterizing novel small molecule inhibitors of these enzymes is of great importance. This paper presents a protocol that can be used to screen for DNA methyltransferase inhibitors. The continuous coupled kinetics assay allows for initial velocities of DNA methylation to be determined in the presence and absence of potential small molecule inhibitors. The assay uses the methyl-sensitive endonuclease Gla I to couple methylation of a hemimethylated DNA substrate to fluorescence generation.
This continuous assay allows for enzyme activity to be monitored in real time. Conducting the assay in small volumes in microtiter plates reduces the cost of reagents. Using this assay, a small example screen was conducted for inhibitors of DNMT1, the most abundant DNMT isozyme in humans. The highly substituted anthraquinone natural product, laccaic acid A, is a potent, DNA-competitive inhibitor of DNMT1. Here, we examine three potential small molecule inhibitors &#8212; anthraquinones or anthraquinone-like molecules with one to three substituents &#8212; at two concentrations to describe the assay protocol. Initial velocities are used to calculate the percent activity observed in the presence of each molecule. One of three compounds examined exhibits concentration-dependent inhibition of DNMT1 activity, indicating that it is a potential inhibitor of DNMT1.

DNA methyltransferases are potential cancer drug targets. Here, a protocol is presented to assess small molecules for DNA methyltransferase inhibition. This assay utilizes an endonuclease to couple DNA methylation to fluorescence generation and allows for enzyme activity to be monitored in real time.&#160;

DNA methylation, a form of epigenetic gene regulation, is important for normal cellular function. In cells, proteins called DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs) ...