The authors wish to thank Gergely &#193;ngy&#225;n for the original artwork. This research work was funded by Semmelweis University, Budapest, Hungary. This study was also supported by the Hungarian Human Resources Development Operational Program (EFOP-3.6.2-16-2017-00006). Additional support was received from the Thematic Excellence Programme (2020-4.1.1.-TKP2020) of the Ministry for Innovation and Technology in Hungary, within the framework of the Therapy thematic program of Semmelweis University.

All animal procedures were carried out according to the EU Directive (2010/63/EU) and were approved by the animal ethics committee of the Hungarian National Food Chain Safety Office (PEI/001/2894-11/2014). All applicable institutional and governmental regulations concerning the ethical use of animals were followed during this study.
1. Preparation before surgery
<ol>
	<li>Sterilize all instruments used during the procedure (see the Table of Materials) and disinfect the surfaces where the work is to be performed prior to the procedure.</li>
	<li>Inject a single dose of subcutaneous antibiotics prophylactically. 
	NOTE: See the&#160;Table of Materials&#160;for antibiotic dosage details.</li>
	<li>Leave the animals in the operating room for 1 h to acclimate them and decrease their stress prior to surgery.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the rat via an intramuscular injection of a combination of ketamine and xylazine (ketamine 80 mg/kg body weight (bw) and xylazine 8 mg/kg bw). 
	NOTE: In addition to anesthesia, the ketamine-xylazine combination&#160;provides&#160;sufficient&#160;analgesia for this procedure. The analgesia regimen&#160;can be modified per the institutional animal use guidelines.</li>
	<li>Keep the rat warm during the procedure using a heated table or infrared light and keep the eyes moist throughout the anesthesia using ophthalmic ointment&#160;(reapply as necessary).</li>
	<li>Fixate the animal on the operating table using surgical tape on its front and back paws and tail, and depending on the site of injury, on the neck as well. If necessary, place the rat in a stereotaxic frame to stabilize it during surgery.</li>
	<li>Using sterile surgical suture, place a loop around the upper front teeth of the rat and fixate this on the edge of the operating table.</li>
	<li>Pull out the tongue sideways for airway management.</li>
	<li>Shave the fur on the back, at least 2 cm in each direction of where the incision will be made.</li>
	<li>Disinfect the skin of the surgical area at least three times, using a povidone-iodine solution and sterile gauze. Take special care to soak the fur surrounding the area. Secure&#160;the surgical site with a sterile drape.&#160;</li>
	<li>Assess the adequacy of the anesthesia before placing the first incision by pinching the toes and the tail of the animal. Continue monitoring the adequacy of anesthesia during the entire procedure.</li>
</ol>
2. Surgery
<ol>
	<li>Place the skin incision using a scalpel blade 20. To open the surgical area, place a 2-2.5 cm long incision along the spine, cutting through all the layers of the skin. Position this incision parallel to the spinal column using the L1 vertebra as a midpoint, making it extend ~1 cm in both the cranial and caudal direction along the spinal column.</li>
	<li>Mobilize the sides of the wound by cutting through the connective tissue surrounding the muscles.</li>
	<li>Place two parallel incisions along the spine, penetrating the periosteum. Place the incisions right next to the spinal processes on both sides, spanning the distance between the Th13 and L1 vertebrae.</li>
	<li>Dissect the muscles attached to the vertebrae with the aid of a raspatorium until all the spinal ligaments are visible. Put in place a retractor.</li>
	<li>Remove the spinal processes of the 13th thoracic vertebra and the 1st lumbar vertebra using dental bone forceps to visualize the entire surgical area. Hereon, control the procedure by viewing an enlarged (4x-16x magnification) microscopic image.</li>
	<li>Use sterile gauze to control bleeding throughout the procedure, when necessary.</li>
	<li>Carefully lift the remainder of the L1 spinal processes, elevating the L1 vertebral arch. Sever the ligamentum flavum to access the spinal cord. Raise the caudal spinal processes further, allowing access to the spinal dura mater, which is also severed. Tip the caudal spinal processes in the cranial direction to visualize the pia mater.</li>
	<li>Look through the pia mater for the posterior median vein, showcasing the midline of the spine.</li>
	<li>Using the vein as a directional bisector, place an incision using a microsurgical scalpel while sparing the vein. Place the incision under the vein, in the transversal plane through the anteroposterior diameter of the spinal cord. Sever half of the spinal cord by moving the blade laterally away from the centerline. 
	NOTE: The incision is unilateral, on the right side, at the 4th lumbar segment.</li>
	<li>Try to place the incision to avoid cutting the anterior spinal artery. Ensure excess pressure is not applied on the vertebral body when cutting the spinal cord to spare the anterior spinal artery on the ventral side of the spinal cord.</li>
</ol>
<img alt="Figure 1" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63534/63534fig01.jpg" /> 
Figure 1: Artwork showing the steps of the new open SCI technique in rats. (A) The exposed vertebrae. (B) Spinal processes removed (Th13 and L1). (C) The lifted and tilted vertebral arch of the L1 vertebra. (D) Hemisection performed on the right side, with hemisected spinal cord shown separately, zoomed in. <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/63534/63534fig01large.jpg" target="_blank">Please click here to view a larger version of this figure.</a>
<ol start="11">
	<li>Do not close the dura mater directly during wound closure. Tightly suture (suture size 4-0) the muscles along the spinal processes, indirectly closing the small wound on the dura mater.</li>
	<li>Close the dorsal connective tissue layer with sutures.</li>
	<li>Finally, suture the skin around the incision site.</li>
</ol>
3. Postsurgical care and follow-up
<ol>
	<li>Allow the animals to awaken in their cages. Keep the animal(s) warm using a heat lamp in addition to the temperature-controlled room. Do not leave the rats alone after they awaken after surgery, and do not put them together with other rats in the same cage.</li>
	<li>Monitor their respiratory rate at least every 10 min until they are fully awake. If necessary, apply gentle stimulation (e.g., rub the head) to aid their awakening from anesthesia.</li>
	<li>When the animals are alert and appropriately active, transport them safely back to the animal house.</li>
	<li>Keep the rats under close surveillance for the first 24 h post surgery. Following the first 24 h post surgery, check the animals at least twice a day until the end of the experiment, monitoring for signs of distress.</li>
	<li>Thoroughly assess them once a day for signs of distress using the relevant institutional animal welfare protocol and take special care to check their wounds for signs of infection and inflammation. 
	NOTE: Stress and infection affect the welfare of the animals and the outcome of experiments.</li>
	<li>Administer antibiotics subcutaneously&#160;every day until the end of the experiments. Keep the animals in sterile cages, one animal per cage, and give food and water ad libitum, same as before. At the end of the experiments (or if any serious adverse reaction is observed during the timeframe of the experiment), euthanize the animals humanely, in accordance with the relevant institutional animal welfare protocol. 
	NOTE: Here, the animals were euthanized (in a deep sleep induced by the combination of ketamine-xylazine) by first administering a physiological saline perfusion (1/3 mL/g bw) followed by a 4% paraformaldehyde perfusion (1 mL/g bw).</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Failli, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+neurological+recovery+after+spinal+cord+injury+is+impaired+in+patients+with+infections.">Functional neurological recovery after spinal cord injury is impaired in patients with infections.</a> Brain. 135, 3238-3250 (2012).</li><li>Guan, B., Chen, R., Zhong, M., Liu, N., Chen, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protective+effect+of+Oxymatrine+against+acute+spinal+cord+injury+in+rats+via+modulating+oxidative+stress,+inflammation+and+apoptosis.">Protective effect of Oxymatrine against acute spinal cord injury in rats via modulating oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis.</a> Metabolic Brain Disease. 35 (1), 149-157 (2020).</li><li>Kjell, J., Olson, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rat+models+of+spinal+cord+injury:+from+pathology+to+potential+therapies.">Rat models of spinal cord injury: from pathology to potential therapies.</a> Disease Models &amp; Mechanisms. 9 (10), 1125-1137 (2016).</li><li>Minakov, A. N., Chernov, A. S., Asutin, D. S., Konovalov, N. A., Telegin, G. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+models+of+spinal+cord+injury+in+laboratory+rats.">Experimental models of spinal cord injury in laboratory rats.</a> Acta Naturae. 10 (3), 4-10 (2018).</li><li>Borb&#233;ly, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effect+of+rat+spinal+cord+injury+(hemisection)+on+the+ex+vivo+uptake+and+release+of+[3H]noradrenaline+from+a+slice+preparation.">Effect of rat spinal cord injury (hemisection) on the ex vivo uptake and release of [3H]noradrenaline from a slice preparation.</a> Brain Research Bulletin. 131, 150-155 (2017).</li><li>Brown, A. R., Martinez, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thoracic+spinal+cord+hemisection+surgery+and+open-field+locomotor+assessment+in+the+rat.">Thoracic spinal cord hemisection surgery and open-field locomotor assessment in the rat.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE. (148), e59738 (2019).</li><li>Taoka, Y., Okajima, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spinal+cord+injury+in+the+rat.">Spinal cord injury in the rat.</a> Progress in Neurobiology. 56 (3), 341-358 (1998).</li><li>Hou, S., Saltos, T. M., Iredia, I. W., Tom, V. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Surgical+techniques+influence+local+environment+of+injured+spinal+cord+and+cause+various+grafted+cell+survival+and+integration.">Surgical techniques influence local environment of injured spinal cord and cause various grafted cell survival and integration.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 293, 144-150 (2018).</li><li>Mattucci, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Development+of+a+traumatic+cervical+dislocation+spinal+cord+injury+model+with+residual+compression+in+the+rat.">Development of a traumatic cervical dislocation spinal cord injury model with residual compression in the rat.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 322, 58-70 (2019).</li><li>Ahmed, R. U., Alam, M., Zheng, Y. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+spinal+cord+injury+and+behavioral+tests+in+laboratory+rats.">Experimental spinal cord injury and behavioral tests in laboratory rats.</a> Heliyon. 5 (3), 01324 (2019).</li><li>Ashammakhi, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Regenerative+therapies+for+spinal+cord+injury.">Regenerative therapies for spinal cord injury.</a> Tissue Engineering. Part B, Reviews. 25 (6), 471-491 (2019).</li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

This minimally invasive spinal cord injury technique was developed when studying spinal cord-injured rats, and the team was faced with problems arising from the surgery itself (bone splinters from the laminectomy causing compression and damaging the spinal cord, surgery taking too long, slow healing of a large bone wound). By eliminating the laminectomy, the procedure became much faster (11 min vs. 35 min), the structure of the vertebral canal remained intact, the bone wound was much smaller, and there were no bone splin...

Spinal cord injuries (SCIs) are unfortunately prevalent injuries in humans. SCIs can be complicated in different ways, for example, by infections, and it is clinically important to study these injuries1. Because there is no single, definite cure for SCIs, animal models are still needed to further the understanding of researchers and advance possible treatments2,3. Although closed injuries are most commonly modeled (compression and contusion), it is clinically important to understand lacerations, which can only be modeled in open injuries4. Open-wound models using transection or hemisection can be used to demonstrate a more precise localization of a wound compared to closed injury models, owing to the nature of the injury (contusion vs. surgical cut). Open-wound experiments can shed light on more specific neuronal injuries in a controlled, reliable, and replicable way5. The complete or partial transection of the spinal cord is a widely used open-wound technique and can be viewed in detail in the article by Brown and Martinez6.
When studying open spinal cord injury in rats, several animals presented problems that arose from the surgery: bone splinters from the laminectomy became embedded in the spinal cord and caused swelling; the larger bone wound needed a long time to heal; the surgery took too long. An alternate surgical technique was developed to eliminate these problems. The goal was to develop a faster technique that is gentler for the animal. This newly developed technique is much faster than traditional SCI techniques. The surgical approach is minimally invasive, resulting in a smaller bone wound while eliminating problems arising from the laminectomy.
All open-wound techniques involve opening the dura7. Several recent studies have examined different, newly developed techniques, aiming to improve the previous methods8,9. Even though the opening of the dura cannot be excluded using this new technique, it causes a smaller wound on the dura while offering a reliable, controlled injury of the spinal cord. Consulting the literature on spinal cord injury techniques, many authors tried to minimize the time of surgery by implementing minor changes to the original technique10. Laminectomy is always part of these surgical procedures, although it is time-consuming and requires a larger bone wound to be made6. This surgical technique can be appropriate for researchers using open wound spinal cord injury models, specifically complete transection or lateral hemisection performed in the intervertebral spaces (Figure 1).

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Augmentin (1,000 mg/200 mg powder)</td>
			<td>GlaxoSmithKline, UK</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>One-time dose of s.c. antibiotics prophylactically (10 mg of amoxicillin and 2 mg clavulanic acid; Augmentin 1,000 mg/200 mg powder). Every day following surgery, 10 mg of amoxicillin and 2 mg of clavulanic acid (Augmentin 1,000 mg/200 mg powder) per day per animal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Betadine</td>
			<td>EGIS, Hungary</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Disinfect the skin of the surgical area using a povidone-iodine solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Calypsol (50 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Richter Gedeon, Hungary</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Anesthesia: combination of ketamine 80 mg/kg and xylazine 8 mg/kg intramuscularly</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CP XYLAZIN 2% (20 mg/mL)</td>
			<td>Produlab Pharma B.V., the Netherlands</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Anesthesia: combination of ketamine 80 mg/kg and xylazine 8 mg/kg intramuscularly</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dental bone forceps</td>
			<td>Dentech, Hungary</td>
			<td>BS 0127</td>
			<td>Remove the spinous processes of the 13th thoracic vertebra and the 1st lumbar vertebra using dental bone forceps</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>dental surgical micromotor</td>
			<td>W&#38;H, Austria</td>
			<td>MF-TECTORQUE</td>
			<td>Using a dental surgical micromotor, a laminectomy is performed at the L1 vertebra</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>optical microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss, Germany</td>
			<td>OPMI19-FC</td>
			<td>Control the procedure by viewing an enlarged (16x magnification) microscopic image</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>physiological saline solution (0.9% NaCl)</td>
			<td>Fresenius Kabi, Germany</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Keep the rat&#39;s eyes moist throughout the entire anesthesia using physiological saline solution drops (reapply as necessary)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>raspatorium</td>
			<td>Dentech, Hungary</td>
			<td>FK 1164</td>
			<td>Dissect the muscles attached to the vertebrae with the aid of a raspatorium, until all the spinal ligaments are visible.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>retractor</td>
			<td>Dentech, Hungary</td>
			<td>RT 1253</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>scalpel</td>
			<td>Dentech, Hungary</td>
			<td>BB 173</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>scalpel</td>
			<td>Dentech, Hungary</td>
			<td>BB 184</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>scalpel blade 12</td>
			<td>B. Braun, Germany</td>
			<td>12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>scalpel blade 20</td>
			<td>B. Braun, Germany</td>
			<td>20</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sterile cut gauze 10 x 10 cm</td>
			<td>Sterilux, Hartmann, Germany</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>sutures (monofilament, synthetic; absorbable and nonabsorbable), size: 4-0</td>
			<td>B. Braun, Germany</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tweezer (13 cm)</td>
			<td>Dentech, Hungary</td>
			<td>BD 1555</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tweezer (delicate tissue forceps)</td>
			<td>Dentech, Hungary</td>
			<td>BD 1670</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a minimally invasive, fast spinal cord lateral hemisection technique for modeling open spinal cord injuries in rats

Open spinal cord injury techniques modeling laceration-like injuries are time-consuming and invasive because they involve laminectomy. This new technique eliminates laminectomy by removing two spinous processes and lifting, then tilting the caudal vertebral arch. The surgical area opens up without the need for laminectomy. Lateral hemisection is then performed with direct visible control under a microscope. The trauma is minimized, requiring only a small bone wound. 
This technique has several advantages: it is faster and, therefore, less of a burden for the animal, and the bone wound is smaller. Because the laminectomy is eliminated, there is less chance for unwanted injury to the spinal cord, and there are no bone splinters that can cause problems (bone splinters embedded in the spinal cord can cause swelling and secondary damage). The vertebral canal remains intact. The main limitation is that the hemisection can only be performed in the intervertebral spaces. 
The results show that this technique can be performed much faster than the traditional surgical approach, using laminectomy (11 min vs. 35 min). This technique can be useful for researchers working with animal models of open spinal cord injury as it is widely adaptable and does not require any additional specialized instrumentation.

Following the hemisection, the rats show paralysis in the ipsilateral hindlimb (in vivo proof of successful hemisection). Thorough specimen evaluation can only be done following the removal of the spinal cord (see Figure 2, where the removed spinal cord can be seen from both the ventral and dorsal sides).
<img alt="Figure 2" class="xfigimg" src="/files/ftp_upload/63534/63534fig02.jpg" /> 
Figure 2...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Minimally Invasive, Fast Spinal Cord Lateral Hemisection Technique for Modeling Open Spinal Cord Injuries in Rats at JoVE.com

A Minimally Invasive, Fast Spinal Cord Lateral Hemisection Technique for Modeling Open Spinal Cord Injuries in Rats

Here, we describe a new, fast technique modeling open spinal cord injury in rats that eliminates laminectomy. Lateral hemisection is performed while viewing through a microscope. The technique is versatile and can also be used in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the spinal cord of other animals.

Open spinal cord injury techniques modeling laceration-like injuries are time-consuming and invasive because they involve laminectomy. This new technique ...

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2.0K Views.  Semmelweis University. Here, we describe a new, fast technique modeling open spinal cord injury in rats that eliminates laminectomy. Lateral hemisection is performed while viewing through a microscope. The technique is versatile and can also be used in the cervical, thoracic, and lumbar regions of the spinal cord of other animals.

Video: A Minimally Invasive, Fast Spinal Cord Lateral Hemisection Technique for Modeling Open Spinal Cord Injuries in Rats

Spinal Cord Electrophysiology II: Extracellular Suction Electrode Fabrication

Development of neural circuitries and locomotion can be studied using neonatal rodent spinal cord central pattern generator (CPG) behavior. We demonstrate a method to fabricate suction electrodes that are used to examine CPG activity, or fictive locomotion, in dissected rodent spinal cords. The rodent spinal cords are placed in artificial cerebrospinal fluid and the ventral roots are drawn into the suction electrode. The electrode is constructed by modifying a commercially available suction electrode. A heavier silver wire is used instead of the standard wire given by the commercially available electrode. The glass tip on the commercial electrode is replaced with a plastic tip for increased durability. We prepare hand drawn electrodes and electrodes made from specific sizes of tubing, allowing consistency and reproducibility. Data is collected using an amplifier and neurogram acquisition software. Recordings are performed on an air table within a Faraday cage to prevent mechanical and electrical interference, respectively.

A demonstration of the fabrication and use of an extracellular suction electrode used to measure electrophysiological recordings of neonatal rodent spinal cords in vitro

Development of neural circuitries and locomotion can be studied using neonatal rodent spinal cord central pattern generator (CPG) behavior. We demonstrate ...

Lateral Fluid Percussion: Model of Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) research has attained renewed momentum due to the increasing awareness of head injuries, which result in morbidity and mortality. Based on the nature of primary injury following TBI, complex and heterogeneous secondary consequences result, which are followed by regenerative processes 1,2. Primary injury can be induced by a direct contusion to the brain from skull fracture or from shearing and stretching of tissue causing displacement of brain due to movement 3,4. The resulting hematomas and lacerations cause a vascular response 3,5, and the morphological and functional damage of the white matter leads to diffuse axonal injury 6-8. Additional secondary changes commonly seen in the brain are edema and increased intracranial pressure 9. Following TBI there are microscopic alterations in biochemical and physiological pathways involving the release of excitotoxic neurotransmitters, immune mediators and oxygen radicals 10-12, which ultimately result in long-term neurological disabilities 13,14. Thus choosing appropriate animal models of TBI that present similar cellular and molecular events in human and rodent TBI is critical for studying the mechanisms underlying injury and repair.
Various experimental models of TBI have been developed to reproduce aspects of TBI observed in humans, among them three specific models are widely adapted for rodents: fluid percussion, cortical impact and weight drop/impact acceleration 1. The fluid percussion device produces an injury through a craniectomy by applying a brief fluid pressure pulse on to the intact dura. The pulse is created by a pendulum striking the piston of a reservoir of fluid. The percussion produces brief displacement and deformation of neural tissue 1,15. Conversely, cortical impact injury delivers mechanical energy to the intact dura via a rigid impactor under pneumatic pressure 16,17. The weight drop/impact model is characterized by the fall of a rod with a specific mass on the closed skull 18. Among the TBI models, LFP is the most established and commonly used model to evaluate mixed focal and diffuse brain injury 19. It is reproducible and is standardized to allow for the manipulation of injury parameters. LFP recapitulates injuries observed in humans, thus rendering it clinically relevant, and allows for exploration of novel therapeutics for clinical translation 20.
We describe the detailed protocol to perform LFP procedure in mice. The injury inflicted is mild to moderate, with brain regions such as cortex, hippocampus and corpus callosum being most vulnerable. Hippocampal and motor learning tasks are explored following LFP.

Lateral fluid percussion (LFP), an established model of traumatic brain injury in mice, is demonstrated. LFP fulfills three major criteria for animal models: validity, reliability and clinical relevance. The procedure, consisting of surgical craniotomy, fixation of hub followed by induction of injury, resulting in focal and diffuse injuries, is described.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) research has attained renewed momentum due to the increasing awareness of head injuries, which result in morbidity and ...

Spinal Cord Transection in the Larval Zebrafish

Mammals fail in sensory and motor recovery following spinal cord injury due to lack of axonal regrowth below the level of injury as well as an inability to reinitiate spinal neurogenesis. However, some anamniotes including the zebrafish Danio rerio exhibit both sensory and functional recovery even after complete transection of the spinal cord. The adult zebrafish is an established model organism for studying regeneration following spinal cord injury, with sensory and motor recovery by 6&#160;weeks post-injury. To take advantage of in vivo analysis of the regenerative process available in the transparent larval zebrafish as well as genetic tools not accessible in the adult, we use the larval zebrafish to study regeneration after spinal cord transection. Here we demonstrate a method for reproducibly and verifiably transecting the larval spinal cord. After transection, our data shows sensory recovery beginning at 2&#160;days post-injury (dpi), with the C-bend movement detectable by 3 dpi and resumption of free swimming by 5 dpi. Thus we propose the larval zebrafish as a companion tool to the adult zebrafish for the study of recovery after spinal cord injury.

After spinal transection, adult zebrafish have functional recovery by six weeks post-injury. To take advantage of larval transparency and faster recovery, we present a method for transecting the larval spinal cord. After transection, we observe sensory recovery beginning at 2&#160;days post-injury, and C-bend movement by 3 days post-injury.

Mammals fail in sensory and motor recovery following spinal cord injury due to lack of axonal regrowth below the level of injury as well as an inability ...

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal degeneration. Lack of growth cone formation, regeneration, and loss of additional myelinated axonal projections within the spinal cord greatly limits neurological recovery following injury. To assess how central myelinated axons of the spinal cord respond to injury, we developed an ex vivo living spinal cord model utilizing transgenic mice that express yellow fluorescent protein in axons and a focal and highly reproducible laser-induced spinal cord injury to document the fate of axons and myelin (lipophilic fluorescent dye Nile Red) over time using two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy. Dynamic processes such as acute axonal injury, axonal retraction, and myelin degeneration are best studied in real-time. However, the non-focal nature of contusion-based injuries and movement artifacts encountered during in vivo spinal cord imaging make differentiating primary and secondary axonal injury responses using high resolution microscopy challenging. The ex vivo spinal cord model described here mimics several aspects of clinically relevant contusion/compression-induced axonal pathologies including axonal swelling, spheroid formation, axonal transection, and peri-axonal swelling providing a useful model to study these dynamic processes in real-time. Major advantages of this model are excellent spatiotemporal resolution that allows differentiation between the primary insult that directly injures axons and secondary injury mechanisms; controlled infusion of reagents directly to the perfusate bathing the cord; precise alterations of the environmental milieu (e.g., calcium, sodium ions, known contributors to axonal injury, but near impossible to manipulate in vivo); and murine models also offer an advantage as they provide an opportunity to visualize and manipulate genetically identified cell populations and subcellular structures. Here, we describe how to isolate and image the living spinal cord from mice to capture dynamics of acute axonal injury.

An Ex Vivo Laser-induced Spinal Cord Injury Model to Assess Mechanisms of Axonal Degeneration in Real-time

We present a protocol utilizing two-photon excitation time-lapse microscopy to simultaneously visualize the dynamics of axon and myelin injuries in real time. This proposed protocol permits studies of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors which can influence central myelinated axon fate after injury and contribute to permanent clinical disability.

Injured CNS axons fail to regenerate and often retract away from the injury site. Axons spared from the initial injury may later undergo secondary axonal ...

A Procedure for Implanting a Spinal Chamber for Longitudinal In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord

Studies in the mammalian neocortex have enabled unprecedented resolution of cortical structure, activity, and response to neurodegenerative insults by repeated, time-lapse in vivo imaging in live rodents. These studies were made possible by straightforward surgical procedures, which enabled optical access for a prolonged period of time without repeat surgical procedures. In contrast, analogous studies of the spinal cord have been previously limited to only a few imaging sessions, each of which required an invasive surgery. As previously described, we have developed a spinal chamber that enables continuous optical access for upwards of 8 weeks, preserves mechanical stability of the spinal column, is easily stabilized externally during imaging, and requires only a single surgery. Here, the design of the spinal chamber with its associated surgical implements is reviewed and the surgical procedure is demonstrated in detail. Briefly, this video will demonstrate the preparation of the surgical area and mouse for surgery, exposure of the spinal vertebra and appropriate tissue debridement, the delivery of the implant and vertebral clamping, the completion of the chamber, the removal of the delivery system, sealing of the skin, and finally, post-operative care. The procedure for chronic in vivo imaging using nonlinear microscopy will also be demonstrated. Finally, outcomes, limitations, typical variability, and a guide for troubleshooting are discussed.

A Procedure for Implanting a Spinal Chamber for Longitudinal In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Spinal Cord

In this video, we describe a procedure for implanting a chronic optical imaging chamber over the dorsal spinal cord of a live mouse. The chamber, surgical procedure, and chronic imaging are reviewed and demonstrated.

Studies in the mammalian neocortex have enabled unprecedented resolution of cortical structure, activity, and response to neurodegenerative insults by ...

Imaging Neural Activity in the Primary Somatosensory Cortex Using Thy1-GCaMP6s Transgenic Mice

The mammalian brain exhibits marked symmetry across the sagittal plane. However, detailed description of neural dynamics in symmetric brain regions in adult mammalian animals remains elusive. In this study, we describe an experimental procedure for measuring calcium dynamics through dual optical windows above bilateral primary somatosensory corticies (S1) in Thy1-GCaMP6s transgenic mice using 2-photon (2P) microscopy. This method enables recordings and quantifications of neural activity in bilateral mouse brain regions one at a time in the same experiment for a prolonged period in vivo. Key aspects of this method, which can be completed within an hour, include minimally invasive surgery procedures for creating dual optical windows, and the use of 2P imaging. Although we only demonstrate the technique in the S1 area, the method can be applied to other regions of the living brain facilitating the elucidation of structural and functional complexities of brain neural networks.

Imaging Neural Activity in the Primary Somatosensory Cortex Using Thy1-GCaMP6s Transgenic Mice

We describe an experimental procedure for measuring neuronal activity through dual optical windows above bilateral primary somatosensory corticies (S1) in Thy1-GCaMP6s transgenic mice using 2-photon (2P) microscopy in vivo.

The mammalian brain exhibits marked symmetry across the sagittal plane. However, detailed description of neural dynamics in symmetric brain regions in ...

Laminectomy and Spinal Cord Window Implantation in the Mouse

This protocol describes a method for spinal cord laminectomy and glass window implantation for in vivo imaging of the mouse spinal cord. An integrated digital vaporizer is utilized to achieve a stable plane of anesthesia at a low-flow rate of isoflurane. A single vertebral spine is removed, and a commercially available cover-glass is overlaid on a thin agarose bed. A 3D-printed plastic backplate is then affixed to the adjacent vertebral spines using tissue adhesive and dental cement. A stabilization platform is used to reduce motion artifact from respiration and heartbeat. This rapid and clamp-free method is well-suited for acute multi-photon fluorescence microscopy. Representative data are included for an application of this technique to two-photon microscopy of the spinal cord vasculature in transgenic mice expressing eGFP:Claudin-5 &#8212; a tight junction protein.

This protocol describes implantation of a glass window onto the spinal cord of a mouse to facilitate visualization by intravital microscopy.

This protocol describes a method for spinal cord laminectomy and glass window implantation for in vivo imaging of the mouse spinal cord. An integrated ...

Activity-based Training on a Treadmill with Spinal Cord Injured Wistar Rats

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in lasting deficits that include both mobility and a multitude of autonomic-related dysfunctions. Locomotor training (LT) on a treadmill is widely used as a rehabilitation tool in the SCI population with many benefits and improvements to daily life. We utilize this method of activity-based task-specific training (ABT) in rodents after SCI to both elucidate the mechanisms behind such improvements and to enhance and improve upon existing clinical rehabilitation protocols. Our current goal is to determine the mechanisms underlying ABT-induced improvements in urinary, bowel, and sexual function in SCI rats after a moderate to severe level of contusion. After securing each individual animal in a custom-made adjustable vest, they are secured to a versatile body weight support mechanism, lowered to a modified three-lane treadmill and assisted in step-training for 58 minutes, once a day for 10 weeks. This setup allows for the training of both quadrupedal and forelimb-only animals, alongside two different non-trained groups. Quadrupedal-trained animals with body weight support are aided by a technician present to assist in stepping with proper hind limb placement as necessary, while forelimb-only trained animals are raised at the caudal end to ensure no hind limb contact with the treadmill and no weight-bearing. One non-trained SCI group of animals is placed in a harness and rests next to the treadmill, while the other control SCI group remains in its home cage in the training room nearby. This paradigm allows for the training of multiple SCI animals at once, thus making it more time-efficient in addition to ensuring that our pre-clinical animal model mimics the clinical representation as close as possible, particularly with respect to the body weight support with manual assistance.

This protocol demonstrates our model of activity-based locomotor treadmill training for rats with spinal cord injury (SCI). Included is both quadrupedal and forelimb-only groups, in addition to two distinct types of non-trained control groups. Investigators are able to assess training effects on SCI rats using this protocol.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) results in lasting deficits that include both mobility and a multitude of autonomic-related dysfunctions. Locomotor training (LT) ...

Thoracic Spinal Cord Hemisection Surgery and Open-Field Locomotor Assessment in the Rat

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes disturbances in motor, sensory, and autonomic function below the level of the lesion. Experimental animal models are valuable tools to understand the neural mechanisms involved in locomotor recovery after SCI and to design therapies for clinical populations. There are several experimental SCI models including contusion, compression, and transection injuries that are used in a wide variety of species. A hemisection involves the unilateral transection of the spinal cord and disrupts all ascending and descending tracts on one side only. Spinal hemisection produces a highly selective and reproducible injury in comparison to contusion or compression techniques that is useful for investigating neural plasticity in spared and damaged pathways associated with functional recovery. We present a detailed step-by-step protocol for performing a thoracic hemisection at the T8 vertebral level in the rat that results in an initial paralysis of the hindlimb on the side of the lesion with graded spontaneous recovery of locomotor function over several weeks. We also provide a locomotor scoring protocol to assess functional recovery in the open-field. The locomotor assessment provides a linear recovery profile and can be performed both early and repeatedly after injury in order to accurately screen animals for appropriate time points in which to conduct more specialized behavioral testing. The hemisection technique presented can be readily adapted to other transection models and species, and the locomotor assessment can be used in a variety of SCI and other injury models to score locomotor function.

The rat thoracic spinal hemisection is a valuable and reproducible model of unilateral spinal cord injury to investigate the neural mechanisms of locomotor recovery and treatment efficacy. This article includes a detailed step-by-step guide to perform the hemisection procedure and to assess locomotor performance in an open-field arena.

Spinal cord injury (SCI) causes disturbances in motor, sensory, and autonomic function below the level of the lesion. Experimental animal models are ...

Intra-Arterial Delivery of Neural Stem Cells to the Rat and Mouse Brain: Application to Cerebral Ischemia

Neural stem cell (NSC) therapy is an emerging innovative treatment for stroke, traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders. As compared to intracranial delivery, intra-arterial administration of NSCs is less invasive and produces a more diffuse distribution of NSCs within the brain parenchyma. Further, intra-arterial delivery allows the first-pass effect in the brain circulation, lessening the potential for trapping of cells in peripheral organs, such as liver and spleen, a complication associated with peripheral injections. Here, we detail the methodology, in both mice and rats, for delivery of NSCs through the common carotid artery (mouse) or external carotid artery (rat) to the ipsilateral hemisphere after an ischemic stroke. Using GFP-labeled NSCs, we illustrate the widespread distribution achieved throughout the rodent ipsilateral hemisphere at 1 d, 1 week and 4 weeks after postischemic delivery, with a higher density in or near the ischemic injury site. In addition to long-term survival, we show evidence of differentiation of GFP-labeled cells at 4 weeks. The intra-arterial delivery approach described here for NSCs can also be used for administration of therapeutic compounds, and thus has broad applicability to varied CNS injury and disease models across multiple species.

A method for delivering neural stem cells, adaptable for injecting solutions or suspensions, through the common carotid artery (mouse) or external carotid artery (rat) after ischemic stroke is reported. Injected cells are distributed broadly throughout the brain parenchyma and can be detected up to 30 d after delivery.

Neural stem cell (NSC) therapy is an emerging innovative treatment for stroke, traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders. As compared to ...