This work was supported by the Lehigh University Start-up Package. We thank Dr. Walter Fast for providing the GST-PAD4 plasmid for protein expression.

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

Herein, a fluorescence based assay was successfully developed that monitors the activity of PAD4. The assay has proven to be incredibly robust in a number of high-throughput conditions and is also compatible with whole cell lysates37.
The affinity between the histone proteins and the DNA strands surrounding it loosens due the neutralization of the positive charge on the arginine side chain upon citrullination. It was envisioned that the neutralization of the arginine side-chain coul...

يتم تعديل عدد كبير من البروتينات الثدييات بشكل كبير بفعل الإنزيمات التالية الحيوي من البروتينات التي الريبوسوم. ويمكن لهذه التعديلات بعد متعدية (PTMs) زيادة كبيرة في التنوع الوظيفي للبروتيوم عن طريق تغيير حجم، وتهمة، وهيكل، والدولة oligomerization (من بين الميزات الأخرى) البروتينات 1-3. ونتيجة لذلك، فإن التغيير في بنية البروتين يمكن أن يؤدي إلى عواقب فيزيولوجية، مثل تدهور البروتين، التمايز الخلوي، مما يشير، في تعديل التعبير الجيني، وتفاعلات البروتين البروتين. في حين أن هذه التعديلات هي السائدة في نسبة كبيرة من جميع البروتينات البشرية، ومحطة تنتهي في البروتينات هيستون الخضوع لعدد كبير بشكل غير عادي من التعديلات التساهمية 4. البروتينات هيستون هي عائلة من البروتينات الهيكلية التي تسهل التكثيف من الحمض النووي الجيني. وتجرى التعديلات التساهمية من ذيول هيستون غير منظم بها وينظمها دوري الدرجة الاولى الايطاليS من الانزيمات التي يمكن أن تحفز تعديل التساهمية المخلفات (الكتاب)، عكس نفس التعديلات (المحايات)، والتمييز بين التغييرات التي مطبوع على الذيول هيستون (القراء) 5-7. في الواقع، فإن معظم PTMs معروفة يمكن ملاحظتها ضمن هذه الشريحة قصيرة من هيستون بما مثيلة، الفسفرة، أستلة، sumoylation، ubiquitination، وcitrullination 8. Citrullination ينطوي على تحويل ببتيديل أرجينين إلى غير المشفرة ببتيديل ر RNA-سيترولين (الشكل 1A). البروتينات المسؤولة عن هذه السلسلة تحييد الجانب، هم أعضاء في PAD (ص eptide على rginine د eiminase) عائلة بروتين، وكلها تعتمد على الانزيمات الكالسيوم. 9،10. حتى الآن، وقد وصفت خمسة أفراد من عائلة PAD (PAD1، PAD2، PAD3، PAD4، وPAD6). يبدو أن كل عضو من أعضاء هذه الأسرة لاستهداف البروتينات الخلوية متميزة وأيضا يعرض أحاديكيو ملامح توزيع الأنسجة. PAD4 هو العضو الوحيد من هذه العائلة البروتين المعروف أن تكون مترجمة داخل النواة عبر تسلسل توطين النووية 11. تبعا لذلك، فقد تبين أن deiminate عددا من الأهداف النووية، بما في ذلك السلاسل الجانبية أرجينين على ذيول N-الطرفية من الهستونات H2A أرجينين بقايا 3 (H2R3)، H3 (H3R2، H3R17، وH3R26) وH4 (H4R3) 12، 13. في حين أن كل من isozymes PAD لها وظائف فسيولوجية معينة وحاسمة، تلقت PAD4 إيلاءها مزيدا من الاهتمام نظرا لدوره في عدد من العمليات الإنسانية في كل الخلايا المريضة والسليمة. في الآونة الأخيرة، وقد تبين PAD4 أن تكون عضوا في شبكة النسخي تعدد القدرات 14. وعرضت كل من مستويات التعبير PAD4 والنشاط لتكون مرتفعة خلال إعادة برمجة وللدولة الارض الدول المحفزة في الفئران. عن طريق التحكم في تنظيم جينات الخلايا الجذعية، قد PAD4 الاحتفاظ دورا محوريا في كفاءة إعادة برمجة الخلايا. PAD4 كما تم المتورطين فيتشكيل الفخاخ خارج الخلية المتعادلة، التي تقوم عليها ملزمة من مسببات الأمراض تمكين إزالة النظام الخاص بهم. وhypercitrullination من البروتينات هيستون من قبل PAD4 يدفع decondensation من لونين، والتي هي بمثابة المادة الأساسية للتغليف من البكتيريا المسببة للأمراض من فخ خارج الخلية، وبالتالي درء العدوى البكتيرية 15،16. بالإضافة إلى ذلك، تم العثور PAD4 للعب دور نشط في عدد من الأمراض التي تصيب الإنسان. وقد تبين سابقا أن التعبير المنحرف من PAD4 يرتبط مع بداية وشدة التهاب المفاصل الروماتويدي، مرض الزهايمر، مرض باركنسون، والتصلب المتعدد 17. في الواقع، فإن وجود الأجسام المضادة بروتين مكافحة citrullinated هو واحد من المؤشرات الحيوية التشخيصية والنذير الأكثر موثوقية ونهائية من التهاب المفاصل الروماتويدي 18. وبالمثل، فقد لوحظ مؤخرا نشاط PAD4 dysregulated في عدد من السرطانات البشرية بما في ذلك المبيض والثدي والرئة، وسرطان المريء د 19-22. وقد تبين الصلة بين PAD4 والسرطان إلى أن توسطت من خلال الجين الورمي ELK1 أو عبر الورم البروتين p53 البروتين القامع 22،23، واقترح العمل السابق الذي PAD4 يمكن أن تكون مضادة للسرطان الهدف العلاجي رواية 17،24،25. كدليل على دراسة المبدأ، تم الكشف عن نضوب PAD4 عبر shRNA في القولون والمستقيم خط الخلايا السرطانية HCT116 أن تكون كافية لإحداث موت الخلايا المبرمج ودورة الخلية اعتقال 26. أدى ضعت مؤخرا لا رجعة فيه PAD4 المانع إلى انخفاض سبعين في المئة في كتلة الورم في الفئران (27). بشكل ملحوظ جدا، ويبدو PAD4 تثبيط لتكون بمثابة العلاج المستهدفة التي أسفرت عن مقتل الانتقائي للخلايا السرطانية في حين أن يجنب الخلايا untransformed. استخدام جزيئات صغيرة لإيقاف وظيفة PAD4 قد يثبت أنه استراتيجية جديدة وقوية لاستهداف الخلايا السرطانية أو لزيادة مبحث المعالجة الكيميائية السرطانية الموجودة 28. للأسف، صوبعد أن اكتشف خيمة PAD4 عكسها المانع. وقد تم تطوير عدد من مثبطات التساهمية باستخدام الكلور / مقبض imidine الفلوري الذي يحاكي الركيزة أرجينين 27،29،30 وأثبتت أنها أدوات عملية في فهم دور PAD4 في كل خلايا الدولة السليمة والمريضة. ومع ذلك، هذه الجزيئات تمنع كل من منصات نشطة مع قوة مماثلة. وبالتالي، فإن الحاجة لفحص سطحي التي تفيد عن نشاط PAD4 أمر بالغ الأهمية. حتى الآن، وقد وصفت PAD4 المقايسات التي تربط الإفراج عن الأمونيا من رد الفعل إلى قراءات اللونية 31، الاستفادة من التناظرية chloroamidine الركيزة fluorescently المسمى لمضان الاستقطاب فحص 32، تعتمد على رد فعل حمض بمساعدة بين الجليوآسال وسيترولين 33، و زوجان النشاط PAD4 إلى مضان dequenching خطوة 34. من هذه، وقد أثبتت هذه الاستراتيجية haloacetamidine معدل التساهمية فقط لتكون متوافقة مع scre عالية الإنتاجيةمنصات ملمسه 32،35،36. نحن تصف فحص سطحي مضان القائم الذي يقيس موثوق نشاط PAD4. الفحص، الذي يعرض نسبة قوية إشارة إلى الضجيج، وسرعة تحليلها، وقياس متانة، لديه القدرة على اكتشاف قوية وانتقائية حقا PAD4 المانع.

<table><tbody><tr><td>LB Broth, Miller (LURIA-BERTANI)</td><td>Amresco</td><td>J106-2KG</td><td>&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.amresco-inc.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.amresco-inc.com&lt;/a&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Ampicillin Trihydrate (Off-white Powder), Fisher BioReagents</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td>BP902-25&amp;nbsp;</td><td>&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.fishersci.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.fishersci.com&lt;/a&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Isopropylthiagalactonse (IPTG)</td><td>Life Technogolies</td><td>15529-019</td><td>&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.lifetechnologies.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.lifetechnologies.com&lt;/a&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>All Buffer Salts&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Fisher Scientific</td><td></td><td>Can purchase from Fisher Scieintifc; VWR; Acros; Sigma-Aldrich; etc.</td></tr><tr><td>Protino Glutathione (GSH) agarose&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Machery-Nagel</td><td>745500.10</td><td>Store at 4 &amp;deg;C; http://www.mn-net.com/</td></tr><tr><td>Chloroamidine&amp;nbsp;</td><td>Cayman Chemical&amp;nbsp;</td><td>10599</td><td>Store at -20 &amp;deg;C; https://www.caymanchem.com/app/template/Home.vm</td></tr><tr><td>Triton X-100</td><td>Sigma Aldrich</td><td>X100-100ML</td><td>&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/&quot;&gt;www.sigmaaldrich.com&lt;/a&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Corning/Nunclon MicroWell plates (96 and 384)</td><td></td><td></td><td>Purchase from Corning; Sigma-Aldrich</td></tr><tr><td>Tecan Infinite 200 / Tecan i-control microplate reader software</td><td></td><td></td><td>&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.tecan.com/&quot;&gt;www.tecan.com&lt;/a&gt;</td></tr><tr><td>Europium Ex. 340/40 Em. 475/15 filter</td><td></td><td></td><td>&lt;a href=&quot;http://www.perkinelmer.com/&quot;&gt;http://www.perkinelmer.com&lt;/a&gt;</td></tr></tbody></table>

fluorescence-based monitoring of pad4 activity via a pro-fluorescence substrate analog

Post-translational modifications may lead to altered protein functional states by increasing the covalent variations on the side chains of many protein substrates. The histone tails represent one of the most heavily modified stretches within all human proteins. Peptidyl-arginine deiminase 4 (PAD4) has been shown to convert arginine residues into the non-genetically encoded citrulline residue. Few assays described to date have been operationally facile with satisfactory sensitivity. Thus, the lack of adequate assays has likely contributed to the absence of potent non-covalent PAD4 inhibitors. Herein a novel fluorescence-based assay that allows for the monitoring of PAD4 activity is described. A pro-fluorescent substrate analog was designed to link PAD4 enzymatic activity to fluorescence liberation upon the addition of the protease trypsin. It was shown that the assay is compatible with high-throughput screening conditions and has a strong signal-to-noise ratio. Furthermore, the assay can also be performed with crude cell lysates containing over-expressed PAD4.

في البداية، وقد تبين أن ZRcoum يمكن أن تقدم تقريرا عن نشاط PAD4 في شكل لوحة 96-جيدا. حضنت الآبار مع ZRcoum الركيزة وحضور / غياب PAD4. بعد فترة حضانة المرض من 45 دقيقة عند 37 درجة مئوية، وقد تم قياس مضان مع 340/40 - 475/15 نانومتر مرشح (الشكل 2A). كما هو متوقع، ظلت مس?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Fluorescence-based Monitoring of PAD4 Activity via a Pro-fluorescence Substrate Analog at JoVE.com

Fluorescence-based Monitoring of PAD4 Activity via a Pro-fluorescence Substrate Analog

PAD4 is an enzyme responsible for the conversion of peptidyl-arginine to peptidyl-citrulline. Dysregulation of PAD4 has been implicated in a number of human diseases. A facile and high-throughput compatible fluorescence based PAD4 assay is described.

رصد القائم على مضان آخر PAD4 عبر برو-مضان الركيزة النظير

Post-translational modifications may lead to altered protein functional states by increasing the covalent variations on the side chains of many protein ...

fluorescence-based-monitoring-pad4-activity-via-pro-fluorescence

Research

JoVE Journal

Chemistry

9.9K Views.  Lehigh University. PAD4 is an enzyme responsible for the conversion of peptidyl-arginine to peptidyl-citrulline. Dysregulation of PAD4 has been implicated in a number of human diseases. A facile and high-throughput compatible fluorescence based PAD4 assay is described.

Video: Fluorescence-based Monitoring of PAD4 Activity via a Pro-fluorescence Substrate Analog

Fluorescence detection methods for microfluidic droplet platforms

The development of microfluidic platforms for performing chemistry and biology has in large part been driven by a range of potential benefits that accompany system miniaturisation. Advantages include the ability to efficiently process nano- to femoto- liter volumes of sample, facile integration of functional components, an intrinsic predisposition towards large-scale multiplexing, enhanced analytical throughput, improved control and reduced instrumental footprints.1
In recent years much interest has focussed on the development of droplet-based (or segmented flow) microfluidic systems and their potential as platforms in high-throughput experimentation.2-4 Here water-in-oil emulsions are made to spontaneously form in microfluidic channels as a result of capillary instabilities between the two immiscible phases. Importantly, microdroplets of precisely defined volumes and compositions can be generated at frequencies of several kHz. Furthermore, by encapsulating reagents of interest within isolated compartments separated by a continuous immiscible phase, both sample cross-talk and dispersion (diffusion- and Taylor-based) can be eliminated, which leads to minimal cross-contamination and the ability to time analytical processes with great accuracy. Additionally, since there is no contact between the contents of the droplets and the channel walls (which are wetted by the continuous phase) absorption and loss of reagents on the channel walls is prevented.
Once droplets of this kind have been generated and processed, it is necessary to extract the required analytical information. In this respect the detection method of choice should be rapid, provide high-sensitivity and low limits of detection, be applicable to a range of molecular species, be non-destructive and be able to be integrated with microfluidic devices in a facile manner. To address this need we have developed a suite of experimental tools and protocols that enable the extraction of large amounts of photophysical information from small-volume environments, and are applicable to the analysis of a wide range of physical, chemical and biological parameters. Herein two examples of these methods are presented and applied to the detection of single cells and the mapping of mixing processes inside picoliter-volume droplets. We report the entire experimental process including microfluidic chip fabrication, the optical setup and the process of droplet generation and detection.

Droplet-based microfluidic platforms are promising candidates for high throughput experimentation since they are able to generate picoliter, self-compartmentalized vessels inexpensively at kHz rates. Through integration with fast, sensitive and high resolution fluorescence spectroscopic methods, the large amounts of information generated within these systems can be efficiently extracted, harnessed and utilized.

طرق الكشف عن منصات مضان الحبرية ميكروفلويديك

The development of microfluidic platforms for performing chemistry and biology has in large part been driven by a range of potential benefits that ...

Bioengineering

An Optimized Single-Molecule Pull-Down Assay for Quantification of Protein Phosphorylation

Phosphorylation is a necessary posttranslational modification that regulates protein function and directs cell signaling outcomes. Current methods to measure protein phosphorylation cannot preserve the heterogeneity in phosphorylation across individual proteins. The single-molecule pull-down (SiMPull) assay was developed to investigate the composition of macromolecular complexes via immunoprecipitation of proteins on a glass coverslip followed by single-molecule imaging. The current technique is an adaptation of SiMPull that provides robust quantification of the phosphorylation state of full-length membrane receptors at the single-molecule level. Imaging thousands of individual receptors in this way allows for quantifying protein phosphorylation patterns. The present protocol details the optimized SiMPull procedure, from sample preparation to imaging. Optimization of glass preparation and antibody fixation protocols further enhances data quality. The current protocol provides code for the single-molecule data analysis that calculates the fraction of receptors phosphorylated within a sample. While this work focuses on phosphorylation of the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), the protocol can be generalized to other membrane receptors and cytosolic signaling molecules.

The present protocol describes sample preparation and data analysis to quantify protein phosphorylation using an improved single-molecule pull-down (SiMPull) assay.

اختبار محسن للسحب أحادي الجزيء لتحديد كمية فسفرة البروتين

Phosphorylation is a necessary posttranslational modification that regulates protein function and directs cell signaling outcomes. Current methods to ...

Biochemistry

تحليل cAMP باستخدام cADDis: فحص أحادي الخلية إلى فحص عالي الإنتاجية

Real-Time cAMP Dynamics in Live Cells Using the Fluorescent cAMP Difference Detector In Situ

cAMP Difference Detector In Situ (cADDis) is a novel biosensor that allows for the continuous measurement of cAMP levels in living cells. The biosensor is created from a circularly permuted fluorescent protein linked to the hinge region of Epac2. This creates a single fluorophore biosensor that displays either increased or decreased fluorescence upon binding of cAMP. The biosensor exists in red and green upward versions, as well as green downward versions, and several red and green versions targeted to subcellular locations. To illustrate the effectiveness of the biosensor, the green downward version, which decreases in fluorescence upon cAMP binding, was used. Two protocols using this sensor are demonstrated: one utilizing a 96-well plate reading spectrophotometer&#160;compatible with high-throughput screening and another utilizing single-cell imaging on a fluorescent microscope. On the plate reader, HEK-293 cells cultured in 96-well plates were stimulated with 10 &#181;M forskolin or 10 nM isoproterenol, which induced rapid and large decreases in fluorescence in the green downward version. The biosensor was used to measure cAMP levels in individual human airway smooth muscle (HASM) cells monitored under a fluorescent microscope. The green downward biosensor displayed similar responses to populations of cells when stimulated with forskolin or isoproterenol. This single-cell assay allows visualization of the biosensor location at 20x and 40x magnification. Thus, this cAMP biosensor is sensitive and flexible, allowing real-time measurement of cAMP in both immortalized and primary cells, and with single cells or populations of cells. These attributes make cADDis a valuable tool for studying cAMP signaling dynamics in living cells.

تسليط الضوء على المؤلف: تطوير اكتشاف cAMP في الوقت الفعلي في الخلايا باستخدام المستشعر الحيوي cADDis

The protocol presented in this study illustrates the effectiveness of the cAMP Difference Detector In Situ in measuring cAMP through two methods. One method utilizes a 96-well plate reading spectrophotometer with HEK-293 cells. The other method demonstrates individual HASM cells under a fluorescent microscope.

ديناميكيات cAMP في الوقت الفعلي في الخلايا الحية باستخدام كاشف فرق cAMP الفلوري في الموقع

cAMP Difference Detector In Situ (cADDis) is a novel biosensor that allows for the continuous measurement of cAMP levels in living cells. The biosensor is ...

Examining the Conformational Dynamics of Membrane Proteins in situ with Site-directed Fluorescence Labeling

Two electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology (TEVC) is a powerful tool to investigate the mechanism of ion transport1 for a wide variety of membrane proteins including ion channels2, ion pumps3, and transporters4. Recent developments have combined site-specific fluorophore labeling alongside TEVC to 
concurrently examine the conformational dynamics at specific residues and function of these proteins on the surface of single cells.
We will describe a method to study the conformational dynamics of membrane proteins by simultaneously monitoring fluorescence and current changes using voltage-clamp fluorometry. This approach can be used to examine the molecular motion of membrane proteins site-specifically following cysteine replacement and site-directed fluorophore labeling5,6. Furthermore, this method provides an approach to determine distance constraints between specific residues7,8. 
This is achieved by selectively attaching donor and acceptor fluorophores to two mutated cysteine residues of interest.
In brief, these experiments are performed following functional expression of the desired protein on the surface of Xenopus leavis oocytes. The large surface area of these oocytes enables facile functional measurements and a robust fluorescence signal5. It is also possible to readily change the extracellular conditions such as pH, ligand or cations/anions, which can provide further information on the mechanism of membrane proteins4. Finally, recent developments 
have also enabled the manipulation of select internal ions following co-expression with a second protein9.
Our protocol is described in multiple parts. First, cysteine scanning mutagenesis proceeded by fluorophore labeling is completed at residues located at the interface of the transmembrane and extracellular domains. Subsequent experiments are designed to identify residues which demonstrate large changes in fluorescence intensity (&lt;5%)3 upon a conformational change of the protein. Second, these changes in fluorescence intensity are compared to the kinetic parameters of 
the membrane protein in order to correlate the conformational dynamics to the function of the protein10. This enables a rigorous biophysical analysis of the molecular motion of the target protein. Lastly, two residues of the holoenzyme can be labeled with a donor and acceptor fluorophore in order to determine distance constraints using donor photodestruction methods. It is also possible to monitor the relative movement of protein subunits following labeling with a donor and acceptor fluorophore.

Examining the Conformational Dynamics of Membrane Proteins in situ with Site-directed Fluorescence Labeling

We will describe a method which measures the kinetics of ion transport of membrane proteins alongside site-specific analysis of conformational changes using fluorescence on single cells. This technique is adaptable to ion channels, transporters and ion pumps and can be utilized to determine distance constraints between protein subunits.

دراسة ديناميكية بتكوين جزئي للبروتينات الغشاء في الموقع مع الموقع الموجه وصفها الإسفار

Two electrode voltage clamp electrophysiology (TEVC) is a powerful tool to investigate the mechanism of ion transport1 for a wide variety of membrane ...

Biology

Monitoring Kinase and Phosphatase Activities Through the Cell Cycle by Ratiometric FRET

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based reporters1 allow the assessment of endogenous kinase and phosphatase activities in living cells. Such probes typically consist of variants of CFP and YFP, intervened by a phosphorylatable sequence and a phospho-binding domain. Upon phosphorylation, the probe changes conformation, which results in a change of the distance or orientation between CFP and YFP, leading to a change in FRET efficiency (Fig 1). Several probes have been published during the last decade, monitoring the activity balance of multiple kinases and phosphatases, including reporters of PKA2, PKB3, PKC4, PKD5, ERK6, JNK7, Cdk18, Aurora B9 and Plk19. Given the modular design, additional probes are likely to emerge in the near future10. 
Progression through the cell cycle is affected by stress signaling pathways 11. Notably, the cell cycle is regulated differently during unperturbed growth compared to when cells are recovering from stress12.Time-lapse imaging of cells through the cell cycle therefore requires particular caution. This becomes a problem particularly when employing ratiometric imaging, since two images with a high signal to noise ratio are required to correctly interpret the results. Ratiometric FRET imaging of cell cycle dependent changes in kinase and phosphatase activities has predominately been restricted to sub-sections of the cell cycle8,9,13,14.
Here, we discuss a method to monitor FRET-based probes using ratiometric imaging throughout the human cell cycle. The method relies on equipment that is available to many researchers in life sciences and does not require expert knowledge of microscopy or image processing.

FRET-based reporters are increasingly used to monitor kinase and phosphatase activities in live cells. Here we describe a method on how to use FRET-based reporters to assess cell cycle-dependent changes in target phosphorylation.

رصد كيناز والفوسفاتيز الأنشطة من خلال دورة الخلية التي Ratiometric الحنق

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based reporters1 allow the assessment of endogenous kinase and phosphatase activities in living cells. Such ...

FRET Microscopy for Real-time Monitoring of Signaling Events in Live Cells Using Unimolecular Biosensors

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy continues to gain increasing interest as a technique for real-time monitoring of biochemical and signaling events in live cells and tissues. Compared to classical biochemical methods, this novel technology is characterized by high temporal and spatial resolution. FRET experiments use various genetically-encoded biosensors which can be expressed and imaged over time in situ or in vivo1-2. Typical biosensors can either report protein-protein interactions by measuring FRET between a fluorophore-tagged pair of proteins or conformational changes in a single protein which harbors donor and acceptor fluorophores interconnected with a binding moiety for a molecule of interest3-4. Bimolecular biosensors for protein-protein interactions include, for example, constructs designed to monitor G-protein activation in cells5, while the unimolecular sensors measuring conformational changes are widely used to image second messengers such as calcium6, cAMP7-8, inositol phosphates9 and cGMP10-11. Here we describe how to build a customized epifluorescence FRET imaging system from single commercially available components and how to control the whole setup using the Micro-Manager freeware. This simple but powerful instrument is designed for routine or more sophisticated FRET measurements in live cells. Acquired images are processed using self-written plug-ins to visualize changes in FRET ratio in real-time during any experiments before being stored in a graphics format compatible with the build-in ImageJ freeware used for subsequent data analysis. This low-cost system is characterized by high flexibility and can be successfully used to monitor various biochemical events and signaling molecules by a plethora of available FRET biosensors in live cells and tissues. As an example, we demonstrate how to use this imaging system to perform real-time monitoring of cAMP in live 293A cells upon stimulation with a &beta;-adrenergic receptor agonist and blocker.

F&#246;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy is a powerful technique for real-time monitoring of signaling events in live cells using various biosensors as reporters. Here we describe how to build a customized epifluorescence FRET imaging system from commercially available components and how to use it for FRET experiments.

الحنق المجهر لمراقبة الوقت الحقيقي من أحداث في اشارة الخلايا الحية باستخدام أجهزة الاستشعار Unimolecular

F&ouml;rster resonance energy transfer (FRET) microscopy  continues to gain increasing interest as a technique for real-time monitoring  of biochemical ...

Simultaneous Multicolor Imaging of Biological Structures with Fluorescence Photoactivation Localization Microscopy

Localization-based super resolution microscopy can be applied to obtain a spatial map (image) of the distribution of individual fluorescently labeled single molecules within a sample with a spatial resolution of tens of nanometers. Using either photoactivatable (PAFP) or&#160;photoswitchable (PSFP) fluorescent proteins fused to proteins of interest, or organic dyes conjugated to antibodies or other molecules of interest, fluorescence photoactivation localization microscopy (FPALM) can simultaneously image multiple species of molecules within single cells. By using the following approach, populations of large numbers (thousands to hundreds of thousands) of individual molecules are imaged in single cells and localized with a precision of ~10-30 nm. Data obtained can be applied to understanding the nanoscale spatial distributions of multiple protein types within a cell. One primary advantage of this technique is the dramatic increase in spatial resolution: while diffraction limits resolution to ~200-250 nm in conventional light microscopy, FPALM can image length scales more than an order of magnitude smaller. As many biological hypotheses concern the spatial relationships among different biomolecules, the improved resolution of FPALM can provide insight into questions of cellular organization which have previously been inaccessible to conventional fluorescence microscopy. In addition to detailing the methods for sample preparation and data acquisition, we here describe the optical setup for FPALM. One additional consideration for researchers wishing to do super-resolution microscopy is cost: in-house setups are significantly cheaper than most commercially available imaging machines. Limitations of this technique include the need for optimizing the labeling of molecules of interest within cell samples, and the need for post-processing software to visualize results. We here describe the use of PAFP and PSFP expression to image two protein species in fixed cells. Extension of the technique to living cells is also described.

We demonstrate the use of fluorescence photo activation localization microscopy (FPALM) to simultaneously image multiple types of fluorescently labeled molecules&#160;within cells. The techniques described yield the localization of thousands to hundreds of thousands of individual fluorescent labeled proteins, with a precision of tens of nanometers&#160;within single cells.

في وقت واحد متعدد الألوان التصوير من الهياكل البيولوجية مع الإسفار تنشيط ضوئي توطين المجهر

Localization-based super resolution microscopy can be applied to obtain a spatial map (image) of the distribution of individual fluorescently labeled ...

Utilizing pHluorin-tagged Receptors to Monitor Subcellular Localization and Trafficking

Understanding membrane protein trafficking, assembly, and expression requires an approach that differentiates between those residing in intracellular organelles and those localized on the plasma membrane. Traditional fluorescence-based measurements lack the capability to distinguish membrane proteins residing in different organelles. Cutting edge methodologies transcend traditional methods by coupling pH-sensitive fluorophores with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM). TIRF illumination excites the sample up to approximately 150 nm from the glass-sample interface, thus decreasing background, increasing the signal to noise ratio, and enhancing resolution. The excitation volume in TIRFM encompasses the plasma membrane and nearby organelles such as the peripheral ER. Superecliptic pHluorin (SEP) is a pH sensitive version of GFP. Genetically encoding SEP into the extracellular domain of a membrane protein of interest positions the fluorophore on the luminal side of the ER and in the extracellular region of the cell. SEP is fluorescent when the pH is greater than 6, but remains in an off state at lower pH values. Therefore, receptors tagged with SEP fluoresce when residing in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) or upon insertion in the plasma membrane (PM) but not when confined to a trafficking vesicle or other organelles such as the Golgi. The extracellular pH can be adjusted to dictate the fluorescence of receptors on the plasma membrane. The difference in fluorescence between TIRF images at neutral and acidic extracellular pH for the same cell corresponds to a relative number of receptors on the plasma membrane. This allows a simultaneous measurement of intracellular and plasma membrane resident receptors. Single vesicle insertion events can also be measured when the extracellular pH is neutral, corresponding to a low pH trafficking vesicle fusing with the plasma membrane and transitioning into a fluorescent state. This versatile technique can be exploited to study localization, expression, and trafficking of membrane proteins.

Labeling the extracellular domain of a membrane protein with a pH sensitive fluorophore, superecliptic pHluorin (SEP), allows subcellular localization, expression, and trafficking to be determined. Imaging SEP-labeled proteins with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) enables the quantification of protein levels in the peripheral ER and plasma membrane.

باستخدام مستقبلات الموسومة pHluorin لمراقبة التحت خلوية التعريب والاتجار

Understanding membrane protein trafficking, assembly, and expression requires an approach that differentiates between those residing in intracellular ...

رصد القائم على مضان آخر PAD4 عبر برو-مضان الركيزة النظير

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في وقت واحد متعدد الألوان التصوير من الهياكل البيولوجية مع الإسفار تنشيط ضوئي توطين المجهر

باستخدام مستقبلات الموسومة pHluorin لمراقبة التحت خلوية التعريب والاتجار