This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 31870493), the Key Research and Development Projects in Heilongjiang, China (GA21B007), and the Basic Research Fees of Universities in Heilongjiang Province, China (No. 135409103).

1. Materials and equipment
NOTE: Bacillus altitudinis LZP02 (CP075052) was isolated from the rhizosphere of rice in northeast China12,13 for this study.
<ol>
	<li>Culture B. altitudinis LZP02 in Luria-Bertani (LB) medium (peptone, 10 g L-1; NaCl, 8 g L-1 and yeast extract, 5 g L-1) for 10 h. Collect cells by centrifugation at 9,569 x g for 2 min at 4 &#176;C. and store with 15% glycerol at -80 &#176;C. 
	NOTE: For this experiment, rice seeds (Oryza sativa Longgeng 46) were provided by the Rice Research Institute of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences.</li>
</ol>
2. Collection of root exudates
<ol>
	<li>Randomly distribute rice seeds in a growth chamber. 
	NOTE: Rice seeds were sterilized with 30% H2O2 for 30 min and soaked in water overnight. The conditions were as follows: the controlled light (16/8 h light/dark cycle), temperature (22 &#177; 2 &#176;C) and relative humidity (&#8128;70%).</li>
	<li>Culture rice seeds for a week and add sterile water twice.</li>
	<li>Select rice seedlings of similar size and plant in 50 mL of Murashige and Skoog (MS) liquid medium. Incubate for 48 h at 22 &#176;C under aseptic conditions. 
	NOTE: Rice root exudates will be released into the MS medium14,15,16.</li>
</ol>
3. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of root exudates
<ol>
	<li>Collect 100 &#181;L of the sample (MS medium containing root exudates) in a 1.5 mL centrifuge tube. Add 20 &#181;L of the extraction solvent (acetonitrile-methanol-water, 2:2:1, including internal standard). Homogenize the sample at 45 Hz for 4 min, followed by ultrasonication on ice for 5 min in a water bath.</li>
	<li>Repeat the homogenization and ultrasonic cycle three times. Incubate the sample at -20 &#176;C for 1 h, followed by centrifugation at 133,778 x g and 4 &#176;C for 15 min.</li>
	<li>Transfer the resulting supernatant to LC-MS vials and store at -80 &#176;C until UHPLC-QE analysis. Prepare the quality control (QC) samples by mixing equal portions of the supernatant of all samples. 
	NOTE: Each sample volume was 600 &#181;L (six replicates per experiment) in the presented experiment.</li>
	<li>Perform LC-MS/MS analysis using UHPLC system, UPLC HSS T3 column (2.1 mm x 100 mm, 1.8 &#181;m) and Q Exactive12.
	<ol>
		<li>Use 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution and 5 mmol/L ammonium acetate aqueous solution as mobile phase A and acetonitrile as mobile phase B. Use formic acid and ammonium acetate as positive and negative ion modes, respectively.</li>
		<li>Set the elution gradient as follows: 0 min, 1% B; 1 min, 1% B; 8 min, 99% B. 10 min, 99% B. 10.1 min, 1% B; 12 min, 1% B. Set the flow rate and injection volume to 0.5 mL/min and 2 &#181;L, respectively. 
		NOTE: The macromolecule (&#62;1,000 Daltons) cannot be detected.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
4. Chemotaxis assay
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the chemoattractant aqueous solution. Ensure that it is sterile. Filter the chemoattractant solution with a 0.22 &#181;m bacteria filter. 
	NOTE: The chemoattractant aqueous solution was the single substance obtained from the LC-MS studies dissolved in water. The concentration and volume can be adjusted appropriately according to different studies. Citric acid solution was used as an example. All actions must be performed by the side of a lamp.</li>
	<li>Mark the middle position of the glass slide at an interval of 1 cm. Ensure that the glass slide is sterilized several times on the flame.</li>
	<li>Add the 30 &#181;L of chemoattractant solution on the left of the glass slide. Ensure that bacteria were cultured to the logarithmic stage (2 x 108 CFU/mL) in LB medium. Add 30 &#181;L of the bacterial solution on the right of the glass slide. 
	NOTE: Prepare a negative control group with an equal volume of sterile water. The saline solution (0.9% NaCI) was used as the positive control in order to eliminate the changes caused by intermolecular force on the experiment.</li>
	<li>Sterilize an inoculating loop several times on the flame. Use the inoculating loop to connect the chemoattractant aqueous solution to the bacterial solution and keep it at room temperature for 20 min on a clean bench. 
	NOTE: The experiment must be carried out in a windless environment. Adjust the time before disconnecting the connection line for strains of different athletic abilities appropriately.</li>
	<li>After 20 min, disconnect the connecting line with filter paper.</li>
	<li>Ensure that the 1.5 mL centrifuge tube is sterile. Collect the chemoattractant aqueous solution on the left of the glass slide. Transfer the solution to the 1.5 mL sterile centrifuge tube.</li>
	<li>Add the appropriate volume of safranin to the centrifuge tube. After 2 min, collect the miscible liquids for counting bacteria and microscopic observation with a blood counting chamber.</li>
</ol>
5. Results analysis
<ol>
	<li>Determine the number of viable microorganisms attracted using the following equation: 
	<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/63249/63249eq01v2.jpg" style="margin: auto;" /> 
	where NBC: Total number of bacteria cells; N: Number of bacteria in 80 grids. 
	NOTE: Statistical analysis software was used for data analysis. The error was based on three different replicated experimental values and was calculated using one-way ANOVA followed by Turkey&#39;s post-hoc analysis. P&#160;&#8804; 0.05 was considered significant.</li>
</ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Increasing research indicates that plant-bacteria interactions mainly occur in the rhizosphere and are influenced by root exudates20,21,22,23,24. Plant root exudates include a diverse array of primary metabolites, including phenolic acids, organic acids and amino acids as well as more complex secondary compounds25,<sup class=...

Chemotaxis is important for colonization of plant growth-promoting rhizobacterial (PGPR) on roots and for understanding plant-microbe interactions1. A class of low molecular weight compounds (chemoattractants) in plant root exudates induce the chemotactic movement of PGPR to the rhizosphere2. Malic acid, citric acid, and other components in the root exudates stimulate chemotaxis of Bacillus strains3. For example, glucose, citric acid, and fumaric acid in maize root exudates recruit bacteria&#160;to the root surface4. D-galactose, which&#160;is derived from root exudates,induces the chemotaxis of Bacillus velezensis SQR95. Organic acids, including fumarate, malic acid, and succinate, influence chemotaxis and colonization of various PGPR in the Cajanus cajan - Zea mays intercropping system6. Oleanolic acid in rice root exudates, acts as a chemoattractant for the strain FP357. Other plant exudates (including histidine, arginine, and aspartate) can play a crucial role in the chemotactic response of bacteria8. Plant exudates function as a signal to direct the movement of bacteria, which is the first step during rhizosphere colonization. Plant colonization by PGPR is a process of enormous relevance, as PGPR are beneficial for the plant host.
Many methods have been used for analyzing bacterial chemotaxis. The swimming plate method is one of the methods described previously9. In this method, plates were made with a semisolid medium. A chemotactic buffer containing agar (1.0%, w/v) was added to the plate. The buffer is heated, and then mixed with the chemoattractant. Then, 8 &#181;L of bacteria suspension was added dropwise to the middle of the plate and the plate was placed in an incubator at 28 &#176;C. The plate was regularly observed and photographed. However, the experimental cycle of the swimming plate method was very long. In the capillary-like method10, a pipette tip serves as a chamber for holding 100 &#181;L of bacterial suspension. 1 mL syringe needle was used as a capillary. A syringe needle containing chemoattractants with different concentration gradients was inserted into the 100 &#181;L pipette tip. After incubation at room temperature for 3 h, the syringe needle was removed, the content was diluted and plated on the medium. The bacterial accumulation in the syringe was represented by colony-forming units (CFUs) in the plates. However, the experimental error within replicates for the capillary-like method was large. Another method used a microfluidic SlipChip device11. Briefly, bovine serum albumin (BSA) solution was injected into all channels and removed using a vacuum. The solutions containing different chemoattractants (1 mM concentration for qualitative detection only), bacterial cells suspended in phosphate-buffered saline and phosphate buffered saline buffer (negative control) were added to the top, middle, and bottom microwells, respectively. Incubation was then performed in a dark environment at room temperature for 30 min. The bacterial cells were then detected in the microwells. The microfluidic SlipChip device, however, was expensive. Therefore, each of the methods described above had advantages and disadvantages.
We established an improved chemotaxis assay for the rapid identification of rhizobacterial chemoattractants in root exudates using sterile glass slides without complicated steps. In this study, through multiple comparisons of experimental results, the method overcame multiple shortcomings of traditional bacterial chemotaxis methods. The method reduced the error of plate counting and shortened the experimental cycle. Therefore, if used to identify a chemoattractant substance, this new method can save 2-3 days and reduce the cost of experimental materials.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>2,5-dihydroxybenzoic acid</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>490-79-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Acetonitrile</td>
			<td>CNW Technologies</td>
			<td>75-05-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ammonium acetate</td>
			<td>CNW Technologies</td>
			<td>631-61-8</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Caffeic acid</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>331-39-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Centrifuge</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>Heraeus Fresco17</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Citric acid</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>77-92-9</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Clean bench</td>
			<td>Shanghai Boxun Industrial Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>BJ-CD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ferulic acid</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>1135-24-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Formic acid</td>
			<td>CNW Technologies</td>
			<td>64-18-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fructose</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>57-48-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Galactose</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>59-23-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glycine</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>56-40-6</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Grinding Mill</td>
			<td>Shanghai Jingxin Industrial Development 
			Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>JXFSTPRP-24</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Histidine</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>71-00-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Internal standard: 2-Chloro-L-phenylalanine</td>
			<td>Shanghai Hengbai Biotech C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>103616-89-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leucine</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>61-90-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Malic acid</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>6915-15-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mannose</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>3458-28-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mass Spectrometer</td>
			<td>Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>Q Exactive Focus</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methanol</td>
			<td>CNW Technologies</td>
			<td>67-56-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optical Microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>BX43</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phenylalanine</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>63-91-2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proline</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>147-85-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Scales</td>
			<td>Sartorius</td>
			<td>BSA124S-CW</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Serine</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>56-45-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Threonine</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>72-19-5</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>UHPLC</td>
			<td>Agilent</td>
			<td>1290 UHPLC</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultrasound Instrument</td>
			<td>Shenzhen Leidebang Electronics 
			Co., Ltd.</td>
			<td>PS-60AL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Valine</td>
			<td>Beijing InnoChem Science &#38; Technology C.,Ltd.</td>
			<td>7004-03-7</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an improved chemotaxis assay for the rapid identification of rhizobacterial chemoattractants in root exudates

Chemotaxis identification is very important for the research and application of rhizosphere growth-promoting bacteria. We established a straightforward method to quickly identify the chemoattractants that could induce the chemotactic movement of rhizosphere growth-promoting bacteria on sterile glass slides via simple steps. Bacteria solution (OD600 = 0.5) and sterile chemoattractant aqueous solution were added dropwise on the glass slide at an interval of 1 cm. An inoculating loop was used to connect the chemoattractant aqueous solution to the bacterial solution. The slide was kept at room temperature for 20 min on the clean bench. Finally, the chemoattractant aqueous solution was collected for bacterial counting and microscopic observation. In this study, through multiple comparisons of experimental results, the method overcame multiple shortcomings of traditional bacterial chemotaxis methods. The method reduced the error of plate counting and shortened the experimental cycle. For the identification of chemoattractant substances, this new method can save 2-3 days compared to the traditional method. Additionally, this method allows any researcher to systematically complete a bacterial chemotaxis experiment within 1-2 days. The protocol can be considered a valuable resource for understanding plant-microbe interactions.

A total of 584 and 937 known metabolites were detected in the positive and negative ion indices, respectively. Previous studies have shown that chemoattractants are typically organic acids, amino acids, and carbohydrates17,18.
In this study, 16 kinds of chemoattractants from the LC-MS studies in the rice rhizosphere exudates were selected for subsequent experiments (Table 1). Using the swimming plate method, we screene...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Improved Chemotaxis Assay for the Rapid Identification of Rhizobacterial Chemoattractants in Root Exudates at JoVE.com

An Improved Chemotaxis Assay for the Rapid Identification of Rhizobacterial Chemoattractants in Root Exudates

Here, we present an improved chemotaxis assay protocol. The goal of this protocol is to reduce the steps and costs of traditional bacterial chemotaxis methods and to serve as a valuable resource for understanding plant-microbe interactions.

Chemotaxis identification is very important for the research and application of rhizosphere growth-promoting bacteria. We established a straightforward ...

an-improved-chemotaxis-assay-for-rapid-identification-rhizobacterial

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

4.3K Views.  Qiqihar University. Here, we present an improved chemotaxis assay protocol. The goal of this protocol is to reduce the steps and costs of traditional bacterial chemotaxis methods and to serve as a valuable resource for understanding plant-microbe interactions.

Video: An Improved Chemotaxis Assay for the Rapid Identification of Rhizobacterial Chemoattractants in Root Exudates

C. elegans Chemotaxis Assay

Many organisms use chemotaxis to seek out food sources, avoid noxious substances, and find mates. Caenorhabditis elegans has impressive chemotaxis behavior.
 The premise behind testing the response of the worms to an odorant is to place them in an area and observe the movement evoked in response to an odorant. Even with the many available assays, optimizing worm starting location relative to both the control and test areas, while minimizing the interaction of worms with each other, while maintaining a significant sample size remains a work in progress 1-10. The method described here aims to address these issues by modifying the assay developed by Bargmann et al.1. A Petri dish is divided into four quadrants, two opposite quadrants marked "Test" and two are designated "Control". Anesthetic is placed in all test and control sites. The worms are placed in the center of the plate with a circle marked around the origin to ensure that non-motile worms will be ignored. Utilizing a four-quadrant system rather than one 2 or two 1 eliminates bias in the movement of the worms, as they are equidistant from test and control samples, regardless of which side of the origin they began. This circumvents the problem of worms being forced to travel through a cluster of other worms to respond to an odorant, which can delay worms or force them to take a more circuitous route, yielding an incorrect interpretation of their intended path. This method also shows practical advantages by having a larger sample size and allowing the researcher to run the assay unattended and score the worms once the allotted time has expired.

C. elegans Chemotaxis Assay

A method of quantitatively evaluating the chemotactic response of Caenorhabditis elegans is described. A chemotactic index (CI) was employed as a way to precisely evaluate the response of worms to certain targets, and serve as a platform of comparison between strains and compounds of interest.

Many organisms use chemotaxis to seek out food sources, avoid noxious substances, and find mates.  Caenorhabditis elegans has impressive chemotaxis ...

An Improved Method for Accurate and Rapid Measurement of Flight Performance in Drosophila

Drosophila has proven to be a useful model system for analysis of behavior, including flight. The initial flight tester involved dropping flies into an oil-coated graduated cylinder; landing height provided a measure of flight performance by assessing how far flies will fall before producing enough thrust to make contact with the wall of the cylinder. Here we describe an updated version of the flight tester with four major improvements. First, we added a &#34;drop tube&#34; to ensure that all flies enter the flight cylinder at a similar velocity between trials, eliminating variability between users. Second, we replaced the oil coating with removable plastic sheets coated in Tangle-Trap, an adhesive designed to capture live insects. Third, we use a longer cylinder to enable more accurate discrimination of flight ability. Fourth we use a digital camera and imaging software to automate the scoring of flight performance. These improvements allow for the rapid, quantitative assessment of flight behavior, useful for large datasets and large-scale genetic screens.

An Improved Method for Accurate and Rapid Measurement of Flight Performance in Drosophila

Here we describe a method for rapid and accurate measurement of flight performance in Drosophila, enabling high-throughput screening.

Drosophila has proven to be a useful model system for analysis of behavior, including flight. The initial flight tester involved dropping flies into an ...

Rapid Identification of Chemical Genetic Interactions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Determining the mode of action of bioactive chemicals is of interest to a broad range of academic, pharmaceutical, and industrial scientists. Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or budding yeast, is a model eukaryote for which a complete collection of ~6,000 gene deletion mutants and hypomorphic essential gene mutants are commercially available. These collections of mutants can be used to systematically detect chemical-gene interactions, i.e. genes necessary to tolerate a chemical. This information, in turn, reports on the likely mode of action of the compound. Here we describe a protocol for the rapid identification of chemical-genetic interactions in budding yeast. We demonstrate the method using the chemotherapeutic agent 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), which has a well-defined mechanism of action. Our results show that the nuclear TRAMP RNA exosome and DNA repair enzymes are needed for proliferation in the presence of 5-FU, which is consistent with previous microarray based bar-coding chemical genetic approaches and the knowledge that 5-FU adversely affects both RNA and DNA metabolism. The required validation protocols of these high-throughput screens are also described.

Rapid Identification of Chemical Genetic Interactions in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Here we present a cost-effective method for defining chemical-genetic interactions in budding yeast. The approach is built on fundamental techniques in yeast molecular biology and is well suited for the mechanistic interrogation of small to medium collections of chemicals and other media environments.

Determining the mode of action of bioactive chemicals is of interest to a broad range of academic, pharmaceutical, and industrial scientists. ...

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for the Identification of Arabidopsis Protein-DNA Interactions In Vivo

Intricate gene regulatory networks orchestrate biological processes and developmental transitions in plants. Selective transcriptional activation and silencing of genes mediate the response of plants to environmental signals and developmental cues. Therefore, insights into the mechanisms that control plant gene expression are essential to gain a deep understanding of how biological processes are regulated in plants. The chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) technique described here is a procedure to identify the DNA-binding sites of proteins in genes or genomic regions of the model species Arabidopsis thaliana. The interactions with DNA of proteins of interest such as transcription factors, chromatin proteins or posttranslationally modified versions of histones can be efficiently analyzed with the ChIP protocol. This method is based on the fixation of protein-DNA interactions in vivo, random fragmentation of chromatin, immunoprecipitation of protein-DNA complexes with specific antibodies, and quantification of the DNA associated with the protein of interest by PCR techniques. The use of this methodology in Arabidopsis has contributed significantly to unveil transcriptional regulatory mechanisms that control a variety of plant biological processes. This approach allowed the identification of the binding sites of the Arabidopsis chromatin protein EBS to regulatory regions of the master gene of flowering FT. The impact of this protein in the accumulation of particular histone marks in the genomic region of FT was also revealed through ChIP analysis.

Chromatin Immunoprecipitation Assay for the Identification of Arabidopsis Protein-DNA Interactions In Vivo

Chromatin immunoprecipitation is a powerful technique for the identification of DNA binding sites of Arabidopsis proteins in vivo. This procedure includes chromatin cross-linking and fragmentation, immunoprecipitation with selective antibodies against the protein of interest, and qPCR analysis of bound DNA. We describe a simple ChIP assay optimized for Arabidopsis plants.

Intricate gene regulatory networks orchestrate biological processes and developmental transitions in plants. Selective transcriptional activation and ...

Filtration Isolation of Nucleic Acids:  A Simple and Rapid DNA Extraction Method

FINA, filtration isolation of nucleic acids, is a novel extraction method which utilizes vertical filtration via a separation membrane and absorbent pad to extract cellular DNA from whole blood in less than 2 min. The blood specimen is treated with detergent, mixed briefly and applied by pipet to the separation membrane. The lysate wicks into the blotting pad due to capillary action, capturing the genomic DNA on the surface of the separation membrane. The extracted DNA is retained on the membrane during a simple wash step wherein PCR inhibitors are wicked into the absorbent blotting pad. The membrane containing the entrapped DNA is then added to the PCR reaction without further purification. This simple method does not require laboratory equipment and can be easily implemented with inexpensive laboratory supplies. Here we describe a protocol for highly sensitive detection and quantitation of HIV-1 proviral DNA from 100 &#181;l whole blood as a model for early infant diagnosis of HIV that could readily be adapted to other genetic targets.

We describe here a simple and rapid paper-based DNA extraction method of HIV proviral DNA from whole blood detected by quantitative PCR. This protocol can be extended for use in detecting other genetic markers or using alternative amplification methods.

FINA, filtration isolation of nucleic acids, is a novel extraction method which utilizes vertical filtration via a separation membrane and absorbent pad ...

Hybrid-Cut: An Improved Sectioning Method for Recalcitrant Plant Tissue Samples

Maintaining plant section integrity is essential for studying detailed anatomical structures at the cellular, tissue, or even organ level. However, some plant cells have rigid cell walls, tough fibers and crystals (calcium oxalate, silica, etc.), and high water content that often disrupt tissue integrity during plant tissue sectioning.
This study establishes a simple Hybrid-Cut tissue sectioning method. This protocol modifies a paraffin-based sectioning technique and improves the integrity of tissue sections from different plants. Plant tissues were embedded in paraffin before sectioning in a cryostat at -16 &#176;C. Sectioning under low temperature hardened the paraffin blocks, reduced tearing and scratching, and improved tissue integrity significantly. This protocol was successfully applied to calcium oxalate-rich Phalaenopsis orchid tissues as well as recalcitrant tissues such as reproductive organs and leaves of rice, maize, and wheat. In addition, the high quality of tissue sections from Hybrid-Cut could be used in combination with in situ hybridization (ISH) to provide spatial expression patterns of genes of interest. In conclusion, this protocol is particularly useful for recalcitrant plant tissue containing high crystal or silica content. Good quality tissue sections enable morphological and other biological studies.

This protocol describes a simple Hybrid-Cut tissue sectioning method that is useful for recalcitrant plant tissues. Good quality tissue sections enable anatomical studies and other biological studies including in situ hybridization (ISH).

Maintaining plant section integrity is essential for studying detailed anatomical structures at the cellular, tissue, or even organ level. However, some ...

Plant Promoter Analysis: Identification and Characterization of Root Nodule Specific Promoter in the Common Bean

The upstream sequences of gene coding sequences are termed as promoter sequences. Studying the expression patterns of promoters are very significant in understanding the gene regulation and spatiotemporal expression patterns of target genes. On the other hand, it is also critical to establish promoter evaluation tools and genetic transformation techniques that are fast, efficient, and reproducible. In this study, we investigated the spatiotemporal expression pattern of the rhizobial symbiosis-specific nodule inception (NIN) promoter of Phaseolus vulgaris in the transgenic hairy roots. Using plant genome databases and analysis tools we identified, isolated, and cloned the P. vulgaris NIN promoter in a transcriptional fusion to the chimeric reporter &#946;-glucuronidase (GUS) GUS-enhanced::GFP. Further, this protocol describes a rapid and versatile system of genetic transformation in the P. vulgaris using Agrobacterium rhizogenes induced hairy roots. This system generates &#8805;2 cm hairy roots at 10 to 12 days after transformation. Next, we assessed the spatiotemporal expression of NIN promoter in Rhizobium inoculated hairy roots at periodic intervals of post-inoculation. Our results depicted by GUS activity show that the NIN promoter was active during the process of nodulation. Together, the present protocol demonstrates how to identify, isolate, clone, and characterize a plant promoter in the common bean hairy roots. Moreover, this protocol is easy to use in non-specialized laboratories.

Promoter expression analyses are crucial to improving the understanding of gene regulation and the spatiotemporal expression of target genes. Herein we present a protocol to identify, isolate, and clone a plant promoter. Further, we describe the characterization of the nodule-specific promoter in the common bean hairy roots.

The upstream sequences of gene coding sequences are termed as promoter sequences. Studying the expression patterns of promoters are very significant in ...

Plant-Microbe Interaction: Transcriptional Response of Bacillus Mycoides to Potato Root Exudates

Beneficial plant-associated bacteria play an important role in promoting growth and preventing disease in plants. The application of plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) as biofertilizers or biocontrol agents has become an effective alternative to the use of conventional fertilizers and can increase crop productivity at low cost. Plant-microbe interactions depend upon host plant-secreted signals and a reaction hereon by their associated bacteria. However, the molecular mechanisms of how beneficial bacteria respond to their associated plant-derived signals are not fully understood. Assessing the transcriptomic response of bacteria to root exudates is a powerful approach to determine the bacterial gene expression and regulation under rhizospheric conditions. Such knowledge is necessary to understand the underlying mechanisms involved in plant-microbe interactions. This paper describes a detailed protocol to study the transcriptomic response of B. mycoides EC18, a strain isolated from the potato endosphere, to potato root exudates. With the help of recent high-throughput sequencing technology, this protocol can be performed in several weeks and produce massive datasets. First, we collect the root exudates under sterile conditions, after which they are added to B. mycoides cultures. The RNA from these cultures is isolated using a phenol/chloroform method combined with a commercial kit and subjected to quality control by an automated electrophoresis instrument. After sequencing, data analysis is performed with the web-based T-REx pipeline and a group of differentially expressed genes is identified. This method is a useful tool to facilitate new discoveries on the bacterial genes involved in plant-microbe interactions.

Plant-Microbe Interaction: Transcriptional Response of Bacillus Mycoides to Potato Root Exudates

The goal of the protocol presented here is to study the transcriptomic response of endosphere-isolated Bacillus mycoides to potato root exudates. This method facilitates the identification of important bacterial genes involved in plant-microbe interactions and is in principle applicable to other endophytes and plants, with minor adjustments.

Beneficial plant-associated bacteria play an important role in promoting growth and preventing disease in plants. The application of plant ...

SA-&#946;-Galactosidase-Based Screening Assay for the Identification of Senotherapeutic Drugs

Cell senescence is one of the hallmarks of aging known to negatively influence a healthy lifespan. Drugs able to kill senescent cells specifically in cell culture, termed senolytics, can reduce the senescent cell burden in vivo and extend healthspan. Multiple classes of senolytics have been identified to date including HSP90 inhibitors, Bcl-2 family inhibitors, piperlongumine, a FOXO4 inhibitory peptide and the combination of Dasatinib/Quercetin. Detection of SA-&#946;-Gal at an increased lysosomal pH is one of the best characterized markers for the detection of senescent cells. Live cell measurements of senescence-associated &#946;-galactosidase (SA-&#946;-Gal) activity using the fluorescent substrate C12FDG in combination with the determination of the total cell number using a DNA intercalating Hoechst dye opens the possibility to screen for senotherapeutic drugs that either reduce overall SA-&#946;-Gal activity by killing of senescent cells (senolytics) or by suppressing SA-&#946;-Gal and other phenotypes of senescent cells (senomorphics). Use of a high content fluorescent image acquisition and analysis platform allows for the rapid, high throughput screening of drug libraries for effects on SA-&#946;-Gal, cell morphology and cell number.

SA-&amp;#946;-Galactosidase-Based Screening Assay for the Identification of Senotherapeutic Drugs

Cellular senescence is the key factor in the development of chronic age-related pathologies. Identification of therapeutics that target senescent cells show promise for extending healthy aging. Here, we present a novel assay to screen for the identification of senotherapeutics based on measurement of senescence associated &#946;-Galactosidase activity in single cells.

Cell senescence is one of the hallmarks of aging known to negatively influence a healthy lifespan. Drugs able to kill senescent cells specifically in cell ...

Rapid In Vivo Fixation and Isolation of Translational Complexes from Eukaryotic Cells

Rapid responses involving fast redistribution of messenger(m)RNA and alterations of mRNA translation are pertinent to ongoing homeostatic adjustments of the cells. These adjustments are critical to eukaryotic cell survivability and &#39;damage control&#39; during fluctuating nutrient and salinity levels, temperature, and various chemical and radiation stresses. Due to the highly dynamic nature of the RNA-level responses, and the instability of many of the RNA:RNA and RNA:protein intermediates, obtaining a meaningful snapshot of the cytoplasmic RNA state is only possible with a limited number of methods. Transcriptome-wide, RNA-seq-based ribosome profiling-type experiments are among the most informative sources of data for the control of translation. However, absence of a uniform RNA and RNA:protein intermediate stabilization can lead to different biases, particularly in the fast-paced cellular response pathways. In this article, we provide a detailed protocol of rapid fixation applicable to eukaryotic cells of different permeability, to aid in RNA and RNA:protein intermediate stabilization. We further provide examples of isolation of the stabilized RNA:protein complexes based on their co-sedimentation with ribosomal and poly(ribo)somal fractions. The separated stabilized material can be subsequently used as part of ribosome profiling-type experiments, such as in Translation Complex Profile sequencing (TCP-seq) approach and its derivatives. Versatility of the TCP-seq-style methods has now been demonstrated by the applications in a variety of organisms and cell types. The stabilized complexes can also be additionally affinity-purified and imaged using electron microscopy, separated into different poly(ribo)somal fractions and subjected to RNA sequencing, owing to the ease of the crosslink reversal. Therefore, methods based on snap-chilling and formaldehyde fixation, followed by the sedimentation-based or other type of RNA:protein complex enrichment, can be of particular interest in investigating finer details of rapid RNA:protein complex dynamics in live cells.

Rapid In Vivo Fixation and Isolation of Translational Complexes from Eukaryotic Cells

We present a technique to rapidly stabilize translational (protein biosynthesis) complexes with formaldehyde crosslinking in live yeast and mammalian cells. The approach enables dissecting transient intermediates and dynamic RNA:protein interactions. The crosslinked complexes can be used in multiple downstream applications such as in deep sequencing-based profiling methods, microscopy, and mass-spectrometry.

Rapid responses involving fast redistribution of messenger(m)RNA and alterations of mRNA translation are pertinent to ongoing homeostatic adjustments of ...

Methods Article

An Improved Chemotaxis Assay for the Rapid Identification of Rhizobacterial Chemoattractants in Root Exudates