This work was supported by grants from BrightFocus Foundation, Retina&#160;Research Foundation, Mullen Foundation, and the Sarah Campbell Blaffer Endowment in Ophthalmology to YF, NIH core grant 2P30EY002520 to Baylor College of Medicine, and an unrestricted grant to the Department of Ophthalmology at Baylor College of Medicine from Research to Prevent Blindness.

The animal experiments conducted in this study received approval from the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees (IACUC) at Baylor College of Medicine. All procedures were carried out in compliance with the guidelines outlined in the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) Statement for the Use of Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research. Young (7-9 weeks) and old (12-16 months) C57BL/6J male and female mice were used for the present study. The animals were obtained from a commercial source (see Table of Materials).
1. Preparation of the imaging system
<ol>
	<li>Position a heating pad on the imaging platform (see Table of Materials) to ensure the mouse&#39;s body temperature is maintained during imaging. Activate the heating pad and adjust the temperature to 35 &#176;C.</li>
	<li>Remove the dust cover and turn on the laser scanning ophthalmoscope. Place a 55&#176; lens on the machine.</li>
	<li>Set up the imaging software (see Table of Materials) and input essential information, including genotype, gender, age, etc. When the imaging session commences, select the IR (Infrared channel) for capturing ICGA images.</li>
</ol>
2. Animal preparation prior to ICGA and FA
<ol>
	<li>Weigh the mouse to determine the amount of anesthesia (Ketamine/Xylazine 70-100/2.5-10 mg/kg, see Table of Materials) needed. 
	NOTE: Optimizing the dosage is crucial as the metabolic profile varies among different mouse strains. It is essential to determine the appropriate dosage to avoid the mouse waking up before completing the imaging or the risk of an overdose and potential animal mortality.</li>
	<li>Use a 1 mL sterile syringe with a 30-32 G needle to deliver anesthesia by intraperitoneal injection. Gently pinch one of the mouse&#39;s paws to check whether the mouse is adequately anesthetized. If the animal exhibits any response or movement, it is advisable to wait for additional time before proceeding to the next step. This allows the animal to settle and ensures optimal conditions for the subsequent procedures.</li>
	<li>Administer 1% tropicamide ophthalmic solution drops to dilate both eyes of the mouse. Wait at least 30 s before using 0.5% proparacaine hydrochloride drops (see Table of Materials) on both eyes to reduce eye movement and blinking. Follow this up with lubricant eye gel drops. 
	NOTE: Throughout the entire duration of anesthesia, it is important to address the issue of extreme dryness in the mouse&#39;s eyes, which can lead to corneal opacity. This opacity makes subsequent imaging challenging due to hindered visibility. To prevent this, it is crucial to apply lubricant eye gel drops continuously to keep the mouse&#39;s eyes moisturized.</li>
	<li>Place the mouse on a heating water pad. 
	NOTE: Mice possess a high surface area to volume ratio, resulting in increased heat loss to the environment. When combined with the temperature drop induced by anesthesia, this can pose a significant risk to the mouse, potentially leading to death due to hypothermia. It is crucial to take necessary precautions to prevent hypothermia and ensure the mouse&#39;s well-being during the procedure.</li>
	<li>Prepare a 1:1 volume mixture of 2 mg/mL ICG and 20 mg/mL Fluorescein dye (see Table of Materials). Administer 250 &#181;L of the mixture through intraperitoneal injection using a 1 mL syringe and a 32 G needle.
	<ol>
		<li>Insert the needle in the bottom left quadrant of the mouse abdomen near the hind legs at an angle parallel to the mouse&#39;s skin to avoid perforating any organs.</li>
		<li>Carefully withdraw the plunger and verify that no blood has entered the syringe cap. Proceed to inject the dye slowly and steadily, maintaining a consistent pace. 
		NOTE: The ICG dye must be filtered with a 0.22 &#181;m syringe filter before use.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
</ol>
3. ICGA and FA
<ol>
	<li>Place the mouse on the heating pad of the imaging platform to start imaging.</li>
	<li>Position the mouse&#39;s body at a 45-degree angle to the camera and rotate its head slightly downwards. This allows the optic nerve to be in the center of the camera&#39;s focus.</li>
	<li>Using a cotton swab, delicately wipe the eye to remove the layer of lubricant eye drops or gels on the eye being imaged first. Ensure to apply the lubricant gel drops immediately after completing the imaging procedure. 
	NOTE: Leaving the eye without lubrication for more than 1 min while under anesthesia is not recommended.</li>
	<li>Move the camera toward the mouse&#39;s eye. Select the FA channel from the acquisition module. The luminescence emitted from the FA channel can be used to position in the center of the mouse cornea for faster placement.</li>
	<li>Position the mouse&#39;s head in a way that the optic nerve is centered on the screen, avoiding the need to tilt the laser scanning ophthalmoscope at an angle. Make minor adjustments to the mouse&#39;s head position to achieve the desired alignment.</li>
	<li>On the acquisition module, select the ICGA channel. Ensure that the laser intensity is set to 100% and select the 55&#176; option to match the appropriate lens. This ensures optimal settings for the laser scanning ophthalmoscope. 
	NOTE: To prevent oversaturation, it may be necessary to use a lower laser intensity, typically around 25%-50%, when imaging the early stage. Adjusting the laser intensity in this range can help capture clear and accurate images without causing oversaturation.</li>
	<li>When the eye occupies the entire screen on the imaging software, make adjustments to the sensitivity and focus settings to obtain the clearest image of the CNV membrane.
	<ol>
		<li>Rotate the round black button on the acquisition module to adjust the sensitivity of the image.</li>
		<li>Rotate the knob on the ophthalmoscope to adjust the focus. The optimal focus for visualizing the retinal vasculature using FA is typically within the range of 35-45 D (diopters). On the other hand, the ideal focus for visualizing the choroid using ICGA is generally between 10-15 D. 
		NOTE: Due to the different sizes of CNV membrane, it may be necessary to adjust the focus in 10-30 D to obtain optimal imaging of the vascular morphology.</li>
	</ol>
	</li>
	<li>Once the focus and the sensitivity have been adjusted to achieve the best possible image, press the round black button on the acquisition module to normalize the image. Once normalization is complete (all frames captured), click on the acquire button on the touchscreen panel to save the image. Moving the camera around to image CNV from different angles may be necessary. The mouse can also be oriented in different positions to provide the best image of the CNV lesion. 
	NOTE: One may have to readjust the focus or positioning of the laser scanning ophthalmoscope when viewing vasculature farther from the optic nerve.</li>
	<li>Switch back to the FA channel using the acquisition module. Complete the same steps listed in steps 3.6-3.7 to adjust the sensitivity and focus of each image to capture the leakage of the CNV lesion. 
	NOTE: Ensure the correct sensitivity is selected to avoid oversaturation of the CNV leakage and artificially increase the leakage area.</li>
	<li>Image the &#34;early phase&#34; of ICGA and FA 3-4 min post-injection. 
	NOTE: The &#34;early phase&#34; is the time when the choroidal vasculature can be clearly and distinctly seen. During the middle phase, which typically occurs between 4-8 min, the retinal and choroidal vessels are much more faded and diffused. As the late phase (&#62;8-10 min) sets in, both the choroidal and retinal vessels become indiscernible. Hyperfluorescent CNV lesions, however, exhibit maximal contrast against the diminished background. These mentioned timings are variable and depend on the concentration and amount of ICG dye injected. A greater amount of ICG dye tends to increase the timeline of each phase and provide more distinct vessels. A phase should be defined based on the key features listed above rather than an absolute time.</li>
	<li>Once all images have been acquired, apply a gel lubricant or ointment to the mouse&#39;s eye and carefully monitor the mouse on the heating pad for recovery. It usually takes 1.5 h for the mouse to recover fully.</li>
	<li>Place the mice back into their cages and the designated holding area once they have fully recovered from the anesthesia and are awake.</li>
	<li>Before shutting down the imaging system and laser, export the images as either TIFF or JPEG files for subsequent analysis.</li>
</ol>
4. RPE/choroid flat-mount and staining
<ol>
	<li>Fix the eyes in 4% paraformaldehyde overnight. Wash the eyes with PBS three times. Remove the lens and cornea.</li>
	<li>Incubate the eyes in blocking solution (10% bovine serum albumin, 0.6% Triton X-100 in PBS) for 1 h at room temperature. Repeat PBS wash three times.</li>
	<li>Incubate the eyes with isolectin GS-IB4 Alexa-flour 568 conjugate and anti-&#945;-smooth muscle actin antibody (see Table of Materials) overnight in the blocking solution.</li>
	<li>Wash three times with PBS. Incubate the samples with an Alexa Fluor 488 goat anti-rabbit secondary antibody (see Table of Materials) for 2 h at room temperature.</li>
	<li>Perform 4 radial cuts from the edge to the equator. Carefully remove the retina17. 
	NOTE: Care must be taken to ensure the neovascular membrane is not accidentally detached.</li>
	<li>Mount the flat-mounted choroid on a glass slide. Visualize the CNV using confocal microscopy.</li>
</ol>

Characterizing Different Lesion Types of Laser-Induced CNV in Mouse

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G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Five-Year+outcomes+with+anti-vascular+endothelial+growth+factor+treatment+of+neovascular+age-related+macular+degeneration:+the+comparison+of+age-related+macular+degeneration+treatments+trials.">Five-Year outcomes with anti-vascular endothelial growth factor treatment of neovascular age-related macular degeneration: the comparison of age-related macular degeneration treatments trials.</a> Ophthalmology. 123 (8), 1751-1761 (2016).</li><li>Yang, S., Zhao, J., Sun, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Resistance+to+anti-VEGF+therapy+in+neovascular+age-related+macular+degeneration:+a+comprehensive+review.">Resistance to anti-VEGF therapy in neovascular age-related macular degeneration: a comprehensive review.</a> Drug Design, Development and Therapy. 10, 1857-1867 (2016).</li><li>Ehlken, C., Jungmann, S., B&#246;hringer, D., Agostini, H. 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The authors have nothing to disclose.

This study demonstrated the use of indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) to identify the vascular morphology of arteriolar and capillary choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in mouse models with laser-induced CNV. The hemoglobin-bound and infrared light properties of indocyanine green (ICG) dye enabled the detection of CNV morphology, which is challenging to achieve using fluorescein angiography (FA), the current method employed by the research community.
The first critical step in the protocol i...

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a prevalent condition that leads to severe vision loss in older individuals1. In the United States alone, the number of AMD patients is projected to double, reaching nearly 22 million by 2050, compared to the current 11 million. Globally, the estimated number of AMD cases is expected to reach a staggering 288 million by 20402.
Choroidal neovascularization (CNV), also known as &#34;wet&#34; or neovascular AMD, can have devastating effects on vision due to the formation of abnormal blood vessels beneath the central retina. This leads to hemorrhaging, retinal exudation, and significant vision loss. The introduction of anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) therapies, which target extracellular VEGF, has revolutionized CNV treatment. However, despite these advancements, up to 50% of patients exhibit suboptimal responses to these therapies, with ongoing disease activity such as fluid accumulation and unresolved or new hemorrhages3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14.
Clinical studies have indicated that anti-VEGF resistance in CNV patients often corresponds to the presence of arteriolar CNV, characterized by large-caliber branching arterioles, vascular loops, and anastomotic connections9. Repeated anti-VEGF treatment can contribute to vessel abnormalization, the development of arteriolar CNV, and ultimately, resistance to anti-VEGF therapies14,15. In cases of arteriolar CNV, persistent fluid leakage is likely due to heightened exudation caused by inadequately formed tight junctions at arteriovenous anastomotic loops, particularly under conditions of high blood flow9. Conversely, individuals who respond well to anti-VEGF treatment tend to exhibit capillary CNV.
In our studies using animal models, we have demonstrated that laser-induced CNV in older mice develops arteriolar CNV and shows resistance to anti-VEGF treatment16,17. Conversely, laser-induced CNV in younger mice leads to the development of capillary CNV and high responsiveness to anti-VEGF treatment. Thus, it is crucial to differentiate between CNV vascular types for both mechanistic and therapeutic investigations.
In clinical settings, CNV is commonly classified based on fluorescein angiography (FA) leakage patterns (e.g., Type 1, Type 2), which use fluorescein dye to track exudation and identify areas of pathological leakage. In AMD research, CNV is predominantly studied using FA in animal models. However, FA fails to reveal the vascular morphology of CNV. Moreover, FA only captures images in the visible light spectrum and cannot visualize the choroidal vasculature beneath the retinal pigment epithelium (RPE). In contrast, indocyanine green (ICG), which exhibits strong affinity for plasma proteins, facilitates predominant intravascular retention and enables visualization of vascular structure and blood flow9. By utilizing the near-infrared fluorescence property of ICG, it becomes feasible to image the retinal and choroidal pigment using ICG angiography (ICGA). In this context, a protocol is presented that combines FA and ICGA to investigate the leakage and vascular morphology of laser-induced choroidal neovascularization (CNV) in young and old mice, where capillary and arteriolar CNV are observed.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>32-G Insulin Syringe</td>
			<td>MHC Medical Products</td>
			<td>NDC 08496-3015-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Alexa Fluor 488 goat anti-rabbit secondary antibody</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>&#160;A11008</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-&#945; smooth muscle Actin antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab5694</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine Serum Albumin</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.</td>
			<td>sc-2323&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>C57BL/6J mice (7-9 weeks)</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory</td>
			<td>Strain #:000664</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fluorescein Sodium Salt</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>MFCD00167039</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Gaymar T Pump Heat Therapy System</td>
			<td>Gaymar</td>
			<td>TP-500</td>
			<td>Water circulation heat pump for mouse recovery after imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GenTeal Gel</td>
			<td>Genteal</td>
			<td>NDC 58768-791-15</td>
			<td>Clear lubricant eye gel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>GS-IB4 Alexa-Flour 568 conjugate</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>&#160;I21412</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heidelberg Eye Explorerer</td>
			<td>Heidelberg Engineering, Germany</td>
			<td>HEYEX2</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Indocyanine Green</td>
			<td>Pfaultz &#38; Bauer</td>
			<td>I01250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ketamine</td>
			<td>Vedco Inc.</td>
			<td>NDC 50989-996-06</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Acros Organics&#160;</td>
			<td>416785000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Proparacaine Hydrochloride Ophthalmic Solution (0.5%)</td>
			<td>Sandoz</td>
			<td>NDC 61314-016-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Spectralis Multi-Modality Imaging System Heidelberg Engineering, Germany SPECTRALIS HRA+OCT Tropicamide ophthalmic solution (1%) Bausch &#38; Lomb NDC 24208-585-64 for dilation of pupils GenTeal Gel Genteal NDC 58768-791-15 clear lubricant eye gel Ketamine Vedco Inc NDC 50989-996-06 Xylazine Lloyd Laboratories NADA 139-236 Acepromazine Vedco Inc NDC 50989-160-11 32-G Needle Steriject PRE-32013 1-ml syringe BD 309659 Indocyanine Green Pfaltz &#38; Bauer I01250</td>
			<td>Heidelberg Engineering, Germany</td>
			<td>SPECTRALIS HRA+OCT</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>X100-1L</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tropicamide ophthalmic solution (1%)</td>
			<td>Bausch &#38; Lomb</td>
			<td>NDC 24208-585-64</td>
			<td>For dilation of pupils</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Xylazine</td>
			<td>Lloyd Laboratories</td>
			<td>NADA 139-236</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

characterization of vascular morphology of neovascular age-related macular degeneration by indocyanine green angiography

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of blindness among older individuals, and its prevalence is rapidly increasing due to the aging population. Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) or wet AMD, which accounts for 10%-20% of all AMD cases, is responsible for an alarming 80%-90% of AMD-related blindness. Current anti-VEGF therapies show suboptimal responses in approximately 50% of patients. Resistance to anti-VEGF treatment in CNV patients is often associated with arteriolar CNV, while responders tend to have capillary CNV. While fluorescein angiography (FA) is commonly used to assess leakage patterns in wet AMD patients and animal models, it does not provide information about CNV vascular morphology (arteriolar CNV vs. capillary CNV). This protocol introduces the use of indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) to characterize lesion types in laser-induced CNV mouse models. This method is crucial for investigating the mechanisms and treatment strategies for anti-VEGF resistance in wet AMD. It is recommended to incorporate ICGA alongside FA for comprehensive assessment of both leakage and vascular features of CNV in mechanistic and therapeutic studies.

Author Spotlight: Overcoming Anti-VEGF Resistance Through Advanced Vascular Morphology Assessment in Choroidal Neovascularization

Characterization of Vascular Morphology of Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration by Indocyanine Green Angiography

Following the protocol, ICGA and FA were performed on laser-induced CNV in young (7-9 weeks) and old (12-16 months) C57BL/6J mice. FA provides information about the location and leakage of the CNV lesions (Figure 1, left panels), while ICGA reveals the vascular morphology of the CNV lesions (Figure 1, right panels). In young mice, capillary CNV dominates the CNV lesions. In contrast, old mice exhibit arteriolar CNV characterized by large caliber vessels, vascula...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Characterization of Vascular Morphology of Neovascular Age-Related Macular Degeneration by Indocyanine Green Angiography at JoVE.com

Currently, fluorescein angiography (FA) is the preferred method for identifying leakage patterns in animal models of choroidal neovascularization (CNV). However, FA does not provide information about vascular morphology. This protocol outlines the use of indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) to characterize different lesion types of laser-induced CNV in mouse models.

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is a leading cause of blindness among older individuals, and its prevalence is rapidly increasing due to the aging ...

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813 Views.  Baylor College of Medicine. Currently, fluorescein angiography (FA) is the preferred method for identifying leakage patterns in animal models of choroidal neovascularization (CNV). However, FA does not provide information about vascular morphology. This protocol outlines the use of indocyanine green angiography (ICGA) to characterize different lesion types of laser-induced CNV in mouse models.