This work was supported by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases Grants RO1DK091623 and P30DK079312 (to B.A.M.). We thank the staff at the Genomics Core Facility of the Research Technology Support Facility (RTSF) at Michigan State University for performing the Nanostring analysis.

<ol>
	<li>Dunn, K. W., Molitoris, B. A., Dagher, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Indiana+O'Brien+center+for+advanced+renal+microscopic+analysis.">The Indiana O'Brien center for advanced renal microscopic analysis.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology. 320 (5), 671-682 (2021).</li><li>Dunn, K. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+studies+of+the+kidney+of+living+animals+using+multicolor+two-photon+microscopy.">Functional studies of the kidney of living animals using multicolor two-photon microscopy.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Cell Physiology. 283 (3), 905-916 (2002).</li><li>Eisenbach, G., Liew, J., Boylan, J., Manz, N., Muir, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+angiotensin+on+the+filtration+of+protein+in+the+rat+kidney:+a+micropuncture+study.">Effect of angiotensin on the filtration of protein in the rat kidney: a micropuncture study.</a> Kidney International. 8 (2), 80-87 (1975).</li><li>Sandoval, R. M., Molitoris, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravital+multiphoton+microscopy+as+a+tool+for+studying+renal+physiology+and+pathophysiology.">Intravital multiphoton microscopy as a tool for studying renal physiology and pathophysiology.</a> Methods. 128, 20-32 (2017).</li><li>Sandoval, R. M., Molitoris, B. A., Palygin, O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+imaging+and+microscopy+for+dynamic+processes+in+rats.">Fluorescent imaging and microscopy for dynamic processes in rats.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 2018, 151-175 (2019).</li><li>Huber, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+basis+of+the+functional+podocin-nephrin+complex:+mutations+in+the+NPHS2+gene+disrupt+nephrin+targeting+to+lipid+raft+microdomains.">Molecular basis of the functional podocin-nephrin complex: mutations in the NPHS2 gene disrupt nephrin targeting to lipid raft microdomains.</a> Human Molecular Genetics. 12 (24), 3397-3405 (2003).</li><li>Kawachi, H., Koike, H., Kurihara, H., Sakai, T., Shimizu, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cloning+of+rat+homologue+of+podocin:+expression+in+proteinuric+states+and+in+developing+glomeruli.">Cloning of rat homologue of podocin: expression in proteinuric states and in developing glomeruli.</a> Journal of the American Society of Nephrology JASN. 14 (1), 46-56 (2003).</li><li>Roselli, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+glomerular+filtration+defect+and+severe+renal+disease+in+podocin-deficient+mice.">Early glomerular filtration defect and severe renal disease in podocin-deficient mice.</a> Molecular and Cellular Biology. 24 (2), 550-560 (2004).</li><li>Schie&#223;l, I., Bardehle, S., Castrop, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Superficial+nephrons+in+BALB/c+and+C57BL/6+mice+facilitate+in+vivo+multiphoton+microscopy+of+the+kidney.">Superficial nephrons in BALB/c and C57BL/6 mice facilitate in vivo multiphoton microscopy of the kidney.</a> PloS One. 8 (1), 52499 (2013).</li><li>Chevalier, R., Forbes, M., Thornhill, B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ureteral+obstruction+as+a+model+of+renal+interstitial+fibrosis+and+obstructive+nephropathy.">Ureteral obstruction as a model of renal interstitial fibrosis and obstructive nephropathy.</a> Kidney International. 75 (11), 1145-1152 (2009).</li><li>Forbes, M., Thornhill, B., Chevalier, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proximal+tubular+injury+and+rapid+formation+of+atubular+glomeruli+in+mice+with+unilateral+ureteral+obstruction:+a+new+look+at+an+old+model.">Proximal tubular injury and rapid formation of atubular glomeruli in mice with unilateral ureteral obstruction: a new look at an old model.</a> American Journal of Physiology. Renal physiology. 301 (1), 110-117 (2011).</li><li>Yang, H. -. C., Zuo, Y., Fogo, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Models+of+chronic+kidney+disease.">Models of chronic kidney disease.</a> Drug Discovery Today. Disease Models. 7 (1-2), 13-19 (2010).</li><li>Hackl, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tracking+the+fate+of+glomerular+epithelial+cells+in+vivo+using+serial+multiphoton+imaging+in+new+mouse+models+with+fluorescent+lineage+tags.">Tracking the fate of glomerular epithelial cells in vivo using serial multiphoton imaging in new mouse models with fluorescent lineage tags.</a> Nature Medicine. 19 (12), 1661-1666 (2013).</li><li>Kitching, A., Kuligowski, M., Hickey, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+imaging+of+leukocyte+recruitment+to+glomeruli+in+mice+using+intravital+microscopy.">In vivo imaging of leukocyte recruitment to glomeruli in mice using intravital microscopy.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 466, 109-117 (2009).</li><li>Savin, V. J., Terreros, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Filtration+in+single+isolated+mammalian+glomeruli.">Filtration in single isolated mammalian glomeruli.</a> Kidney International. 20 (2), 188-197 (1981).</li><li>Chomczynski, P., Sacchi, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+single-step+method+of+RNA+isolation+by+acid+guanidinium+thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform+extraction:+twenty-something+years+on.">The single-step method of RNA isolation by acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction: twenty-something years on.</a> Nature Protocols. 1 (2), 581-585 (2006).</li><li>El Karoui, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endoplasmic+reticulum+stress+drives+proteinuria-induced+kidney+lesions+via+Lipocalin+2.">Endoplasmic reticulum stress drives proteinuria-induced kidney lesions via Lipocalin 2.</a> Nature Communications. 7, 10330 (2016).</li><li>VA, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiplexed+measurements+of+gene+signatures+in+different+analytes+using+the+Nanostring+nCounter+Assay+System.">Multiplexed measurements of gene signatures in different analytes using the Nanostring nCounter Assay System.</a> BMC Research Notes. 2, 80 (2009).</li><li>Springer, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+combined+transcriptome+and+bioinformatics+approach+to+unilateral+ureteral+obstructive+uropathy+in+the+fetal+sheep+model.">A combined transcriptome and bioinformatics approach to unilateral ureteral obstructive uropathy in the fetal sheep model.</a> The Journal of Urology. 187 (2), 751-756 (2012).</li><li>Braun, F., Becker, J., Brinkkoetter, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Live+or+let+die:+Is+there+any+cell+death+in+podocytes.">Live or let die: Is there any cell death in podocytes.</a> Seminars in Nephrology. 36 (3), 208-219 (2016).</li><li>Kim, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+angiopoietin-1+in+kidney+disease.">The role of angiopoietin-1 in kidney disease.</a> Electrolyte &amp; Blood Pressure E &amp; BP. 6 (1), 22-26 (2008).</li><li>Liu, F., Zhuang, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Role+of+receptor+tyrosine+kinase+signaling+in+renal+fibrosis.">Role of receptor tyrosine kinase signaling in renal fibrosis.</a> International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 17 (5), 972 (2016).</li><li>Martini, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrative+biology+identifies+shared+transcriptional+networks+in+CKD.">Integrative biology identifies shared transcriptional networks in CKD.</a> Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: JASN. 25 (11), 2559-2572 (2014).</li><li>M&#252;hlberger, I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Integrative+bioinformatics+analysis+of+proteins+associated+with+the+cardiorenal+syndrome.">Integrative bioinformatics analysis of proteins associated with the cardiorenal syndrome.</a> International Journal of Nephrology. 2011, 809378 (2010).</li><li>Satirapoj, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Periostin:+novel+tissue+and+urinary+biomarker+of+progressive+renal+injury+induces+a+coordinated+mesenchymal+phenotype+in+tubular+cells.">Periostin: novel tissue and urinary biomarker of progressive renal injury induces a coordinated mesenchymal phenotype in tubular cells.</a> Nephrology, Dialysis, Transplantation. 27 (7), 2702-2711 (2012).</li><li>Fengxin, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Numb+contributes+to+renal+fibrosis+by+promoting+tubular+epithelial+cell+cycle+arrest+at+G2/M.">Numb contributes to renal fibrosis by promoting tubular epithelial cell cycle arrest at G2/M.</a> Oncotarget. 7 (18), 25604-25619 (2016).</li><li>Sandoval, R. M., Molitoris, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantifying+glomerular+permeability+of+fluorescent+macromolecules+using+2-photon+microscopy+in+Munich+Wistar+rats.">Quantifying glomerular permeability of fluorescent macromolecules using 2-photon microscopy in Munich Wistar rats.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. (74), e50052 (2013).</li><li>Russo, L. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impaired+tubular+uptake+explains+albuminuria+in+early+diabetic+nephropathy.">Impaired tubular uptake explains albuminuria in early diabetic nephropathy.</a> Journal of the American Society of Nephrology: JASN. 20 (3), 489-494 (2009).</li><li>Russo, L. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+normal+kidney+filters+nephrotic+levels+of+albumin+retrieved+by+proximal+tubule+cells:+retrieval+is+disrupted+in+nephrotic+states.">The normal kidney filters nephrotic levels of albumin retrieved by proximal tubule cells: retrieval is disrupted in nephrotic states.</a> Kidney International. 71 (6), 504-513 (2007).</li><li>Sandoval, R. M., Wang, E., Molitoris, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Finding+the+bottom+and+using+it:+Offsets+and+sensitivity+in+the+detection+of+low+intensity+values+in+vivo+with+2-photon+microscopy.">Finding the bottom and using it: Offsets and sensitivity in the detection of low intensity values in vivo with 2-photon microscopy.</a> Intravital. 2 (1), 23674 (2014).</li><li>Kuligowski, M. P., Kitching, A. R., Hickey, M. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Leukocyte+recruitment+to+the+inflamed+glomerulus:+a+critical+role+for+platelet-derived+P-selectin+in+the+absence+of+rolling.">Leukocyte recruitment to the inflamed glomerulus: a critical role for platelet-derived P-selectin in the absence of rolling.</a> Journal of Immunology. 176 (11), 6991-6999 (2006).</li><li>Devi, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiphoton+imaging+reveals+a+new+leukocyte+recruitment+paradigm+in+the+glomerulus.">Multiphoton imaging reveals a new leukocyte recruitment paradigm in the glomerulus.</a> Nature Medicine. 19 (1), 107-112 (2013).</li><li>Finsterbusch, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Patrolling+monocytes+promote+intravascular+neutrophil+activation+and+glomerular+injury+in+the+acutely+inflamed+glomerulus.">Patrolling monocytes promote intravascular neutrophil activation and glomerular injury in the acutely inflamed glomerulus.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 113 (35), 5172-5181 (2016).</li><li>Shroff, U. N., Gyarmati, G., Izuhara, A., Deepak, S., Peti-Peterdi, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+view+of+macula+densa+cell+protein+synthesis.">A new view of macula densa cell protein synthesis.</a> American Journal of Physiology. Renal Physiology. 321 (6), 689-704 (2021).</li></ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

The study of glomerular physiology has seen many different approaches, most notably the use of micropuncture, perfusion of isolated glomeruli, and microscopy. The availability of surface glomeruli in Munich Wistar rats, Fromter and Simonsen strains, has allowed in vivo dynamic studies. One important note to investigators adopting this technology is the need to set acquisition parameters to maintain consistent images between studies, so the autofluorescence in tissue remains consistent. Utilizing a dual-pass fluorescein/rhodamine epifluorescence cube and adjusting gain settings to the green and red emission channels to mimic on the computer screen what is seen through the eyepieces will ensure a consistent color signature in the autofluorescence even between different microscope systems.
The Fromter strain has been used extensively as it has a reduced number of total glomeruli, ~75% normal, and the males spontaneously develop hypertension at around 12 weeks of age, with progressive proteinuria and subsequent focal glomerular sclerosis, eventually dying of kidney failure12. The use of these rats and the addition of 2-photon microscopy with its reduced phototoxicity, improved depth of penetration, and the ability to view multiple fluorescent probes simultaneously paved the way for new discoveries1,4,5. With the development of computer hardware and software, quantitative data are now the standard for all 2-photon laboratories. Multiple quantitative techniques have been developed and applied to glomerular, proximal tubule, vascular, and interstitial processes under physiologic and disease conditions1,4,5,27,28,29,30.
Transgenic mouse generating facilities added a new dimension to the study of kidney physiology and pathology, and it was only a matter of time until this was combined with 2-photon microscopy to further delineate the importance of specific gene products in kidney structure and function. However, mouse glomeruli, except in very young mice, are located over 100 &#181;m from the surface of the kidney9. Two-photon microscopy is best undertaken at a depth of between 20 and 50 &#181;m as resolution, and fluorescence intensity diminishes rapidly thereafter due to light scattering of emitted light and absorption from interaction with hemoglobin. Therefore, it was necessary to induce surface glomeruli. The approach commonly used is a prolonged unilateral obstruction model for 12 weeks. As these models do not allow baseline determinations, separation of the effects of UUO from the process being studied is not possible.
Using MWF rats, one can compare baseline glomerular function with that following UUO. This UUO model is known to induce inflammation and a rapid rate of fibrosis and has been used to study CKD and fibrosis10,11,12. As expected, there was an increase in surface glomeruli in both the MWF and SD rats. Moreover, the quantitative results obtained following UUO for the MWF and SD rats were very comparable. The reduction in blood flow recorded here had been previously reported comparing microscopic data following UUO to micropuncture data3. It was also well known that tubular and interstitial histology is markedly altered, and the PTs are mostly nonfunctional, as reported here, with a lack of albumin endocytosis. The studies in Figure 2 and Figure 3 show a dramatic reduction in RBC flow rate in glomerular and peritubular capillaries and enhanced WBC adhesion. The reductions in flow are likely due to capillary blockage from WBC adhesion and rouleaux formations.
To further evaluate inflammation, we quantified albumin permeability and showed it to increase tenfold. Additionally, isolated glomeruli showed that mRNA expression increased for many genes previously known to be increased in kidney inflammation in a variety of kidney disease states17,19,20,21,22,23,24,25,26. The increases in glomerular surface density and albumin permeability were progressive, as shown by the 12-week UUO data. The present data are the first to directly show that glomeruli undergo significant structural damage, inflammation, and molecular changes in the UUO model. The results are consistent with an earlier study of whole kidney tissue that analyzed sheep kidney biopsies following UUO, finding multiple inflammation markers elevated19. The present results indicate marked inflammation exists within the glomeruli, previously only known for cortical tissue.
The present data differs from earlier studies in mice where no changes were found in adhesion molecule expression, complement deposition, and neutrophil infiltration between 12-week posthydronephrotic and normal glomeruli31. In addition, the Hickey laboratory used the 12-week UUO model to study immune reactions in glomeruli of mice. They found no differences in neutrophil infiltration between four-week-old mouse glomeruli and postobstructive glomeruli32,33. These later studies were conducted after the pelvis of the obstructed kidney was drained of urine. We did not do this as we wanted to determine the effect of UUO on glomerular function as it would be in vivo, without artificially removing the fluid causing the obstruction. Finally, the use of UUO in mice is being replaced by imaging glomeruli at greater than 100 &#181;m beneath the surface. While possible, there is a trade-off of in resolution and intensity, both being reduced significantly as one goes beyond 50 &#181;m34.
The results presented are not surprising if one pieces together the data from the existing literature on histologic changes, formation of atubular glomeruli, inflammation, fibrosis, hemodynamics10,11,12. The data presented, including WBC adhesion, rouleaux formations, glomerular molecular inflammation markers, and increased albumin permeability, further indicate the extensive inflammation that is ongoing in this UUO model even at five weeks and also present at twelve weeks. Clearly, chronic UUO is not a physiologic state, and the use of UUO to induce surface glomeruli represents an injury model. The MWF rats, which have surface glomeruli under physiological conditions, can be longitudinally studied as injury occurs. It is possible to generate transgenic rats, and numerous investigators are creating them with biosensors to ask specific questions. In particular, the Medical College of Wisconsin now has a colony of MWF rats and has made transgenic rats for the purpose of studying glomerular processes under physiologic and pathologic conditions. These MWF rats offer a great opportunity to study glomerular processes in normal, diseased, and genetically altered rats.

Understanding glomerular processes, especially podocyte biology, has been a goal for over 50 years. Munich Wistar rats with surface glomeruli have played a central role in these studies, including micropuncture studies, to understand numerous aspects of physiologic and pathologic processes1,2,3. The utilization of microscopy to study glomerular components intravitally was limited due to the effects of phototoxicity until the advent of 2-photon microscopy that minimized this toxic exposure and increased the depth of penetration1,2. Along with rapid advancements in computer hardware and software, this has allowed for three-dimensional (3D) and four-dimensional (time) studies for hours in a single setting1,4,5.
The quantification of glomerular capillary blood flow, vasoconstriction and dilatation in response to drugs, permeability, and the effects of charge on permeability and inflammation are just some of the glomerular processes that have been studied. In addition, the S1 segment of the proximal tubule is identifiable, and the differences in the behavior of S1 and S2 tubular epithelium can be quantified1,4. Studies in mice, especially with the universal availability of mouse transgenic facilities, have led to rapid advances in the understanding of the molecular biology of glomerular disease processes. Individual proteins are responsible for glomerular dysfunction in knockout studies, especially with regard to proteinuria6,7,8. However, the utilization of mouse models for glomerular imaging studies has been limited as glomeruli are more than 100 &#181;m below the surface in the numerous strains studied9.
This has led investigators to develop and utilize mouse models resulting in surface glomeruli that can be studied. The most common model is the use of complete UUO10,11,12. At the end of the extended UUO period, there are numerous surface glomeruli in mice kidneys that can be and have been studied13,14. There has been no baseline or control study in these mouse studies to determine the effects of prolonged UUO on glomerular biology. As this is a severe and prolonged model of injury resulting in rapid fibrosis and cortical destruction10,11,12, we hypothesized there would be effects on glomerular processes and function. To answer this question, Munich Wistar Fromter (MWF) rats with surface glomeruli were used to study control/baseline parameters, and the baseline finding was compared with glomerular studies in MWF rats following five weeks of UUO. We also studied Sprague Dawley (SD) rats that do not have surface glomeruli following UUO. The findings indicate that 5 weeks of UUO in MWF and SD rats do indeed increase the number of surface glomeruli. However, these were abnormal glomeruli with marked changes in glomerular blood flow, inflammation, and macromolecule permeability and size.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>70 &#181;m sterile cell strainer</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>#421751</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 &#181;m sterile cell strainer</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>#421752</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CA Micro scissors Model 1C300</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>Cat# 72930</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Electric heating pad</td>
			<td>Sunbeam</td>
			<td>Kroger</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Handling Forceps</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>Cat# 72962</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kelly Hemostatic Forceps (straight)</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>Cat#72930</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leica Dive SP-8 Multi-Photon Inverted Microscope</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td>Note: Version 7.1r1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MaiTai DeepSee titanium-sapphire laser</td>
			<td>Spectra-Physics</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mayo Dissecting Scissors</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>Cat# 78180-1C3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Metamorph Image processing Software</td>
			<td>Molecular Dynamics</td>
			<td>Cat# 78266-04</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microsoft Excel</td>
			<td>Microsoft Corportation</td>
			<td>2007 version</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quant-iT RNA Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Invitrogen/ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>Q33140</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reptitherm Undertank Heater</td>
			<td>Zoomed</td>
			<td>Amazon</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNeasy MinElute Cleanup Kit (Spin columns)</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>74204</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RPE buffer</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>1018013</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Strate-Line Autoclave Tape</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>Cat# 11-889-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRI Reagent</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T9424</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Willco-dish Coverslip Bottom Dishes (50 mm/40 mm coverslip)</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>Cat# 70665-07</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

using 2-photon microscopy to quantify the effects of chronic unilateral ureteral obstruction on glomerular processes

Applying novel microscopy methods to suitable animal disease models to explore the dynamic physiology of the kidney remains a challenge. Rats with surface glomeruli provide a unique opportunity to investigate physiological and pathophysiological processes using intravital 2-photon microscopy. Quantification of glomerular capillary blood flow and vasoconstriction and dilatation in response to drugs, permeability, and inflammation are just some of the processes that can be studied. In addition, transgenic rats, i.e., podocytes labeled with fluorescent dyes and other molecular biomarker approaches, provide increased resolution to directly monitor and quantify protein-protein interactions and the effects of specific molecular alterations.
In mice, which lack surface glomeruli after four weeks of age, unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) for several weeks has been used to induce surface glomeruli. As this induction model does not allow for baseline studies, we quantified the effects of UUO on glomerular processes in the UUO model in Munich Wistar Fr&#246;mter (MWF) rats, which have surface glomeruli under physiologic conditions. The UUO model for five weeks or more induced significant alterations to gross renal morphology, the peritubular and glomerular microvasculature, as well as the structure and function of tubular epithelia. Glomerular and peritubular red blood cell (RBC) flow decreased significantly (p &#60; 0.01), probably due to the significant increase in the adherence of white blood cells (WBCs) within glomerular and peritubular capillaries. The glomerular sieving coefficient of albumin increased from 0.015 &#177; 0.002 in untreated MWFs to 0.045 &#177; 0.05 in 5-week-old UUO MWF rats. Twelve weeks of UUO resulted in further increases in surface glomerular density and glomerular sieving coefficient (GSC) for albumin. Fluorescent albumin filtered across the glomeruli was not reabsorbed by the proximal tubules. These data suggest that using UUO to induce surface glomeruli limits the ability to study and interpret normal glomerular processes and disease alterations.

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Using 2-Photon Microscopy to Quantify the Effects of Chronic Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction on Glomerular Processes at JoVE.com

Using 2-Photon Microscopy to Quantify the Effects of Chronic Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction on Glomerular Processes

Here, we present a protocol using 2-photon microscopy in Munich Wistar Fromter rats with surface glomeruli to quantifythe effects of prolonged ureteral obstruction on glomerular dynamics and function.

Applying novel microscopy methods to suitable animal disease models to explore the dynamic physiology of the kidney remains a challenge. Rats with surface ...

using-2-photon-microscopy-to-quantify-effects-chronic-unilateral

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

2.1K Views.  Indiana University School of Medicine. Here, we present a protocol using 2-photon microscopy in Munich Wistar Fromter rats with surface glomeruli to quantifythe effects of prolonged ureteral obstruction on glomerular dynamics and function.

Video: Using 2-Photon Microscopy to Quantify the Effects of Chronic Unilateral Ureteral Obstruction on Glomerular Processes

A Contusive Model of Unilateral Cervical Spinal Cord Injury Using the Infinite Horizon Impactor

While the majority of human spinal cord injuries occur in the cervical spinal cord, the vast majority of laboratory research employs animal models of spinal cord injury (SCI) in which the thoracic spinal cord is injured. Additionally, because most human cord injuries occur as the result of blunt, non-penetrating trauma (e.g. motor vehicle accident, sporting injury) where the spinal cord is violently struck by displaced bone or soft tissues, the majority of SCI researchers are of the opinion that the most clinically relevant injury models are those in which the spinal cord is rapidly contused.1 Therefore, an important step in the preclinical evaluation of novel treatments on their way to human translation is an assessment of their efficacy in a model of contusion SCI within the cervical spinal cord. Here, we describe the technical aspects and resultant anatomical and behavioral outcomes of an unilateral contusive model of cervical SCI that employs the Infinite Horizon spinal cord injury impactor.
Sprague Dawley rats underwent a left-sided unilateral laminectomy at C5. To optimize the reproducibility of the biomechanical, functional, and histological outcomes of the injury model, we contused the spinal cords using an impact force of 150 kdyn, an impact trajectory of 22.5&deg; (animals rotated at 22.5&deg;), and an impact location off of midline of 1.4 mm. Functional recovery was assessed using the cylinder rearing test, horizontal ladder test, grooming test and modified Montoya's staircase test for up to 6 weeks, after which the spinal cords were evaluated histologically for white and grey matter sparing.
The injury model presented here imparts consistent and reproducible biomechanical forces to the spinal cord, an important feature of any experimental SCI model. This results in discrete histological damage to the lateral half of the spinal cord which is largely contained to the ipsilateral side of injury. The injury is well tolerated by the animals, but does result in functional deficits of the forelimb that are significant and sustained in the weeks following injury. The cervical unilateral injury model presented here may be a resource to researchers who wish to evaluate potentially promising therapies prior to human translation.

A reliable and repeatable way to produce a cervical unilateral spinal cord injury using the Infinite Horizon impactor is described. The method takes advantage of a custom designed frame and clamp to stabilize the spine. The standardized procedure and biomechanical injury parameters result in sufficient and sustained injuries.

While the majority of human spinal cord injuries occur in the cervical spinal cord, the vast majority of laboratory research employs animal models of ...

Quantifying Glomerular Permeability of Fluorescent Macromolecules Using 2-Photon Microscopy in Munich Wistar Rats

Kidney diseases involving urinary loss of large essential macromolecules, such as serum albumin, have long been thought to be caused by alterations in the permeability barrier comprised of podocytes, vascular endothelial cells, and a basement membrane working in unison. Data from our laboratory using intravital 2-photon microscopy revealed a more permeable glomerular filtration barrier (GFB) than previously thought under physiologic conditions, with retrieval of filtered albumin occurring in an early subset of cells called proximal tubule cells (PTC)1,2,3.
Previous techniques used to study renal filtration and establishing the characteristic of the filtration barrier involved micropuncture of the lumen of these early tubular segments with sampling of the fluid content and analysis4. These studies determined albumin concentration in the luminal fluid to be virtually non-existent; corresponding closely to what is normally detected in the urine. However, characterization of dextran polymers with defined sizes by this technique revealed those of a size similar to serum albumin had higher levels in the tubular lumen and urine; suggesting increased permeability5.
Herein is a detailed outline of the technique used to directly visualize and quantify glomerular fluorescent albumin permeability in vivo. This method allows for detection of filtered albumin across the filtration barrier into Bowman's space (the initial chamber of urinary filtration); and also allows quantification of albumin reabsorption by proximal tubules and visualization of subsequent albumin transcytosis6. The absence of fluorescent albumin along later tubular segments en route to the bladder highlights the efficiency of the retrieval pathway in the earlier proximal tubule segments. Moreover, when this technique was applied to determine permeability of dextrans having a similar size to albumin virtually identical permeability values were reported2. These observations directly support the need to expand the focus of many proteinuric renal diseases to included alterations in proximal tubule cell reclamation.

A technique utilizing high resolution intavital 2-photon microscopy to directly visualize and quantify gloemrular filtration in surface glomeruli. This method allows for direct determination of permeability characteristics of macromolecules in both normal and diseased states.

Kidney  diseases involving urinary loss of large essential macromolecules, such as  serum albumin, have long been thought to be caused by alterations in ...

A Murine Model of Irreversible and Reversible Unilateral Ureteric Obstruction

Obstruction of the kidney may affect native or transplanted kidneys and results in kidney injury and scarring. Presented here is a model of obstructive nephropathy induced by unilateral ureteric obstruction (UUO), which can either be irreversible (UUO) or reversible (R-UUO). In the irreversible UUO model, the ureter may be obstructed for variable periods of time in order to induce increasingly severe renal inflammation and interstitial fibrotic scarring. In the reversible R-UUO model the ureter is obstructed to induce hydronephrosis, tubular dilation and inflammation. After a suitable period of time the ureteric obstruction is then surgically reversed by anastomosis of the severed previously obstructed ureter to the bladder in order to allow complete decompression of the kidney and restoration of urinary flow to the bladder. The irreversible UUO model has been used to investigate various aspects of renal inflammation and scarring including the pathogenesis of disease and the testing of potential anti-inflammatory or anti-fibrotic therapies. The more challenging model of R-UUO has been used by some investigators and does offer significant research potential as it allows the study of inflammatory and immune processes and tissue remodeling in an injured and scarred kidney following the removal of the injurious stimulus. As a result, the R-UUO model offers investigators the opportunity to explore the resolution of kidney inflammation together with key aspects of tissue repair. These experimental models are of relevance to human disease as patients often present with obstruction of the renal tract that requires decompression and are commonly left with significant residual kidney impairment that has no current treatment options and may lead to eventual end stage kidney failure.

The murine model of irreversible unilateral ureteric obstruction (UUO) is presented together with the model of reversible UUO in which the ureteric obstruction is relieved by anastomosis of the severed ureter into the bladder. These models enable the study of renal inflammation and scarring as well as tissue remodeling.

Obstruction of the kidney may affect native or transplanted kidneys and results in kidney injury and scarring. Presented here is a model of obstructive ...

Leprdb Mouse Model of Type 2 Diabetes: Pancreatic Islet Isolation and Live-cell 2-Photon Imaging Of Intact Islets

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic disease affecting 382 million people in 2013, and is expected to rise to 592 million by 2035 1. During the past 2 decades, the role of beta-cell dysfunction in type 2 diabetes has been clearly established 2. Research progress has required methods for the isolation of pancreatic islets. The protocol of the islet isolation presented here shares many common steps with protocols from other groups, with some modifications to improve the yield and quality of isolated islets from both the wild type and diabetic Leprdb (db/db) mice. A live-cell 2-photon imaging method is then presented that can be used to investigate the control of insulin secretion within islets.

Leprdb Mouse Model of Type 2 Diabetes: Pancreatic Islet Isolation and Live-cell 2-Photon Imaging Of Intact Islets

We present here a protocol for the isolation of islets from the mouse model of type 2 diabetes, Leprdb and details of a live-cell assay for measurement of insulin secretion from intact islets that utilizes 2 photon microscopy.

Type 2 diabetes is a chronic disease affecting 382 million people in 2013, and is expected to rise to 592 million by 2035 1. During the past 2 decades, ...

Using a Laminating Technique to Perform Confocal Microscopy of the Human Sclera

The sclera is a dense connective tissue that covers and protects the eye. It mainly consists of dense collagen bundles (types I, III, IV, V, VI, and VII). Due to its autofluorescence, opaqueness, and thickness, it has not been found suitable for confocal microscopy. An alternative approach to the one presented here, which uses formalin-fixed sclera embedded in paraffin for immunohistochemistry, has technical challenges, especially when preheating the tissue for antigen retrieval. Since the sclera is relatively poor in both cells and vessels, the use of larger tissue samples was explored to help prevent overlooking cells and to understand their localization in relation to vessels and other anatomical sites. To allow for the analysis of larger tissue samples under the confocal microscope, a laminating technique was performed to create thin layers from the sclera. Following the analysis of results of CD31 blood vessels and lymphatic vessel endothelial hyaluronan receptor 1 (LYVE1) positive cells, for which approval for scientific examination was obtained, the advantages and limitations of this method are discussed.

Human sclera tissue is mainly collagen; therefore, it is not easily usable for immunohistochemistry. To achieve the goal of performing immunohistochemistry for confocal microscopy of scleral tissue, a laminating technique was used.


The sclera is a dense connective tissue that covers and protects the eye. It mainly consists of dense collagen bundles (types I, III, IV, V, VI, and ...

Analyzing Beneficial Effects of Nutritional Supplements on Intestinal Epithelial Barrier Functions During Experimental Colitis

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), including Crohn&#39;s disease and ulcerative colitis, are chronic relapsing disorders of the intestines. They cause severe problems, such as abdominal cramping, bloody diarrhea, and weight loss, in affected individuals. Unfortunately, there is no cure yet, and treatments only aim to alleviate symptoms. Current treatments include anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive drugs that may cause severe side effects. This warrants the search for alternative treatment options, such as nutritional supplements, that do not cause side effects. Before their application in clinical studies, such compounds must be rigorously tested for effectiveness and security in animal models. A reliable experimental model is the dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) colitis model in mice, which reproduces many of the clinical signs of ulcerative colitis in humans. We recently applied this model to test the beneficial effects of a nutritional supplement containing vitamins C and E, L-arginine, and &#969;3-polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). We analyzed various disease parameters and found that this supplement was able to ameliorate edema formation, tissue damage, leukocyte infiltration, oxidative stress, and the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, leading to an overall improvement in the disease activity index. In this article, we explain in detail the correct application of nutritional supplements using the DSS colitis model in C57Bl/6 mice, as well as how disease parameters such as histology, oxidative stress, and inflammation are assessed. Analyzing the beneficial effects of different diet supplements may then eventually open new avenues for the development of alternative treatment strategies that alleviate IBD symptoms and/or that prolong the phases of remission without causing severe side effects.

Current treatments of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) aim at alleviating disease symptoms but may cause severe side effects. Thus, alternative strategies are being investigated in animal colitis models. Here, we explain how the beneficial effects of diet supplements on clinical IBD signs are analyzed in such a colitis model.

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), including Crohn&#39;s disease and ulcerative colitis, are chronic relapsing disorders of the intestines. They cause ...

Nerve-sparing Mid-urethral Obstruction (NeMO) in Female Small Rodents

Partial bladder outlet obstruction (pBOO) has a high prevalence, causes significant patient burden, and immense health care costs. The most common animal model to investigate bladder remodeling in pBOO are female rodents undergoing partial obstruction at the proximal urethra. Variability in the degree of obstruction and animal mortality are major concerns with proximal obstruction. Furthermore, dissecting around the proximal urethra and bladder neck jeopardizes bladder innervation.
We developed a nerve-sparing mid-urethral obstruction (NeMO) model for pBOO avoiding the disadvantages of the traditional model. We approached the urethra just inferior to the pubic symphysis, which obviated the need for laparotomy as well as for dissection in this area; also, the striated urethral sphincter remained untouched. We performed NeMO in female Sprague-Dawley rats (12 obstructions, 6 sham animals) as well as in female C57/bl6 mice (20 obstructions, 18 sham animals). After two weeks, we evaluated bladder function, bladder mass, and body mass.
We had no mortalities among obstructed- or sham-operated female rats; as described for the traditional proximal pBOO-method, we tied the suture around the proximal urethra and a temporarily placed 0.9 mm metal rod. NeMO induced an 85% increase in bladder mass after two weeks, average residual urine volume was 0.4 mL in partially obstructed rats while only 0.03 mL in sham animals. In mice, we tested 3 sizes of cannulas that we placed along the urethra when tying the suture. We found that using a 27-gauge cannula resulted in over 50% animal mortality; placing the 25-gauge cannula did not yield the desired response in increasing bladder mass; utilizing a 26-gauge cannula yielded favorable results with minimal animal mortality (1/8) yet a significant 2-fold increase in bladder mass.

Nerve-sparing Mid-urethral Obstruction NeMO in Female Small Rodents

Traditional modeling of partial bladder outlet obstruction in rodents is fraught with animal mortality. A denervation injury from dissection around the proximal urethra and bladder neck is also of major concern. We developed and evaluated a safe and reliable mid-urethral obstruction model, avoiding the shortcomings of the traditional model.

Partial bladder outlet obstruction (pBOO) has a high prevalence, causes significant patient burden, and immense health care costs. The most common animal ...

A Murine Model of Fetal Exposure to Maternal Inflammation to Study the Effects of Acute Chorioamnionitis on Newborn Intestinal Development

Chorioamnionitis is a common precipitant of preterm birth and is associated with many of the morbidities of prematurity, including necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC). However, a mechanistic link between these two conditions remains yet to be discovered. We have adopted a murine model of chorioamnionitis involving lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced fetal exposure to maternal inflammation (FEMI). This model of FEMI induces a sterile maternal, placental, and fetal inflammatory cascade, which is also present in many cases of clinical chorioamnionitis. Although models exist that utilize live bacteria and more accurately mimic the pathophysiology of an ascending infection resulting in chorioamnionitis, these methods may cause indirect effects on development of the immature intestinal tract and the associated developing microbiome. Using this protocol, we have demonstrated that LPS-induced FEMI results in a dose-dependent increase in pregnancy loss and preterm birth, as well as disruption of normal intestinal development in offspring. Further, we have demonstrated that FEMI significantly increases intestinal injury and serum cytokines in offspring, while simultaneously decreasing goblet and Paneth cells, both of which provide a first line of innate immunity against intestinal inflammation. Although a similar model of LPS-induced FEMI has been used to model the association between chorioamnionitis and subsequent abnormalities of the central nervous system, to our knowledge, this protocol is the first to attempt to elucidate a mechanistic link between chorioamnionitis and later perturbations in intestinal development as a potential link between chorioamnionitis and NEC.

We developed a model of chorioamnionitis to simulate fetal exposure to maternal inflammation (FEMI) without complications of live organisms to examine the effects of FEMI on development of the offspring&#8217;s intestinal tract. This allows for study of mechanistic causes for development of intestinal injury following chorioamnionitis.

Chorioamnionitis is a common precipitant of preterm birth and is associated with many of the morbidities of prematurity, including necrotizing ...

Isolation of Intrapulmonary Artery and Smooth Muscle Cells to Investigate Vascular Responses

The intrapulmonary artery (IPA) and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) isolated from rat lungs can be used to study the underlying mechanisms of vasoconstriction and vasorelaxation. After isolating the IPA and VSMCs, the characteristics of vascular responses in physiological and pathological conditions can be assessed in the absence of extrinsic factors such as nerve signals, hormones, cytokines, etc. Thus, the IPA and VSMCs serve as excellent models for studying vascular physiology/pathophysiology, along with various experimental investigations, such as modulation by pharmacological agents, patch-clamp electrophysiological analysis, calcium imaging, etc. Here, we have used a technique for isolating the IPA to investigate vascular responses in an organ bath setup. IPA segments were mounted on the organ bath chamber via intraluminal wires and stimulated by various pharmacological agents. The changes in IPA vascular tone (i.e., vasoconstriction and vasorelaxation), were recorded using an isometric force transducer and physiological data analysis software program. We implemented several experimental protocols, which can be adapted to investigate the mechanisms of vasorelaxation/vasoconstriction for studying the pharmacological activities of phytochemical or synthetic drugs. The protocols can also be used to evaluate drugs&#39; roles in modulating various diseases, including pulmonary arterial hypertension. The IPA model allows us to investigate the concentration-response curve, which is crucial in assessing drugs&#39; pharmacodynamic parameters.

Vascular responses of arterial pulmonary circulation can be explored using intrapulmonary artery (IPA) and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs). The present study describes the isolation of IPA in detail and the protocols used for investigating vasorelaxation in response to physiological stimuli.

The intrapulmonary artery (IPA) and vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) isolated from rat lungs can be used to study the underlying mechanisms of ...

Standardized Tuina Protocol for Rat DRG Compression Model

Analgesic Effect of Tuina on Rat Models with Compression of the Dorsal Root Ganglion Pain

Neuropathic pain is a prevalent condition that affects 6.9%-10% of the population and results from nerve damage due to various etiologies, such as lumbar disc herniation, spinal canal stenosis, and intervertebral foramen stenosis. Although Tuina, a traditional Chinese manual therapy, has shown analgesic effects in clinical practice for the treatment of neuropathic pain, its underlying neurobiological mechanisms remain unclear. Animal models are essential for elucidating the basic principles of Tuina. In this study, we propose a standardized Tuina protocol for rats with compression of the dorsal root ganglion (DRG), which involves inducing DRG compression by inserting a stainless steel rod into the intervertebral foramen, performing Tuina manipulation with specific parameters of location, intensity, and frequency in a controlled environment, and assessing the behavioral and histopathological outcomes of Tuina treatment. This article also discusses the potential clinical implications and limitations of the study and suggests directions for future research on Tuina.

Author Spotlight: Analgesic Effect of Tuina on Rat Models with Compression of the Dorsal Root Ganglion Pain  

This article presents a manipulation for treating chronic compression of the dorsal root ganglion in rats using Tuina therapy, along with a method for evaluating its effectiveness based on pain behavior and histopathological results.

Neuropathic pain is a prevalent condition that affects 6.9%-10% of the population and results from nerve damage due to various etiologies, such as lumbar ...