This work was supported by the British Heart Foundation, Richard Bright VEGF Research Trust, and the MRC.

<ol>
	<li>Humtstrom, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+structural+kidney+damage+in+spontaneously+hypertensive+rats.">Development of structural kidney damage in spontaneously hypertensive rats.</a> Journal of Hypertension. 30 (6), 1087-1091 (2012).</li><li>Kitada, M., Ogura, Y., Koya, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rodent+models+of+diabetic+nephropathy:+their+utility+and+limitations.">Rodent models of diabetic nephropathy: their utility and limitations.</a> International Journal of Nephrology and Renovascular Disease. 14 (9), 279-290 (2016).</li><li>Tesch, G. H., Lim, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Recent+insights+into+diabetic+renal+injury+form+the+db/db+mouse+model+of+type+2+diabetic+nephropathy.">Recent insights into diabetic renal injury form the db/db mouse model of type 2 diabetic nephropathy.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology. 300 (2), F301-F310 (2011).</li><li>Fogo, A. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Animal+models+of+FSGS:+lessons+for+pathogenesis+and+treatment.">Animal models of FSGS: lessons for pathogenesis and treatment.</a> Seminars in Nephrology. 23 (2), 161-171 (2003).</li><li>Stevens, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=VEGF-A165b+protects+against+proteinuria+in+a+mouse+model+with+progressive+depletion+of+all+endogenous+VEGF-A+splice+isoforms+from+the+kidney.">VEGF-A165b protects against proteinuria in a mouse model with progressive depletion of all endogenous VEGF-A splice isoforms from the kidney.</a> Journal of Physiology. 595 (19), 6281-6298 (2017).</li><li>Cosgrove, D., Kalluri, R., Miner, J. H., Segal, Y., Borza, D. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Choosing+a+mouse+model+to+study+the+molecular+pathobiology+of+Alport+glomerulonephritis.">Choosing a mouse model to study the molecular pathobiology of Alport glomerulonephritis.</a> Kindey International. 71 (7), 615-618 (2007).</li><li>Kujal, P., Vernerova, Z. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=5/6+nephrectomy+as+an+experimental+model+of+chronic+renal+failure+and+adaptation+to+reduced+nephron+number.">5/6 nephrectomy as an experimental model of chronic renal failure and adaptation to reduced nephron number.</a> Ceskoslenska Fysiologuie. 57 (4), 104-109 (2008).</li><li>Chevalier, R. L., Forbes, M. S., Thornhill, B. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ureteral+obstruction+as+a+model+of+renal+interstitial+fibrosis+and+obstructive+nephropathy.">Ureteral obstruction as a model of renal interstitial fibrosis and obstructive nephropathy.</a> Kidney International. 75 (11), 1145-1152 (2009).</li><li>Oltean, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=VEGF165b+overexpression+restores+normal+glomerular+water+permeability+in+VEGF164-overexpressing+adult+mice.">VEGF165b overexpression restores normal glomerular water permeability in VEGF164-overexpressing adult mice.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology. 303 (7), F1026-F1036 (2012).</li><li>Salmon, A. H., Neal, C. R., Bates, D. O., Harper, S. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vascular+endothelial+growth+factor+increases+the+ultrafiltration+coefficient+in+isolated+intact+Wistar+rat+glomeruli.">Vascular endothelial growth factor increases the ultrafiltration coefficient in isolated intact Wistar rat glomeruli.</a> Journal of Physiology. 570 (Pt 1), 141-156 (2006).</li><li>Zheng, F., Striker, G. E., Esposito, C., Lupia, E., Striker, L. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strain+differences+rather+than+hyperglycemia+determine+the+severity+of+glomerulosclerosis+in+mice.">Strain differences rather than hyperglycemia determine the severity of glomerulosclerosis in mice.</a> Kidney International. 54 (6), 1999-2007 (1998).</li><li>Betz, B., Conway, B. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+update+on+the+use+of+animal+models+in+diabetic+nephropathy+research.">An update on the use of animal models in diabetic nephropathy research.</a> Current Diabetes Reports. 16 (18), (2016).</li><li>Savin, V. J., Terreros, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Filtration+in+single+isolated+mammalian+glomeruli.">Filtration in single isolated mammalian glomeruli.</a> Kidney International. 20 (2), 188-197 (1981).</li><li>Neal, C. R., Crook, H., Bell, E., Harper, S. J., Bates, D. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Three-dimensional+reconstruction+of+glomeruli+by+electron+microscopy+reveals+a+distinct+restrictive+urinary+subpodocyte+space.">Three-dimensional reconstruction of glomeruli by electron microscopy reveals a distinct restrictive urinary subpodocyte space.</a> Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 16 (5), 1223-1235 (2005).</li><li>Mahmood, T., Yang, P. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Western+blot:+technique,+theory,+and+trouble+shooting.">Western blot: technique, theory, and trouble shooting.</a> North American Journal of Medicine &amp; Science. 4 (9), 429-434 (2012).</li><li>Chomczynski, P., Sacchi, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Single-step+method+of+RNA+isolation+by+acid+guanidinium+thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform+extraction.">Single-step method of RNA isolation by acid guanidinium thiocyanate-phenol-chloroform extraction.</a> Analytical Biochemistry. 162 (1), 156-159 (1987).</li><li>Adembri, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sepsis+induces+albuminuria+and+alterations+in+the+glomerular+filtration+barrier:+a+morphofunctional+study+in+the+rat.">Sepsis induces albuminuria and alterations in the glomerular filtration barrier: a morphofunctional study in the rat.</a> Critical Care. 15 (6), R277 (2011).</li><li>Ma, S. T., Liu, D. L., Deng, J. J., Niu, R., Liu, R. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+arctiin+on+glomerular+filtration+barrier+damage+in+STZ-induced+diabetic+nephropathy+rats.">Effect of arctiin on glomerular filtration barrier damage in STZ-induced diabetic nephropathy rats.</a> Phytotherapy Research. 27 (10), 1474-1480 (2013).</li><li>Oltean, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Vascular+endothelial+growth+factor-A165b+is+protective+and+restores+endothelial+glycocalyx+in+diabetic+nephropathy.">Vascular endothelial growth factor-A165b is protective and restores endothelial glycocalyx in diabetic nephropathy.</a> Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 26 (8), 1889-1904 (2015).</li><li>Zhang, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Podocyte-specific+overexpression+of+GLUT1+surprisingly+reduces+mesangial+matric+expansion+in+diabetic+nephropathy+in+mice.">Podocyte-specific overexpression of GLUT1 surprisingly reduces mesangial matric expansion in diabetic nephropathy in mice.</a> American Journal of Physiology-Renal Physiology. 299 (1), F91-F98 (2010).</li></ol>

The authors have nothing to disclose.

This protocol describes a full kidney work-up that should be carried out in mouse models of glomerular disease, enabling a vast amount of information regarding kidney and glomerular function to be obtained from a single mouse. The critical steps in each method allow for detailed functional, structural, and mechanistic analysis of glomerular function, including assessment of the permeability of the kidneys as a whole (uACR and plasma creatinine measurements), the permeability of individual glomeruli (glomerular LpA/Vi), examination of the structural alterations (PAS, Trichrome blue, and EM), protein localization (IF), and glomerular gene expression (RT-PCR and Western blotting). These methods are key to the full assessment of glomerular function in mouse models of renal disease.
When assessing the permeability of the GFB, many studies have opted to use the conventional uACR or 24 h albumin excretion rate as an effective measure17,18. Although these techniques allow assessment of the GFB permeability as a whole, it does not allow for individual glomerular permeability assessment and variation amongst glomeruli. Previous studies have found measurement of the glomerular LpA/Vi to be a more sensitive measure of changes to the GFB permeability5,9. Indeed, in the representative results demonstrated in this paper, at 14 weeks post induction of VEGF-A KO, VEGF-A KO X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice have a significantly lower uACR compared to VEGF-A KO mice; however, this result is not reflected in the glomerular LpA/Vi measurements, where VEGF-A165b did not significantly prevent increases in the GFB permeability (Figure 1 and Figure 2)5. This shows the importance of using multiple assays to assess both the kidney permeability and the permeability of individual glomeruli. Furthermore, the glomerular LpA/Vi oncometric assay suggests that the permeability of individual glomeruli from the same kidney can vary greatly, especially in disease models5,10,19. One limitation to measuring the glomerular LpA/Vi is that it can only be performed at the experimental end-point; thus, regular uACR measurements are required to give an indication of the experimental end-point.
In addition to assessing the functional phenotype, the present method also encourages assessment of the structural and ultrastructural phenotype. This can be done using a selection of stains such as PAS, trichrome, and silver stains; each to assess different aspects of the glomerular morphology. In acute models of glomerular disease, which is often the case in mouse models, is can be difficult to detect any major structural abnormalities using these stains unless you are a trained renal pathologist. Therefore, carrying out EM is suggested to assess the ultrastructure of the GFB, which allows the quantitative measurement of parameters such as the GBM, endothelial fenestrae size and number, and podocyte characteristics. Such measurements require minimal training to perform and enables the investigator to determine the cell-types/structures affected in a disease model. In the example shown in the representative results, the VEGF-A KO mouse was found to be a mild model of glomerular disease, thus, no major structural abnormalities were present upon PAS staining. However, podocyte-specific VEGF-A KO did induce changes to the GBM, podocytes, and endothelial cells when examining the glomerular ultra-structure5. Unfortunately, the preparation of the kidney for EM described in the present method does not enable detection of the endothelial glycocalyx, which is also known to have significant effects on the permeability of the GFB19. In order to accurately measure the glycocalyx depth, the kidney should be perfuse-fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde with 1% Alcian blue for endothelial glycocalyx labelling, as described in Oltean et al19.
Once the functional and structural phenotype have been assessed, the expression/activation patterns of different genes and pathways can then be assessed specifically in the glomeruli. Prior ultra-structural assessment could give some information regarding the cell types/glomerular structures involved, indicating whether podocyte- or endothelial-specific genes/pathways should be examined. For example, in the representative results from the VEGF-A KO mice, a reduction in the endothelial fenestrae number was observed (Figure 3D); therefore, the glomerular protein expression of an endothelial marker known to be involved in the VEGF-A pathway was examined; VEGFR-2 (Figure 4B)5. In addition to the expression of proteins in the glomeruli, their localization can also be visualized using IF. In a study by Zhang et al20, podocyte-specific overexpression of GLUT1 was confirmed in the podocytes by IF co-localizing the increased GLUT1 with podocin.
In comparison to alternative methods presented in the literature to assess glomerular function, the use of the method outlined in this paper to assess kidney function in mouse models of glomerular disease enables the glomerular phenotype to be fully evaluated from multiple aspects. By using this method, the researcher is able to determine the kidney phenotype of the model and assess the mechanism as to why the phenotype develops. This vital information on the mechanism of disease is required when examining potential therapeutic avenues in these models. This method can be easily applied to future investigations into glomerular function both in the assessment of disease phenotypes and potential therapeutics.
In conclusion, this generic and adaptable protocol describes a full kidney work-up for mouse models of glomerular disease, enabling a vast amount of information regarding kidney and glomerular function to be obtained from a single mouse. The methods allow for detailed functional, structural, and mechanistic analysis of glomerular function, which can be applied to all mouse models of glomerular disease.

The use of murine models to mimic human kidney disease is becoming increasingly common. Such murine models include spontaneous models such as spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR)1, streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats and mice2, and the db/db type II diabetic mice3, genetically engineered models such as primary podocyte-specific focal segmental glomerular sclerosis (FSGS) models4, the podocyte-specific vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) knock-out (VEGF-A KO) model5, and Alport syndrome models6, and acquired models such as the 5/6 nephrectomy7 and the unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) model8. In order to assess the different aspects of glomerular function in these models, several techniques are available. The purpose of this method paper is to demonstrate a comprehensive work-up that should be performed in mouse models of kidney disease in order to fully assess glomerular function.
The rationale behind the use of this method is that it enables the glomerular phenotype to be fully evaluated from multiple aspects. This includes assessing the glomerular permeability, both to protein and to water, the glomerular structural abnormalities, and changes in the expression/splicing of mRNAs and proteins essential for normal glomerular function. By using this method, the researcher is able to determine the kidney phenotype of the model and assess the mechanism as to why the phenotype develops. This is vital information on the mechanism of disease, which is required when examining potential therapeutic avenues in these models.
In the literature, it is a common occurrence to be presented with a mouse model of glomerular disease where the phenotype is determined by an increased level of albumin in the urine. However, there is evidence to suggest that a single method to determine glomerular function is not always effective; measuring the urinary albumin excretion rate or the urinary albumin creatinine ratio (uACR) only provides information on total renal function, and not of the individual glomeruli. Previous studies have demonstrated that the permeability can vary in different glomeruli from the same kidney5,9,10. In addition, assessment of the permeability of individual glomeruli is a more sensitive way of assessing glomerular function; the technique of measuring the individual glomerular water permeability (LpA/Vi) has shown to be more sensitive to changes in glomerular function than measuring the uACR9. This assay is beneficial in mouse models that are resistant to proteinuria, such as those on a c57BL/6 background11. The advantage of the present method paper is that it examines both the total renal permeability to albumin as well as the individual glomerular permeability to water.
Examination of glomerular structural abnormalities is often assessed by a battery of stains such as Periodic Acid Schiff (PAS), trichrome, and silver stains. These enable a trained renal pathologist to evaluate the level of renal disease via a scoring method. Although all good methods, changes to the glomerular macro-structure are not always observed in acute kidney injury models12. This method proposes that in addition to carrying out the renal histology techniques described above, the glomerular ultra-structure should also be assessed via electron microscopy (EM). A stained glomerulus can look relatively normal under a regular light microscope; however, upon assessment with EM, small changes in the glomerular basement membrane (GBM) width, podocyte foot process effacement, endothelial fenestrations, and the sub-podocyte space coverage is analyzed. Therefore, it is vital that both the glomerular ultra-structure and micro-structure is assessed to determine the mechanism of glomerular dysfunction.
In addition to assessing glomerular structural abnormalities, changes in mRNA and protein expression and splicing, as well as protein activation (e.g., phosphorylation), should be examined to further elucidate the mechanisms of glomerular disease. When looking at glomerular disease, or, for example, when KO/over-expressing a gene specifically in glomerular cells, such as in the podocyte-specific VEGF-A KO mouse5, it is important that the protein and mRNA changes are examined only within the glomerular cells, and not the whole kidney. This protocol describes a method in which the glomeruli are isolated from the mouse kidney cortex, and then the protein/RNA are isolated. This allows specific analysis of the protein/mRNA dysregulation in the glomeruli of the disease model.
This protocol describes a full kidney work-up that should be carried out in mouse models of glomerular disease, enabling a vast amount of information regarding kidney and glomerular function to be obtained from a single mouse. The methods allow for detailed functional, structural, and mechanistic analysis of glomerular function, which can be applied to all mouse models of glomerular disease.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Metabolic Cages</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>52-6731</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris buffered saline (10x)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>T5912-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A2058</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse Albumin ELISA Quantitation Set</td>
			<td>Bethyl Laboratories</td>
			<td>E90-134</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TMB ELISA Substrate solution</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>34028</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sulphuric acid</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>339741</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SPECTRstar nano</td>
			<td>BMG Labtech</td>
			<td>SPECTRstar nano or equivalent</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RNAlater stabilisation solution</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AM7020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4-15% precast protein gel</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>4568084</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4x Laaemmli Sample buffer</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>161-0747</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini Trans-Blot cell</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>1703930</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x Tris running buffer</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>1610732</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Coomassie Brilliant Blue Dye</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>20278</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Creatinine Companion</td>
			<td>Exocell</td>
			<td>1012 Strip Plate</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutaraldehyde Solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G5882</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Cacodylate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C0250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AM9625</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Acetate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2889</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Phosphate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>342483</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Bicarbonate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5761</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>M2643</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calcium Chloride</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C5670</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D(+)Glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G8270</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA Blood Collection tubes</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>367835</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>23-25G Needle</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>PMC0735</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>E9884</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 ml Glass Vial</td>
			<td>Thomas Scientific</td>
			<td>0914X10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Falcon 10 ml Polypropylene Tubes</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10110101</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.5 ml Tubes</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10681894</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Disposable Tissue Molds</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>22-363-553</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse Surgical Disection Kit</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>13-005-204</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Optimal Cutting Medium</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>23-730-571</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>4% Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AAJ19943K2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Capillary Tubes</td>
			<td>Harvard Apparatus</td>
			<td>EC1 64-0770</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glomerular Permeability Rig</td>
			<td>Built at the Univeristy of Bristol - not comercially available</td>
			<td>Citation of LpA rig: Salmon et al. 2006; J. Physiol</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Stainless Steel Sieves</td>
			<td>Cole-Parmer</td>
			<td>WZ-59984</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Periodic Acid-Schiff (PAS) Staining System</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>395B-1KT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hematoxylin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H3136</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylene</td>
			<td>MerckMillipore</td>
			<td>108298</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-Prep Slides</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P0425-72EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mounting Medium</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>8030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Osmium tetroxide solution</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>75632</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Aradite Resin</td>
			<td>Agar Scientific</td>
			<td>CY212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Uranyl Acetate</td>
			<td>Agar Scientific</td>
			<td>AGR1260A</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lead Citrate</td>
			<td>Agar Scientific</td>
			<td>AGR1210</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cryostat</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>e.g. 957000H</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hydrophobic Pen</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab2601</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nephrin (1243-1256) Antibody</td>
			<td>Acris</td>
			<td>BP5030</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-Podocin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P0372-200UL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-CD31</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>550274</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor Secondary Antibody</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>A32732</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vectashield Mounting Medium with DAPI</td>
			<td>Vector Labs</td>
			<td>H-1200</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>NP40 Cell Lysis Buffer</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>FNN0021</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halt Protease and Phosphatase Inhibitor Cocktail</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>78437X4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10x Transfer Buffer</td>
			<td>BIORAD</td>
			<td>1610734</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVDF Membrane</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>LC2002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HRP-Conjugated Secondary Antibodies</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab6721</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ECF Substrate for Western Blotting</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>10713387</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TRIzol</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>15596018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dnase I</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>M0303S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>M-MLV Reverse Transcriptase</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>M053S</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Oligo dT</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>18418012</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Random Primers</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>48190011</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dNTP</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>18427088</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ribonuclease Inhibitor</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>10777019</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DEPC Water</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td>AM9915G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescent Light Miscroscope</td>
			<td>Leica Microsystems</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Image J Analysis Software</td>
			<td>Image J</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR Thermocycler</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TEM Microscope</td>
			<td>Britannica</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

assessment of kidney function in mouse models of glomerular disease

The use of murine models to mimic human kidney disease is becoming increasingly common. Our research is focused on the assessment of glomerular function in diabetic nephropathy and podocyte-specific VEGF-A knock-out mice; therefore, this protocol describes the full kidney work-up used in our lab to assess these mouse models of glomerular disease, enabling a vast amount of information regarding kidney and glomerular function to be obtained from a single mouse. In comparison to alternative methods presented in the literature to assess glomerular function, the use of the method outlined in this paper enables the glomerular phenotype to be fully evaluated from multiple aspects. By using this method, the researcher can determine the kidney phenotype of the model and assess the mechanism as to why the phenotype develops. This vital information on the mechanism of disease is required when examining potential therapeutic avenues in these models. The methods allow for detailed functional assessment of the glomerular filtration barrier through measurement of the urinary albumin creatinine ratio and individual glomerular water permeability, as well as both structural and ultra-structural examination using the Periodic Acid Schiff stain and electron microscopy. Furthermore, analysis of the genes dysregulated at the mRNA and protein level enables mechanistic analysis of glomerular function. This protocol outlines the generic but adaptable methods that can be applied to all mouse models of glomerular disease.

Urine was collected using metabolic cages from wild type (WT), inducible podocyte-specific VEGF-A knock out (VEGF-A KO), and VEGF-A KO X Neph-VEGF165b mice (VEGF-A KO mice that over-express the human VEGF-A165b isoform in the podocytes in a constitutive manner). Upon measurement of the urinary albumin creatinine ratio at weeks 0, 4, 10, and 14 after doxycycline induction of VEGF-A KO, VEGF-A KO mice developed progressive albuminuria by 10 weeks compared to WT littermate controls. The absolute values can be seen in Figure 2A, and the normalized to the baseline of each mouse values in Figure 2B. However, albuminuria in not observed in the VEGF-A X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice (Figure 2), indicating that VEGF-A165b is protective in the model of albuminuria5.
The glomerular LpAVi was measured in individual glomeruli sieved from WT, VEGF-A KO, and VEGF-A X Neph-VEGF-A165b kidneys. An example of how a glomerulus is caught and the shrinkage observed when perifused with 8% BSA is shown in Figure 3A. This shrinkage is then used to determine the glomerular LpA/Vi for each glomerulus (Figure 3B). VEGF-A KO mice had a significantly increased glomerular LpA/Vi at 14 weeks post VEGF-KO induction compared to WT control glomeruli. Although lower in VEGF-A X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice, the increased glomerular LpA/Vi was not prevented by over-expression of VEGF-A165b at 14 weeks5.
PAS staining of kidney cortex sections 14 weeks after induction of VEGF-A KO did not reveal any glomerular structural abnormalities in the VEGF-A KO or VEGF-A X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice (Figure 4A). However, upon analysis of the glomerular ultra-structure via EM, VEGF-A KO mice had developed an increased GBM width, decreased number of endothelial fenestrae, decreased SPS coverage, and increased average podocyte slit width (Figure 4C-4F). The average podocyte foot process width and number of slits remained unchanged (Figure 3B and 3G). Over-expression of VEGF-A165b in the VEGF-A KO mice prevented the changes to the GBM and slit width (Figure 4C and 4F). However, VEGF-A165b had no effect on the altered fenestrae number and SPS coverage (Figure 4D and 4E)5.
RT-PCR performed on RNA extracted from sieved glomeruli revealed that the human VEGF-A165b mRNA is only present in the VEGF-A KO X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice (Figure 5A). When extracting protein from sieved glomeruli and assessing the levels of proteins via Western blotting, the glomerular protein expression of VEGFR-2 was found to be decreased in VEGF-A KO mice, which was prevented by over-expression of VEGF-A165b (Figure 5B and 5C)5.
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Diagrammatic set up of the glomerular permeability (LpA) rig. (A) The glomerulus is caught on (B) the micropipette within a holder using suction, which is clamped onto a mount for stability. (C) Rectangular microslide. (D)&#160;4X&#160;objective of a microscope with a video camera. (E) 1% BSA solution warmed to 37 &#176;C. (F) 8% BSA solution warmed to 37 &#176;C. (G) Remote tap bearing two perifusate-containing lines, which permits rapid perifusate exchange. (H) Route of perifusate towards the microslide, which then bathes the glomerulus. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig1large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig2.jpg" /> 
Figure 2. Urinary albumin creatinine ratio. (A) The uACR values at weeks 0, 4, 10, and 14 after induction of VEGF-A KO in WT, VEGF-A KO, and VEGF-A X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice. (B) The same uACR values normalized to the baseline value (week 0) of each individual mouse. The uACR significantly increased in VEGF-A KO mice at weeks 10 and 14 compared to WT littermate controls, which was prevented in the VEGF-A X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice (*p &#60;0.05; Two-way ANOVA, correction for comparison between pairs; n= 4 - 12 mice per time point; error bars: standard error of the mean [SEM]). This figure has been modified from Stevens et al5. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig2large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 3" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig3.jpg" /> 
Figure 3. Measurement of glomerular water permeability. (A) The glomerulus is caught on the micropipette via suction; the perifusate is switched from 1% BSA (Ai) to 8% BSA (Aii), and glomerular shrinkage is observed. (B) Measurements taken before and after the 8% BSA switch are used to determine the glomerular LpA/Vi. (C) VEGF-A KO mice develop an increased glomerular LpA/Vi at 14 weeks post induction of VEGF-A KO compared to WT controls. This was not significantly prevented in VEGF-A X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice (*p &#60;0.05; One way ANOVA, Bonferroni correction for comparison between pairs; n = 4 - 9 mice, 15 - 30 glomeruli; error bars: SEM). <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig3large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 4" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig4.jpg" /> 
Figure 4. Glomerular structural analysis. (A) PAS staining of the kidney cortex did not indicate any structural abnormalities in the glomeruli from WT, VEGF-A KO, and VEGF-A X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice (Ai - iii). EM revealed ultra-structural abnormalities in the VEGF-A KO glomeruli (Aiv - vi). (B) The average FPW did not change between groups. (C) The GBM increased in the VEGF-A KO glomeruli, which was prevented by VEGF-A165b. (D) The number of fenestrae was decreased in VEGF-A KO glomeruli, which remained unaltered by VEGF-A165b. (E) The SPS coverage was decreased in VEGF-A KO glomeruli, which also remained unchanged by VEGF-A165b. (F) The average slit width was increased in VEGF-A KO glomeruli, which was prevented by VEGF-A165b. (G) The slit number was unchanged between the three groups (*p &#60;0.05; One way ANOVA, Bonferroni correction for comparison between pairs; n = 3 mice, 9 glomeruli; error bars: SEM). This figure has been modified from Stevens et al5. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig4large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<img alt="Figure 5" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig5.jpg" /> 
Figure 5. mRNA and protein expression of markers. (A) RT-PCR showed that human VEGF-A165b mRNA expression was only evident in the sieved glomeruli from VEGF-A KO X Neph-VEGF-A165b mice. (B) Western blotting indicated that VEGFR-2 protein expression was down-regulated in VEGF-A KO glomeruli, which was prevented in VEGF-A KO X Neph-VEGF-A165b glomeruli (*p &#60;0.05; One way ANOVA, Bonferroni correction for comparison between pairs; n = 3-&#160; 6 mice; error bars: SEM). This figure has been modified from Stevens et al5. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/57764/57764fig5large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Assessment of Kidney Function in Mouse Models of Glomerular Disease at JoVE.com

Assessment of Kidney Function in Mouse Models of Glomerular Disease

This protocol describes a full kidney work-up that should be carried out in mouse models of glomerular disease. The methods allow for detailed functional, structural, and mechanistic analysis of glomerular function, which can be applied to all mouse models of glomerular disease.

The use of murine models to mimic human kidney disease is becoming increasingly common. Our research is focused on the assessment of glomerular function ...

assessment-of-kidney-function-in-mouse-models-of-glomerular-disease

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17.4K Views.  University of Exeter. This protocol describes a full kidney work-up that should be carried out in mouse models of glomerular disease. The methods allow for detailed functional, structural, and mechanistic analysis of glomerular function, which can be applied to all mouse models of glomerular disease.

Video: Assessment of Kidney Function in Mouse Models of Glomerular Disease

Assessment of Cardiac Function and Energetics in Isolated Mouse Hearts Using 31P NMR Spectroscopy

Bioengineered mouse models have become powerful research tools in determining causal relationships between molecular alterations and models of cardiovascular disease. Although molecular biology is necessary in identifying key changes in the signaling pathway, it is not a surrogate for functional significance. While physiology can provide answers to the question of function, combining physiology with biochemical assessment of metabolites in the intact, beating heart allows for a complete picture of cardiac function and energetics. For years, our laboratory has utilized isolated heart perfusions combined with nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to accomplish this task. Left ventricular function is assessed by Langendorff-mode isolated heart perfusions while cardiac energetics is measured by performing 31P magnetic resonance spectroscopy of the perfused hearts. With these techniques, indices of cardiac function in combination with levels of phosphocreatine and ATP can be measured simultaneously in beating hearts. Furthermore, these parameters can be monitored while physiologic or pathologic stressors are instituted. For example, ischemia/reperfusion or high workload challenge protocols can be adopted. The use of aortic banding or other models of cardiac pathology are apt as well. Regardless of the variants within the protocol, the functional and energetic significance of molecular modifications of transgenic mouse models can be adequately described, leading to new insights into the associated enzymatic and metabolic pathways. Therefore, 31P NMR spectroscopy in the isolated perfused heart is a valuable research technique in animal models of cardiovascular disease.

Assessment of Cardiac Function and Energetics in Isolated Mouse Hearts Using 31P NMR Spectroscopy

Langendorff-mode isolated heart perfusion, in conjunction with 31P NMR spectroscopy, combines the fields of biochemistry and physiology into one experiment. The protocol allows for the dynamic measurement of high energy phosphate content and turnover in the heart while concurrently monitoring physiologic function. When performed correctly, this is a valuable technique in the assessment of cardiac energetics.

Bioengineered mouse models have become powerful research tools in determining causal relationships between molecular alterations and models of ...

A Simple Method of Mouse Lung Intubation

A simple procedure to intubate mice for pulmonary function measurements would have several advantages in longitudinal studies with limited numbers or expensive animal. One of the reasons that this is not done more routinely is that it is relatively difficult, despite there being several published studies that describe ways to achieve it. In this paper we demonstrate a procedure that eliminates one of the major hurdles associated with this intubation, that of visualizing the trachea during the entire time of intubation. The approach uses a 0.5 mm fiberoptic light source that serves as an introducer to direct the intubation cannula into the mouse trachea. We show that it is possible to use this procedure to measure lung mechanics in individual mice over a time course of at least several weeks. The technique can be set up with relatively little expense and expertise, and it can be routinely accomplished with relatively little training. This should make it possible for any laboratory to routinely carry out this intubation, thereby allowing longitudinal studies in individual mice, thereby minimizing the number of mice needed and increasing the statistical power by using each mouse as its own control.

This paper describes a striaghforward and efficient method of intubating mice for pulmonary function measurements or pulmonary instillation, that allows the mice to recover and be studied at later times. The procedure involves an inexpensive fiberoptic light source that directly illuminates the trachea.

A  simple procedure to intubate mice for pulmonary function measurements would  have several advantages in longitudinal studies with limited numbers or  ...

Assessment of Cardiac Function and Myocardial Morphology Using Small Animal Look-locker Inversion Recovery (SALLI) MRI in Rats

Small animal magnetic resonance imaging is an important tool to study cardiac function and changes in myocardial tissue. The high heart rates of small animals (200 to 600 beats/min) have previously limited the role of CMR imaging. Small animal Look-Locker inversion recovery (SALLI) is a T1 mapping sequence for small animals to overcome this problem 1. T1 maps provide quantitative information about tissue alterations and contrast agent kinetics. It is also possible to detect diffuse myocardial processes such as interstitial fibrosis or edema 1-6. Furthermore, from a single set of image data, it is possible to examine heart function and myocardial scarring by generating cine and inversion recovery-prepared late gadolinium enhancement-type MR images 1.
	The presented video shows step-by-step the procedures to perform small animal CMR imaging. Here it is presented with a healthy Sprague-Dawley rat, however naturally it can be extended to different cardiac small animal models.

Assessment of Cardiac Function and Myocardial Morphology Using Small Animal Look-locker Inversion Recovery SALLI MRI in Rats

Contrast enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance (CMR) imaging allows comprehensive in vivo assessment of the heart in small animal models of cardiovascular disease. Here we detail the procedures to perform CMR imaging, reconstruction and analysis using Small Animal Lock-Locker Inversion Recovery (SALLI) in rats.

Small animal magnetic resonance  imaging is an important tool to study cardiac function and changes in myocardial  tissue. The high heart rates of small ...

Assessment of Right Ventricular Structure and Function in Mouse Model of Pulmonary Artery Constriction by Transthoracic Echocardiography

Emerging clinical data support the notion that RV dysfunction is critical to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and heart failure1-3. Moreover, the RV is significantly affected in pulmonary diseases such as pulmonary artery hypertension (PAH). In addition, the RV is remarkably sensitive to cardiac pathologies, including left ventricular (LV) dysfunction, valvular disease or RV infarction4. To understand the role of RV in the pathogenesis of cardiac diseases, a reliable and noninvasive method to access the RV structurally and functionally is essential.
A noninvasive trans-thoracic echocardiography (TTE) based methodology was established and validated for monitoring dynamic changes in RV structure and function in adult mice. To impose RV stress, we employed a surgical model of pulmonary artery constriction (PAC) and measured the RV response over a 7-day period using a high-frequency ultrasound microimaging system. Sham operated mice were used as controls. Images were acquired in lightly anesthetized mice at baseline (before surgery), day 0 (immediately post-surgery), day 3, and day 7 (post-surgery). Data was analyzed offline using software.
Several acoustic windows (B, M, and Color Doppler modes), which can be consistently obtained in mice, allowed for reliable and reproducible measurement of RV structure (including RV wall thickness, end-diastolic&#160;and end-systolic dimensions), and function (fractional area change, fractional shortening, PA peak velocity, and peak pressure gradient) in normal mice and following PAC.
Using this method, the pressure-gradient resulting from PAC was accurately measured in real-time using Color Doppler mode and was comparable to direct pressure measurements performed with a Millar high-fidelity microtip catheter. Taken together, these data demonstrate that RV measurements obtained from various complimentary views using echocardiography are reliable, reproducible and can provide insights regarding RV structure and function. This method will enable a better understanding of the role of RV cardiac dysfunction.

Right ventricle (RV) dysfunction is critical to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease, yet limited methodologies are available for its evaluation. Recent advances in ultrasound imaging provide a noninvasive and accurate option for longitudinal RV study. Herein, we detail a step-by-step echocardiographic method using a murine model of RV pressure overload.

Emerging clinical data support the notion that RV dysfunction is critical to the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease and heart failure1-3. Moreover, ...

Assessment of Vascular Function in Patients With Chronic Kidney Disease

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared to the general population, and this is only partially explained by traditional CVD risk factors. Vascular dysfunction is an important non-traditional risk factor, characterized by vascular endothelial dysfunction (most commonly assessed as impaired endothelium-dependent dilation [EDD]) and stiffening of the large elastic arteries. While various techniques exist to assess EDD and large elastic artery stiffness, the most commonly used are brachial artery flow-mediated dilation (FMDBA) and aortic pulse-wave velocity (aPWV), respectively. Both of these noninvasive measures of vascular dysfunction are independent predictors of future cardiovascular events in patients with and without kidney disease. Patients with CKD demonstrate both impaired FMDBA, and increased aPWV. While the exact mechanisms by which vascular dysfunction develops in CKD are incompletely understood, increased oxidative stress and a subsequent reduction in nitric oxide (NO) bioavailability are important contributors. Cellular changes in oxidative stress can be assessed by collecting vascular endothelial cells from the antecubital vein and measuring protein expression of markers of oxidative stress using immunofluorescence. We provide here a discussion of these methods to measure FMDBA, aPWV, and vascular endothelial cell protein expression.

The degree of vascular dysfunction and contributing physiological mechanisms can be assessed in patients with chronic kidney disease by measuring brachial artery flow-mediated dilation, aortic pulse-wave velocity, and vascular endothelial cell protein expression.

Patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) have significantly increased risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) compared to the general population, and this ...

Mouse Kidney Transplantation: Models of Allograft Rejection

Rejection of the transplanted kidney in humans is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality. The mouse model of renal transplantation closely replicates both the technical and pathological processes that occur in human renal transplantation. Although mouse models of allogeneic rejection in organs other than the kidney exist, and are more technically feasible, there is evidence that different organs elicit disparate rejection modes and dynamics, for instance the time course of rejection in cardiac and renal allograft differs significantly in certain strain combinations. This model is an attractive tool for many reasons despite its technical challenges. As inbred mouse strain haplotypes are well characterized it is possible to choose donor and recipient combinations to model acute allograft rejection by transplanting across MHC class I and II loci. Conversely by transplanting between strains with similar haplotypes a chronic process can be elicited were the allograft kidney develops interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy. We have modified the surgical technique to reduce operating time and improve ease of surgery, however a learning curve still needs to be overcome in order to faithfully replicate the model. This study will provide key points in the surgical procedure and aid the process of establishing this technique.

Here, we present a protocol to study the immunology of rejection. The surgical model presented reports a short operating time and a concise technique. Depending on the donor-recipient strain combination, the transplanted kidney may develop acute cellular rejection or chronic allograft damage, defined by interstitial fibrosis and tubular atrophy.

Rejection of the transplanted kidney in humans is still a major cause of morbidity and mortality. The mouse model of renal transplantation closely ...

Use of Ultra-high Field MRI in Small Rodent Models of Polycystic Kidney Disease for In Vivo Phenotyping and Drug Monitoring

Several in vivo pre-clinical studies in Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) utilize orthologous rodent models to identify and study the genetic and molecular mechanisms responsible for the disease, and are very convenient for rapid drug screening and testing of promising therapies. A limiting factor in these studies is often the lack of efficient non-invasive methods for sequentially analyzing the anatomical and functional changes in the kidney. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is the current gold standard imaging technique to follow autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease (ADPKD) patients, providing excellent soft tissue contrast and anatomic detail and allowing Total Kidney Volume (TKV) measurements.A major advantage of MRI in rodent models of PKD is the possibility for in vivo imaging allowing for longitudinal studies that use the same animal and therefore reducing the total number of animals required. In this manuscript, we will focus on using Ultra-high field (UHF) MRI to non-invasively acquire in vivo images of rodent models for PKD. The main goal of this work is to introduce the use of MRI as a tool for in vivo phenotypical characterization and drug monitoring in rodent models for PKD.

Use of Ultra-high Field MRI in Small Rodent Models of Polycystic Kidney Disease for In Vivo Phenotyping and Drug Monitoring

The use of ultra-high field MRI as a non-invasive way to obtain phenotypic information of rodent models for polycystic kidney disease and to monitor interventions is described. Compared with the traditional histological approach, MRI images can be acquired in vivo, allowing for longitudinal follow-up.

Several in vivo pre-clinical studies in Polycystic Kidney Disease (PKD) utilize orthologous rodent models to identify and study the genetic and molecular ...

Transcutaneous Assessment of Renal Function in Conscious Rodents

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the gold standard to assess overall kidney function. However, traditional methods to evaluate GFR are cumbersome and time-consuming. In addition, serial blood or urine samples are required, with the associated stress for the experimental animals. A recent technique significantly reduces the investment in time and resources, minimizing the invasiveness and the animal stress, but being equally valid as the traditional approaches. The method measures transcutaneously renal function. Using an optical device and the exogenous renal marker fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-sinistrin, this technique is capable of measuring the elimination kinetics of the marker through the skin. With neither blood nor urine samples nor the associated laboratory assays needed, the results of the transcutaneous measurement are almost instantaneously available. The method has been already validated in different species and successfully applied in several models of renal pathology. Moreover, due to its minimally invasive characteristics, it is suitable for sequential measurements within the same animal. Here is provided a detailed protocol to carry out the transcutaneous assessment of renal function in rodents.

Determination of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the gold standard to assess overall kidney function. However, traditional procedures to measure this parameter are cumbersome and require a large investment of time. Here we describe a faster and minimally invasive method to determinate GFR transcutaneously.

Glomerular filtration rate (GFR) is the gold standard to assess overall kidney function. However, traditional methods to evaluate GFR are cumbersome and ...

Repeated Measurement of Respiratory Muscle Activity and Ventilation in Mouse Models of Neuromuscular Disease

Accessory respiratory muscles help to maintain ventilation when diaphragm function is impaired. The following protocol describes a method for repeated measurements over weeks or months of accessory respiratory muscle activity while simultaneously measuring ventilation in a non-anesthetized, freely behaving mouse. The technique includes the surgical implantation of a radio transmitter and the insertion of electrode leads into the scalene and trapezius muscles to measure the electromyogram activity of these inspiratory muscles. Ventilation is measured by whole-body plethysmography, and animal movement is assessed by video and is synchronized with electromyogram activity. Measurements of muscle activity and ventilation in a mouse model of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis are presented to show how this tool can be used to investigate how respiratory muscle activity changes over time and to assess the impact of muscle activity on ventilation. The described methods can easily be adapted to measure the activity of other muscles or to assess accessory respiratory muscle activity in additional mouse models of disease or injury.

This paper introduces a method for repeated measurements of ventilation and respiratory muscle activity in a freely behaving amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) mouse model throughout disease progression with whole-body plethysmography and electromyography via an implanted telemetry device.

Accessory respiratory muscles help to maintain ventilation when diaphragm function is impaired. The following protocol describes a method for repeated ...

Non-invasive Assessment of Dorsiflexor Muscle Function in Mice

Assessment of skeletal muscle contractile function is an important measurement for both clinical and research purposes. Numerous conditions can negatively affect skeletal muscle. This can result in a loss of muscle mass (atrophy) and/or loss of muscle quality (reduced force per unit of muscle mass), both of which are prevalent in chronic disease, muscle-specific disease, immobilization, and aging (sarcopenia). Skeletal muscle function in animals can be evaluated by a range of different tests. All tests have limitations related to the physiological testing environment, and the selection of a specific test often depends on the nature of the experiments. Here, we describe an in vivo, non-invasive technique involving a helpful and easy assessment of force frequency-curve (FFC) in mice that can be performed on the same animal over time. This permits monitoring of disease progression and/or efficacy&#160;of a potential therapeutic treatment.

Measurement of rodent skeletal muscle contractile function is a useful tool that can be used to track disease progression as well as efficacy of therapeutic intervention. We describe here the non-invasive, in vivo assessment of the dorsiflexor muscles that can be repeated over time in the same mouse.

Assessment of skeletal muscle contractile function is an important measurement for both clinical and research purposes. Numerous conditions can negatively ...