We are grateful for the scientific discussions with Dr. Benjamin Chen. This work was funded by K08AI120806 (THS), R01DA052255 (THS and KB), and R21AI152833 (THS and KB).

1. Preparation of cells for imaging
<ol>
	<li>Prepare fresh Fluo-4 AM loading solution: Add 25 &#181;L of 100x concentrated detergent solvent, then add 2.5 &#181;L of Fluo-4 AM 1000x to a 1.5 mL tube. Vortex to mix.</li>
	<li>Pipette 2.5 mL of culture media into the loading solution and invert to mix. Protect from light.</li>
	<li>Centrifuge 2 x 106 MT-4 cells at 500 x g for 3 min.</li>
	<li>Remove media and resuspend the pellet in 2 mL of the prepared Fluo-4 AM loading solution. Protect from light.</li>
	<li>Pipette resuspended cells into a 35 mm Petri dish. Incubate at 37 &#176;C for 15-30 min, then incubate for an additional 15-30 min at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Transfer the cell suspension to a centrifuge tube. Centrifuge cells at 500 x g for 3 min and remove the supernatant consisting of the loading solution.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet by pipetting in 1 mL of the culture medium and centrifuge at 500 x g for 3 min to wash.</li>
	<li>Resuspend the cell pellet by pipetting in the culture medium at a concentration of 2 x 106 cells/mL (minimum 50 &#181;L). Protect from light.</li>
</ol>
2. Optofluidic system preparation, cell loading, and cell penning
<ol>
	<li>Prepare a chip with the wetting solution, which facilitates cell penning.
	<ol>
		<li>To do this, load centrifuge tubes containing 2 mL of wetting solution and 50 mL of DI water onto the instrument with a new optofluidic chip and run the Wet Chip function. This function will automatically flood the chip with the wetting solution through the system fluidics, incubate the chip at 50, &#176;C and flush the chip with water 3 times.</li>
		<li>Once water flushing is done, flush the chip with 3 cycles of 250 &#181;L of culture media.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Supplement the cell suspension from step 1.8 with 1:100 F-127 detergent solute before the loading to reduce the likelihood of cells sticking to the chip channels.</li>
	<li>Use the instrument export needle to import cells from a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube using the Load operation and Small Volume Import for a 5 &#181;L cell package volume.</li>
	<li>Pen cells using an optimized optoelectronic positioning (OEP) voltage of 4.3 V and 5 &#181;m/s cage speed. Penning occurs using OEP. Accomplish penning using the Autopen function, which will autodetect single cells, surround them with an OEP cage, and move them into a nearby pen. If cells of interest remain following auto-penning, use the Manual pen function to select target cells (with a mouse click) and a destination pen (with a subsequent mouse click).</li>
	<li>Once penning is complete (either when the Autopen function completes or when the desired number of penned cells has been attained), flush the chip with 3 cycles of 250 &#181;L of culture media to clear any remaining unpenned cell from the chip.</li>
</ol>
3. Single-cell infection and functional imaging
<ol>
	<li>After penning cells, obtain fluorescent images of cells in FITC, Texas Red, and DAPI channels to measure the baseline Fluo-4, mCherry, and autofluorescence.</li>
	<li>Infuse HIV-1 into the microchip at a concentration of 13 ng of HIV-1 NL-CI per 2 x 106 cells by slowly pipetting the suspension into the chip through the export needle.</li>
	<li>Immediately after HIV-1 addition, repeatedly obtain images in the FITC and DAPI channels over a 10-min time course.</li>
	<li>Obtain images in the Texas Red and DAPI channels at 1-, 2-, 3-, and 4-days post-infection (DPI).</li>
</ol>
4. Analysis of single-cell functional imaging data with FIJI software
<ol>
	<li>At each time point in each imaging channel of interest, use the FIJI Point Selection tool and the Measure function to measure each cell&#39;s Fluo-4, mCherry, and autofluorescence signals. Simultaneously measure the background fluorescence by calculating the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of the pen and chip containing each cell.</li>
	<li>Control for the background fluorescence and autofluorescence by using the Measure function to find the MFI in a Region Selection and subtracting this value from the cell fluorescence value.</li>
	<li>Normalize the background fluorescence of each chip image: Measure the MFI of the chip in each field. Then subtract the MFI of the chip with the least background fluorescence from all other chip MFI measurements.</li>
	<li>Normalize the background fluorescence of each cell-containing pen: measure the MFI of each cell&#39;s pen in each field of view. Then subtract this value from the cell&#39;s raw MFI for each field.</li>
	<li>Control for the cell autofluorescence: Subtract the day 0 and day 4 DAPI MFI of each cell from the day 0 and day 4 mCherry MFIs.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
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K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Purinergic+receptors:+Key+mediators+of+HIV-1+infection+and+inflammation.">Purinergic receptors: Key mediators of HIV-1 infection and inflammation.</a> Fromtiers in Immunology. 6, 585 (2015).</li><li>Giroud, C., Marin, M., Hammonds, J., Spearman, P., Melikyan, G. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=P2X1+receptor+antagonists+inhibit+HIV-1+fusion+by+blocking+virus-coreceptor+interactions.">P2X1 receptor antagonists inhibit HIV-1 fusion by blocking virus-coreceptor interactions.</a> Journal of Virology. 89 (18), 9368-9382 (2015).</li><li>Hazleton, J. E., Berman, J. W., Eugenin, E. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Purinergic+receptors+are+required+for+HIV-1+infection+of+primary+human+macrophages.">Purinergic receptors are required for HIV-1 infection of primary human macrophages.</a> Journal of Immunology. 188 (9), 4488-4495 (2012).</li><li>Marin, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-throughput+HIV-cell+fusion+assay+for+discovery+of+virus+entry+inhibitors.">High-throughput HIV-cell fusion assay for discovery of virus entry inhibitors.</a> Assay and Drug Development Technology. 13 (3), 155-166 (2015).</li><li>Soare, A. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=P2X+Antagonists+inhibit+HIV-1+productive+infection+and+inflammatory+cytokines+interleukin-10+(IL-10)+and+IL-1&#946;+in+a+human+tonsil+explant+model.">P2X Antagonists inhibit HIV-1 productive infection and inflammatory cytokines interleukin-10 (IL-10) and IL-1&#946; in a human tonsil explant model.</a> Journal of Virology. 93 (1), 01186 (2019).</li><li>Sorrell, M. E., Hauser, K. 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G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiparameter+cell+characterization+using+nanofluidic+technology+facilitates+real-time+phenotypic+and+genotypic+elucidation+of+intratumor+heterogeneity.">Multiparameter cell characterization using nanofluidic technology facilitates real-time phenotypic and genotypic elucidation of intratumor heterogeneity.</a> bioRxiv. , 457010 (2018).</li><li>Le, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assuring+clonality+on+the+beacon+digital+cell+line+development+platform.">Assuring clonality on the beacon digital cell line development platform.</a> Biotechnology Journal. 15 (1), 1900247 (2020).</li><li>Mocciaro, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Light-activated+cell+identification+and+sorting+(LACIS)+for+selection+of+edited+clones+on+a+nanofluidic+device.">Light-activated cell identification and sorting (LACIS) for selection of edited clones on a nanofluidic device.</a> Communications in Biology. 1, 41 (2018).</li><li>Winters, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+single+B+cell+antibody+discovery+using+nanopens+and+structured+light.">Rapid single B cell antibody discovery using nanopens and structured light.</a> MAbs. 11 (6), 1025-1035 (2019).</li><li>Wu, N., Nishioka, W. 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R.P.S. is an employee of Sema4. The other authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

The described methodology to study the relationship between calcium influx and HIV-1 productive infection in single cells can be adapted to study intracellular calcium kinetics in response to other agonists or antagonists of interest. The preparation of cells for imaging is simple, minimally time-intensive, and reagents are available in convenient kits from widely used manufacturers. Fluo-4-based calcium measurement is well-described in the literature, and HIV-1 can easily be substituted for other viruses or compounds of...

Chronic inflammation is a leading cause of HIV-associated early morbidities and mortality1,2,3. There are multiple mechanisms whereby HIV can activate inflammatory signaling, and recent evidence suggests a role for the P2X receptors in HIV entry which are calcium-gating adenosine triphosphate (ATP) receptors3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10. The P2X subtype of purinergic receptors (P2XR) may be important facilitators of this inflammation. However, the molecular mechanisms of HIV-P2XR interactions are largely unknown and may impact early and late HIV-1 viral life cycle steps. Defining the pathways and kinetics driving HIV-associated chronic inflammation is critical to advancing treatment options for people with HIV.
To assess whether HIV-1 directly agonizes P2X receptors, P2XR activation and HIV-1 infection must be measured in parallel. Assays of P2XR activity and HIV-1 infection have been independently established: Cellular calcium influx is an indicator of P2XR activation, and HIV-1 productive infection can be quantified by RNA abundance. Fluorescence detection of calcium influx is possible with the Fluo-4 calcium-sensitive dye, and HIV-1 infection can be visualized with the mCherry fluorescent reporter virus HIV-NLCI11,12,13,14,15.
Because these indicators of P2X activation (acute cellular calcium influx) and HIV-1 infection (HIV-1 RNA synthesis) occur on different timescales (minutes versus days), there lacks a high-throughput method that allows for paired analysis of P2XR activation and HIV-1 infection. Standard high-throughput experimental techniques, such as flow cytometry, allow for the population analysis but cannot assess the relationship between acute and longitudinal events in single cells. Alternatively, single-cell imaging with standard fluorescence microscopy is low-throughput. These experimental limitations present a need for novel, high-throughput techniques to measure associations between acute and longitudinal cellular events directly.
An optofluidic system described is a novel platform capable of single-cell sorting and isolation, culturing, imaging, and software automation16,17,18,19. This system presents an integrated, high-throughput alternative to the limitations of traditional imaging methods. The Beacon platform consists of a carbon dioxide (CO2) and temperature-controlled incubator that supports cells contained on a chip. The chip possesses photosensitive transistors that generate an electrical gradient in response to targeted light. This resulting dielectrophoretic force is used to move individual cells across the nanofluidic chip to the desired regions. Cells are sorted into pens on the chip, which provide a barrier to isolate individual cells physically. Continuous laminar flow of growth media throughout the chip prevents cell migration from the pens while allowing for small-particle diffusion of nutrients and experiment-specific reagents. A fluorescence microscope sits above the chip. Software automation is used to capture images of the chip at the user-specified time point.
All cell characterization was performed using an optofluidic system for single-cell selection and manipulation. This system consists of integrated mechanical, microfluidic, and optical components that enable single-cell manipulation, assay, culture, and imaging. Cells are loaded and cultured on the disposable nanofluidic device consisting of 3,500 individual chambers (pens), each capable of holding sub-nanoliter volume. Cells can be positioned within pens using light-induced dielectrophoretic &#34;cages&#34; and cultured under temperature- and CO2-controlled conditions. The microfluidics permit perfusion of media or buffers on the chip for cell culture or drug treatment. An actuated needle allows for the import and export of cells from incubated and shuttered well plates.&#160;The chip area can be imaged at 4x or 10x magnification in brightfield and fluorescent channels (including DAPI, FITC, TRed, or Cy5) to characterize cellular phenotypes or functional analysis. The entire system is automated using software that can be used for predesigned workflows or custom experiments.
Relationships between HIV-1 infection and P2XR have been studied, but a high-throughput procedure to directly characterize these interactions in parallel has not been reported. Here, the authors describe a methodology to study HIV-P2XR interactions through tracking acute calcium influx and subsequent HIV-1 productive infection at the single-cell level. Notably, this establishes a novel tool that allows for direct, high-throughput, longitudinal measurement of multiple targets in single cells.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Beacon Optofluidic System</td>
			<td>Berkeley Lights</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Fetal Bovine Serum</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;FIJI</td>
			<td colspan="2">Open-source software</td>
			<td>PMID: 22743772, 22930834</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Fluo-4 Calcium Imaging Kit</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher</td>
			<td>&#160;F10489</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;HIV-1 NLCINL4-3</td>
			<td colspan="2">Laboratory of Benjamin Chen</td>
			<td>PMID: 28148796</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Hyclone Pennecillin Streptomycin solution</td>
			<td colspan="2">GE Healthcare Life sciences</td>
			<td>&#160;SV30010</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;MT-4 cells</td>
			<td>NIH AIDS Reagent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>&#160;ARP-120</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;OptoSelect 3500 chip</td>
			<td>Berkeley Lights</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Pipettor Tips</td>
			<td>Denville Scientific</td>
			<td>&#160;P3020-CPS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;Prism 9.0.0</td>
			<td>GraphPad</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;RPMI-1640 Medium</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>&#160;R8758</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serological Pipettes</td>
			<td>Fisher Brand</td>
			<td>&#160;13-678-11E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue Culture Hood</td>
			<td>Various models</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>T75 flasks</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3073</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

single-cell characterization of calcium influx and hiv-1 infection using a multiparameter optofluidic platform

HIV-1 causes a chronic infection that affects more than 37 million people worldwide. People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) experience comorbidity related to chronic inflammation despite antiretroviral therapy. However, these inflammatory signaling has not been fully characterized. The role of early entry events on the activation of cellular signaling events and downstream gene expression has not been captured at the single-cell level. Here the authors describe a method that applies principles of live-cell fluorescence microscopy to an automated single-cell platform that cultures and images cells over user-customized time courses, allowing for high-throughput analysis of dynamic cellular processes. This assay can track single-cell live fluorescence microscopy of early events that immediately follow HIV-1 infection, notably the influx of calcium that accompanies exposure to the virus and the development of productive infection using a fluorescent reporter virus. MT-4 cells are loaded with a calcium-sensitive dye and cultured in isolated pens on a nanofluidic device. The cultured cells are infected with an HIV-1 reporter virus (HIV-1 NLCI). A fluorescence microscope positioned above the nanofluidic device measures calcium influx over an 8-min time course following acute HIV-1 exposure. HIV-1 productive infection is measured in those same cells over a 4-day interval. Imaging data from these time courses are analyzed to define virus-host receptor interactions and signaling pathway dynamics. The authors present an integrated, scalable alternative to traditional imaging methods using a novel optofluidic platform capable of single-cell sorting, culturing, imaging, and software automation. This assay can measure the kinetics of events under various conditions, including cell type, agonist, or antagonist effect, while measuring an array of parameters. This is the first established method for nanofluidic high-throughput longitudinal single-cell culture and imaging: This technique can be broadly adapted to study cellular signaling kinetics and dynamic molecular interactions.

Figure 1&#160;illustrates the format of the chip and raw imaging data acquired through the fluorescence microscope. The identification and clustering of uninfected and infected cells via mCherry measurement are shown in Figure 2. These clusters are analyzed for calcium influx kinetics in Figure 3, which demonstrates early calcium influx in HIV-infected cells. Figure 4 shows a significant positive correl...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Single-Cell Characterization of Calcium Influx and HIV-1 Infection using a Multiparameter Optofluidic Platform at JoVE.com

Single-Cell Characterization of Calcium Influx and HIV-1 Infection using a Multiparameter Optofluidic Platform

Here, we present a protocol in which single cells are monitored for acute events and productive HIV-1 infection on a nanofluidic device. Imaging data define virus-host receptor interactions and signaling pathway dynamics. This is the first method for nanofluidic high-throughput longitudinal single-cell culture and imaging to study signaling kinetics and molecular interactions.

HIV-1 causes a chronic infection that affects more than 37 million people worldwide. People living with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) experience ...

single-cell-characterization-calcium-influx-hiv-1-infection-using

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

3.0K Views.  Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. Here, we present a protocol in which single cells are monitored for acute events and productive HIV-1 infection on a nanofluidic device. Imaging data define virus-host receptor interactions and signaling pathway dynamics. This is the first method for nanofluidic high-throughput longitudinal single-cell culture and imaging to study signaling kinetics and molecular interactions.

Video: Single-Cell Characterization of Calcium Influx and HIV-1 Infection using a Multiparameter Optofluidic Platform

Specific Marking of HIV-1 Positive Cells using a Rev-dependent Lentiviral Vector Expressing the Green Fluorescent Protein

Most of HIV-responsive expression vectors are based on the HIV promoter, the long terminal repeat (LTR). While responsive to an early HIV protein, Tat, the LTR is also responsive to cellular activation states and to the local chromatin activity where the integration has occurred. This can result in high HIV-independent activity, and has restricted the usefulness of LTR-based reporter to mark HIV positive cells 1,2,3. Here, we constructed an expression lentiviral vector that possesses, in addition to the Tat-responsive LTR, numerous HIV DNA sequences that include the Rev-response element and HIV splicing sites 4,5,6. The vector was incorporated into a lentiviral reporter virus, permitting highly specific detection of replicating HIV in living cell populations. The activity of the vector was measured by expression of the green fluorescence protein (GFP). The application of this vector as reported here offers a novel alternative approach to existing methods, such as in situ PCR or HIV antigen staining, to identify HIV-positive cells. The vector can also express therapeutic genes for basic or clinical experimentation to target HIV-positive cells.

We have developed a lentiviral vector that possesses, in addition to the Tat-responsive LTR, the Rev-response element (RRE) that can regulate reporter gene expression in an HIV-1 Tat- and Rev-dependent fashion. The vector permits the specific detection of replicating HIV in living cells via the expression of GFP.

Most of HIV-responsive expression vectors are based on the HIV promoter, the long terminal repeat (LTR). While responsive to an early HIV protein, Tat, ...

Genotypic Inference of HIV-1 Tropism Using Population-based Sequencing of V3

Background: Prior to receiving a drug from CCR5-antagonist class in HIV therapy, a patient must undergo an HIV tropism test to confirm that his or her viral population uses the CCR5 coreceptor for cellular entry, and not an alternative coreceptor. One approach to tropism testing is to examine the sequence of the V3 region of the HIV envelope, which interacts with the coreceptor.
Methods: Viral RNA is extracted from blood plasma. The V3 region is amplified in triplicate with nested reverse transcriptase-PCR. The amplifications are then sequenced and analyzed using the software, RE_Call. Sequences are then submitted to a bioinformatic algorithm such as geno2pheno to infer viral tropism from the V3 region. Sequences are inferred to be non-R5 if their geno2pheno false positive rate falls below 5.75%. If any one of the three sequences from a sample is inferred to be non-R5, the patient is unlikely to respond to a CCR5-antagonist.

HIV tropism can be inferred from the V3 region of the viral envelope. V3 is PCR amplified in triplicate using nested RT-PCR, sequenced, and interpreted using bioinformatic software. Samples with with 1 or more sequence(s) with low g2P scores are classified as non-R5 virus.

Background: Prior to receiving a drug from CCR5-antagonist class in HIV therapy, a patient must undergo an HIV tropism test to confirm that his or her ...

Prediction of HIV-1 Coreceptor Usage (Tropism) by Sequence Analysis using a Genotypic Approach

Maraviroc (MVC) is the first licensed antiretroviral drug from the class of coreceptor antagonists. It binds to the host coreceptor CCR5, which is used by the majority of HIV strains in order to infect the human immune cells (Fig. 1). Other HIV isolates use a different coreceptor, the CXCR4. Which receptor is used, is determined in the virus by the Env protein (Fig. 2). Depending on the coreceptor used, the viruses are classified as R5 or X4, respectively. MVC binds to the CCR5 receptor inhibiting the entry of R5 viruses into the target cell. During the course of disease, X4 viruses may emerge and outgrow the R5 viruses. Determination of coreceptor usage (also called tropism) is therefore mandatory prior to administration of MVC, as demanded by EMA and FDA. 
The studies for MVC efficiency MOTIVATE, MERIT and 1029 have been performed with the Trofile assay from Monogram, San Francisco, U.S.A. This is a high quality assay based on sophisticated recombinant tests. The acceptance for this test for daily routine is rather low outside of the U.S.A., since the European physicians rather tend to work with decentralized expert laboratories, which also provide concomitant resistance testing. These laboratories have undergone several quality assurance evaluations, the last one being presented in 20111.
For several years now, we have performed tropism determinations based on sequence analysis from the HIV env-V3 gene region (V3)2. This region carries enough information to perform a reliable prediction. 
The genotypic determination of coreceptor usage presents advantages such as: shorter turnover time (equivalent to resistance testing), lower costs, possibility to adapt the results to the patients' needs and possibility of analysing clinical samples with very low or even undetectable viral load (VL), particularly since the number of samples analysed with VL&lt;1000 copies/&mu;l roughly increased in the last years (Fig. 3).
The main steps for tropism testing (Fig. 4) demonstrated in this video: 
1. Collection of a blood sample 
 2. Isolation of the HIV RNA from the plasma and/or HIV proviral DNA from blood mononuclear cells 
 3. Amplification of the env region 
 4. Amplification of the V3 region 
 5. Sequence reaction of the V3 amplicon 
 6. Purification of the sequencing samples 
 7. Sequencing the purified samples 
 8. Sequence editing 
 9. Sequencing data interpretation and tropism prediction

Prediction of HIV-1 Coreceptor Usage Tropism by Sequence Analysis using a Genotypic Approach

The prediction of the coreceptor usage of HIV-1 is required for the administration of a new class of antiretroviral drugs, i.e. coreceptor antagonists. It can be performed by sequence analysis of the env gene and subsequent interpretation through an internet based interpretation system (geno2pheno[coreceptor]).

Maraviroc (MVC) is the first licensed antiretroviral drug from the class of coreceptor antagonists. It binds to the host coreceptor CCR5, which is used by ...

In vitro Uncoating of HIV-1 Cores

The genome of the retroviruses is encased in a capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. For lentiviruses, such as HIV-1, the conical capsid shell is composed of CA protein arranged as a lattice of hexagon. The capsid is closed by 7 pentamers at the broad end and 5 at the narrow end of the cone1, 2. Encased in this capsid shell is the viral ribonucleoprotein complex, and together they comprise the core.
Following fusion of the viral membrane with the target cell membrane, the HIV-1 is released into the cytoplasm. The capsid then disassembles releasing free CA in the soluble form3 in a process referred to as uncoating. The intracellular location and timing of HIV-1 uncoating are poorly understood. Single amino-acid substitutions in CA that alter the stability of the capsid also impair the ability of HIV-1 to infect cells4. This indicates that the stability of the capsid is critical for HIV-1 infection.
HIV-1 uncoating has been difficult to study due to lack of availability of sensitive and reliable assays for this process. Here we describe a quantitative method for studying uncoating in vitro using cores isolated from infectious HIV-1 particles. The approach involves isolation of cores by sedimentation of concentrated virions through a layer of detergent and into a linear sucrose gradient, in the cold. To quantify uncoating, the isolated cores are incubated at 37&deg;C for various timed intervals and subsequently pelleted by ultracentrifugation. The extent of uncoating is analyzed by quantifying the fraction of CA in the supernatant. This approach has been employed to analyze effects of viral mutations on HIV-1 capsid stability4, 5, 6. It should also be useful for studying the role of cellular factors in HIV-1 uncoating.

In vitro Uncoating of HIV-1 Cores

Uncoating is an essential step in the early phase of the HIV-1 life cycle and is defined as the disassembly of the capsid shell and the release of the viral ribonucleoprotein complex (vRNP). Here, we demonstrate techniques for isolating intact cores from HIV-1 virions and for quantifying their uncoating in vitro.

The genome of the retroviruses is encased in a capsid surrounded by a lipid envelope. For lentiviruses, such as HIV-1, the conical capsid shell is ...

Single-cell Analysis of Bacillus subtilis Biofilms Using Fluorescence Microscopy and Flow Cytometry

Biofilm formation is a general attribute to almost all bacteria 1-6. When bacteria form biofilms, cells are encased in extracellular matrix that is mostly constituted by proteins and exopolysaccharides, among other factors 7-10. The microbial community encased within the biofilm often shows the differentiation of distinct subpopulation of specialized cells 11-17. These subpopulations coexist and often show spatial and temporal organization within the biofilm 18-21.
Biofilm formation in the model organism Bacillus subtilis requires the differentiation of distinct subpopulations of specialized cells. Among them, the subpopulation of matrix producers, responsible to produce and secrete the extracellular matrix of the biofilm is essential for biofilm formation 11,19. Hence, differentiation of matrix producers is a hallmark of biofilm formation in B. subtilis.
We have used fluorescent reporters to visualize and quantify the subpopulation of matrix producers in biofilms of B. subtilis 15,19,22-24. Concretely, we have observed that the subpopulation of matrix producers differentiates in response to the presence of self-produced extracellular signal surfactin 25. Interestingly, surfactin is produced by a subpopulation of specialized cells different from the subpopulation of matrix producers 15.
We have detailed in this report the technical approach necessary to visualize and quantify the subpopulation of matrix producers and surfactin producers within the biofilms of B. subtilis. To do this, fluorescent reporters of genes required for matrix production and surfactin production are inserted into the chromosome of B. subtilis. Reporters are expressed only in a subpopulation of specialized cells. Then, the subpopulations can be monitored using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry (See Fig 1).
The fact that different subpopulations of specialized cells coexist within multicellular communities of bacteria gives us a different perspective about the regulation of gene expression in prokaryotes. This protocol addresses this phenomenon experimentally and it can be easily adapted to any other working model, to elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying phenotypic heterogeneity within a microbial community.

Single-cell Analysis of Bacillus subtilis Biofilms Using Fluorescence Microscopy and Flow Cytometry

Microbial biofilms are generally constituted by distinct subpopulations of specialized cells. Single-cell analysis of these subpopulations requires the use of fluorescent reporters. Here we describe a protocol to visualize and monitor several subpopulationswithin B. subtilis biofilms using fluorescence microscopy and flow cytometry.

Biofilm formation is a general attribute to almost all bacteria 1-6. When bacteria form biofilms, cells are encased in extracellular matrix that is mostly ...

Assessing the Innate Sensing of HIV-1 Infected CD4+ T Cells by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Using an Ex vivo Co-culture System.

HIV-1 innate sensing requires direct contact of infected CD4+ T cells with plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). In order to study this process, the protocols described here use freshly isolated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) to sense infections in either T cell line (MT4) or heterologous primary CD4+ T cells. In order to ensure proper sensing, it is essential that PBMC are isolated immediately after blood collection and that optimal percentage of infected T cells are used. Furthermore, multi-parametric flow cytometric staining can be used to confirm that PBMC samples contain the different cell lineages at physiological ratios. A number of controls can also be included to evaluate viability and functionality of pDCs. These include, the presence of specific surface markers, assessing cellular responses to known agonist of Toll-Like Receptors (TLR) pathways, and confirming a lack of spontaneous type-I interferon (IFN) production. In this system, freshly isolated PBMCs or pDCs are co-cultured with HIV-1 infected cells in 96 well plates for 18-22 hr. Supernatants from these co-cultures are then used to determine the levels of bioactive type-I IFNs by monitoring the activation of the ISGF3 pathway in HEK-Blue IFN-&#945;/&#946; cells. Prior and during co-culture conditions, target cells can be subjected to flow cytometric analysis to determine a number of parameters, including the percentage of infected cells, levels of specific surface markers, and differential killing of infected cells. Although, these protocols were initially developed to follow type-I IFN production, they could potentially be used to study other imuno-modulatory molecules released from pDCs and to gain further insight into the molecular mechanisms governing HIV-1 innate sensing.

Assessing the Innate Sensing of HIV-1 Infected CD4+ T Cells by Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cells Using an Ex vivo Co-culture System.

Unlike cell-free HIV-1 particles, infected CD4+ T cells are effectively sensed by plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). This manuscript describes a method where peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or isolated pDCs are co-cultured with HIV-1 infected T cells to evaluate innate sensing by pDCs as assessed by release of type-I IFN.

HIV-1 innate sensing requires direct contact of infected CD4+ T cells with plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs). In order to study this process, the ...

Conformational Evaluation of HIV-1 Trimeric Envelope Glycoproteins Using a Cell-based ELISA Assay

HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) mediate viral entry into target cells and are essential to the infectious cycle. Understanding how those glycoproteins are able to fuel the fusion process through their conformational changes could lead to the design of better, more effective immunogens for vaccine strategies. Here we describe a cell-based ELISA assay that allows studying the recognition of trimeric HIV-1 Env by monoclonal antibodies. Following expression of HIV-1 trimeric Env at the surface of transfected cells, conformation specific anti-Env antibodies are incubated with the cells. A horseradish peroxidase-conjugated secondary antibody and a simple chemiluminescence reaction are then used to detect bound antibodies. This system is highly flexible and can detect Env conformational changes induced by soluble CD4 or cellular proteins. It requires minimal amount of material and no highly-specialized equipment or know-how. Thus, this technique can be established for medium to high throughput screening of antigens and antibodies, such as newly-isolated antibodies.

Understanding viral surface antigens conformations is required to evaluate antibody neutralization and guide the design of effective vaccine immunogens. Here we describe a cell-based ELISA assay that allows the study of the recognition of trimeric HIV-1 Env expressed at the surface of transfected cells by specific anti-Env antibodies.

HIV-1 envelope glycoproteins (Env) mediate viral entry into target cells and are essential to the infectious cycle. Understanding how those glycoproteins ...

Isolation of Exosomes from the Plasma of HIV-1 Positive Individuals

Exosomes are small vesicles ranging in size from 30 nm to 100 nm that are released both constitutively and upon stimulation from a variety of cell types. They are found in a number of biological fluids and are known to carry a variety of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acid molecules. Originally thought to be little more than reservoirs for cellular debris, the roles of exosomes regulating biological processes and in diseases are increasingly appreciated.
Several methods have been described for isolating exosomes from cellular culture media and biological fluids. Due to their small size and low density, differential ultracentrifugation and/or ultrafiltration are the most commonly used techniques for exosome isolation. However, plasma of HIV-1 infected individuals contains both exosomes and HIV viral particles, which are similar in size and density. Thus, efficient separation of exosomes from HIV viral particles in human plasma has been a challenge.
To address this limitation, we developed a procedure modified from Cantin et. al., 2008 for purification of exosomes from HIV particles in human plasma. Iodixanol velocity gradients were used to separate exosomes from HIV-1 particles in the plasma of HIV-1 positive individuals. Virus particles were identified by p24 ELISA. Exosomes were identified on the basis of exosome markers acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and the CD9, CD63, and CD45 antigens. Our gradient procedure yielded exosome preparations free of virus particles. The efficient purification of exosomes from human plasma enabled us to examine the content of plasma-derived exosomes and to investigate their immune modulatory potential and other biological functions.

Techniques describing a gradient procedure to separate exosomes from human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) particles are described. This procedure was used to isolate exosomes away from HIV particles in human plasma from HIV-infected individuals. The isolated exosomes were analyzed for cytokine/chemokine content.

Exosomes are small vesicles ranging in size from 30 nm to 100 nm that are released both constitutively and upon stimulation from a variety of cell types. ...

Measurement of In Vitro Integration Activity of HIV-1 Preintegration Complexes

HIV-1 envelope proteins engage cognate receptors on the target cell surface, which leads to viral-cell membrane fusion followed by the release of the viral capsid (CA) core into the cytoplasm. Subsequently, the viral Reverse Transcriptase (RT), as part of a namesake nucleoprotein complex termed the Reverse Transcription Complex (RTC), converts the viral single-stranded RNA genome into a double-stranded DNA copy (vDNA). This leads to the biogenesis of another nucleoprotein complex, termed the pre-integration complex (PIC), composed of the vDNA and associated virus proteins and host factors. The PIC-associated viral integrase (IN) orchestrates the integration of the vDNA into the host chromosomal DNA in a temporally and spatially regulated two-step process. First, the IN processes the 3&#39; ends of the vDNA in the cytoplasm and, second, after the PIC traffics to the nucleus, it mediates integration of the processed vDNA into the chromosomal DNA. The PICs isolated from target cells acutely infected with HIV-1 are functional in vitro, as they are competent to integrate the associated vDNA into an exogenously added heterologous target DNA. Such PIC-based in vitro integration assays have significantly contributed to delineating the mechanistic details of retroviral integration and to discovering IN inhibitors. In this report, we elaborate upon an updated HIV-1 PIC assay that employs a nested real-time quantitative Polymerase Chain Reaction (qPCR)-based strategy for measuring the in vitro integration activity of isolated native PICs.

Measurement of In Vitro Integration Activity of HIV-1 Preintegration Complexes

This report describes an in vitro assay for measuring the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) preintegration complex (PIC)-associated integration activity in the cytoplasmic extracts of acutely infected cells. The integration of PIC-associated HIV-1 DNA into heterologous target DNA is quantified by using a nested real-time polymerase chain reaction strategy.

HIV-1 envelope proteins engage cognate receptors on the target cell surface, which leads to viral-cell membrane fusion followed by the release of the ...

SILAC Based Proteomic Characterization of Exosomes from HIV-1 Infected Cells

Proteomics is the large-scale analysis of proteins. Proteomic techniques, such as liquid chromatography tandem mass spectroscopy (LC-MS/MS), can characterize thousands of proteins at a time. These powerful techniques allow us to have a systemic understanding of cellular changes, especially when cells are subjected to various stimuli, such as infections, stresses, and specific test conditions. Even with recent developments, analyzing the exosomal proteome is time-consuming and often involves complex methodologies. In addition, the resultant large dataset often needs robust and streamlined analysis in order for researchers to perform further downstream studies. Here, we describe a SILAC-based protocol for characterizing the exosomal proteome when cells are infected with HIV-1. The method is based on simple isotope labeling, isolation of exosomes from differentially labeled cells, and mass spectrometry analysis. This is followed by detailed data mining and bioinformatics analysis of the proteomic hits. The resultant datasets and candidates are easy to understand and often offer a wealth of information that is useful for downstream analysis. This protocol is applicable to other subcellular compartments and a wide range of test conditions.

Here, we describe a quantitative proteomics method using the technique of stable isotope labeling by amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) to analyze the effects of HIV-1 infection on host exosomal proteomes. This protocol can be easily adapted to cells under different stress or infection conditions.