The authors thank S. Tausch for excellent technical assistance. The work was supported by BMBF (Bernstein Focus 01GQ0923) and DFG (FOR1738).

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The authors declare that they have no competing financial interests.

الكمي وتحديد المجموعات السكانية الفرعية الخلايا حديثي الولادة هو القضية المركزية في مجال البحوث تكوين الخلايا العصبية الكبار. الجمع بين علامات انتشار الأسلحة النووية والأجسام المضادة ضد البروتينات التي أعرب عنها خلال مراحل معينة من الخلايا العصبية الكبار يسمح كش?...

مناطق الدماغ اثنين توليد جوهري خلايا عصبية جديدة في جميع مراحل الحياة، ومنطقة subventricular من البطينات الجانبية ومنطقة جزئي التحبب (SGZ) من التلفيف المسنن قرن آمون (DG). الخلايا العصبية حديثي الولادة مستمدة من الخلايا الاصلية العصبية وتذهب من خلال مراحل مختلفة من التنمية المورفولوجية والفسيولوجية قبل أن تصل إلى مرحلة النضج 1،2. من تقسيم ببطء شعاعي تشبه الخلايا الجذعية الدبقية (نوع 1) مراحل متتالية العبور تضخيم الخلايا الاصلية المتوسطة تنشأ. أكثر الأنواع الفرعية غير متمايزة (نوع 2A و 2B نوع) لها شكل غير منتظم مع العمليات عرضية قصيرة. أنها تولد neuroblasts (نوع 3) أن الخروج تدريجيا دورة الخلية لتصبح خلايا عصبية غير ناضجة (مع التشعبات امتدت نحو الطبقة الجزيئية) ودمج أخيرا في شبكة الحصين الخلايا الحبيبية ناضجة كما. بسبب الخصائص الفسيولوجية الخاصة بها وتوفر هذه الخلايا الدوائر مع تعزيز اللدونة 3 suggesتينغ دورا فريدا في وظيفة قرن آمون. في الواقع، ولدت الدراسات في العقد الأخير أدلة قوية على تكوين الخلايا العصبية الكبار يساهم في الذاكرة المكانية، ونمط الانفصال والسلوك العاطفي 4،5. ويمكن دراسة تكوين الخلايا العصبية الكبار باستخدام أساليب مختلفة. النظير ثيميدين تتضمن في الحمض النووي خلال المرحلة S من دورة الخلية وتسمح الولادة التي يرجع تاريخها، الكمي ومصير تحليل خلايا حديثي الولادة 6-8. تطبيق متتابعة من النظير ثيميدين مختلفة (على سبيل المثال، CldU، EDU أو إيدو) يمكن استخدامها لدراسة دوران خلية أو السكان الخلية ولد في نقاط زمنية مختلفة خلال تجربة 9. بديل، علامة الذاتية لتكاثر الخلايا هو Ki67. يتم التعبير عن ذلك في تقسيم الخلايا خلال جميع مراحل دورة الخلية (G1، S، G2، M) باستثناء مرحلة الراحة (G0) وبداية G1 10،11. لتحليل النمط الظاهري من السكان الخلية حديثي الولادة في الكبار dentatالبريد التلفيف عدة الواسمات الجزيئية مرحلة محددة يمكن استخدام مثل GFAP، nestin، DCX وNeuN 1،6. GFAP هو علامة من الخلايا النجمية الناضجة ولكن يتم التعبير أيضا في خلايا تشبه الخلايا الدبقية شعاعي في الدماغ الأمامي الكبار. Nestin هو خيوط وسيطة محددة لخلايا تشبه الخلايا الدبقية شعاعي والخلايا الاصلية المتوسطة في وقت مبكر. DCX هو بروتين المرتبط أنيبيب المعبر عنها في الأسلاف وسيطة، neuroblasts والخلايا العصبية غير ناضجة. وبناء على (المشارك) التعبير عن هذه العلامات الثلاث والميزات المورفولوجية من الخلايا المسمى ويمكن تحديد أربعة أنواع فرعية خلية سلفية متميزة: نوع 1 (GFAP +، nestin +، DCX -)، نوع 2A (GFAP -، nestin + ، DCX -)، نوع 2B (GFAP -، nestin +، DCX +) ونوع 3 (GFAP -، nestin -، DCX +) 1. شارك في وضع العلامات على DCX جنبا إلى جنب مع NeuN، وهو ما يعبر عنه في الخلايا العصبية تالية للتفتل، يسمح للتمايز immaturه (DCX +، NeuN +) وناضجة (DCX -، NeuN +) الخلايا العصبية الحبيبية. وكثيرا ما تستخدم علامات المذكورة أعلاه لمناعي شارك في وضع العلامات واللاحق متحد البؤر المجهري لتحليل عدد وهوية الخلايا حديثي الولادة. وهذا يتطلب عادة الأجسام المضادة من الأنواع المضيفة مختلفة لمنع الأجسام المضادة غير مرغوب فيها عبر التفاعل. ومع ذلك، تربى معظم الأجسام المضادة الأولية المناسبة للبحوث الخلايا العصبية إما في الأرانب أو الفئران (على سبيل المثال، والماوس α-BrdU، والماوس α-NeuN، أرنب α-Ki67، أرنب α-GFAP). وهذا يؤدي إلى فرض قيود خطيرة على عدد ومجموعة من مولدات المضادات التي يمكن تقييمها في شريحة واحدة. وهذا بدوره لا يزيد فقط الجهد تلطيخ، كما stainings متعددة يجب أن يؤديها، ولكن يمكن أيضا تؤثر سلبا على مصداقية النتائج. وعلاوة على ذلك، فإن بعض المستضدات عرضة للالفورمالين التي يسببها تثبيت حاتمة اخفاء (على سبيل المثال، Ki67، nestin). وصفنا هنا التعديلات من البروتوكولات immunolabeling أحادية ومتعددة الكلاسيكية (على سبيل المثال، استرجاع حاتمة، متعددة المناعية متتابعة، واستخدام nestin-GFP الفئران المعدلة وراثيا 12) أن التغلب على الكثير من هذه القضايا. على وجه الخصوص، وبروتوكول المناعي متعددة متتابعة يسمح تلطيخ ضد ما يصل إلى أربعة مستضدات مختلفة حتى لو مشتق جزء من الأجسام المضادة من نفس المضيف. وهذا يتيح للكشف في وقت واحد من نوع 1، نوع 2A، 2B نوع ونوع الخلايا 3 السلف، وكذلك النشاط التكاثري في غضون مقطع واحد.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="665">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:277px;">Name</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:111px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">Comments &#38; Dilutions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="13">
			<td height="13" style="height:13px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Thymidine analog administration</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">5-Bromo-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine, BrdU</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>B9285</td>
			<td rowspan="4" style="width:131px;">toxic (mutagenic, teratogenic)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">5-Chloro-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine, CldU</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C6891</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">5-Chloro-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine, CldU</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>2105478</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">5-Iodo-2&#8242;-deoxyuridine, IdU</td>
			<td>MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td>2100357</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="10">
			<td height="10" style="height:11px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tissue preparation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Isoflurane-Actavis</td>
			<td>Piramal Healthcare</td>
			<td>700211</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Paraformaldehyde powder (PFA)</td>
			<td>Riedel-De H&#228;en</td>
			<td>16005</td>
			<td>toxic, flammable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Perfusion pump PD5206</td>
			<td>Heidolph Instruments</td>
			<td>523-52060-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Masterflex Tygon lab tubing, &#216; 0.8 mm&#160;</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td>06409-13</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Feeding needle, straight, 21G, 1.75mm olive tip, 40mm</td>
			<td>Agnthos</td>
			<td>1036</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Freezing microtome Microm HM 400</td>
			<td>Thermo Fischer Scientific</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">24 Well Cell Culture Multiwell Plates</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Greiner Bio-One</td>
			<td>662160</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="10">
			<td height="10" style="height:11px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Immunohistochemistry</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Tefal Vitacuisine Steamer</td>
			<td>Tefal</td>
			<td>VS 4001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:277px;">Netwell 24mm Polyester Mesh Membrane Inserts Pre-Loaded in 6-Well Culture Plates</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3479</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:277px;">Netwell 15mm Polyester Mesh Membrane Inserts Pre-Loaded in 12-Well Culture Plates</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3477</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:277px;">Netwell Plastic 6-Well Carrier Kit for 24mm Polyester Mesh Membrane Inserts</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3521</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:277px;">Netwell Plastic 12-Well Carrier Kit for 15mm Polyester Mesh Membrane Inserts</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>3520</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Vectastain Elite ABC Kit</td>
			<td>Vector Laboratories</td>
			<td>PK-6100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:277px;">DAB (3,3&#8242;-Diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride hydrate)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>D-5637</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">carcinogenic, light sensitive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Fluoromount-G</td>
			<td>SouthernBiotech</td>
			<td>0100-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Primary antibodies</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="48">
			<td height="48" style="height:48px;">rabbit IgG1 &#945;-Ki67</td>
			<td style="width:147px;">Novocastra/ Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>NCL-L-Ki67MM1</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">DAB 1:400/IF 1:100; requires epitope retrieval</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">rabbit &#945;-GFAP, AS-3-GF</td>
			<td>Synaptic Systems</td>
			<td>173 002</td>
			<td>1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">goat IgG (H+L) &#945;-GFP</td>
			<td>Acris Antibodies</td>
			<td>R1091P</td>
			<td>1:300</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;">mouse IgG1 &#945;-nestin</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab6142</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">1:200; requires epitope retrieval</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">guinea pig IgG (H+L) &#945;-Doublecortin</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>AB2253</td>
			<td>1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="41">
			<td height="41" style="height:41px;">rat IgG2a &#945;-BrdU (ascites)</td>
			<td>AbD Serotec/ Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>OBT0030CX</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">for detection of BrdU; DAB 1:500/IF 1:400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="39">
			<td height="39" style="height:39px;">rat IgG2a &#945;-BrdU (purified)</td>
			<td>AbD Serotec/ Bio-Rad</td>
			<td>OBT0030&#160;&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">for detection of CldU; DAB 1:500/IF 1:250-400</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="38">
			<td height="38" style="height:38px;">mouse IgG1&#312; &#945;-BrdU</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>347580</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">for detection of IdU; DAB 1:500/IF 1:350</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">mouse IgG1 &#945;-NeuN</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>MAB377</td>
			<td>1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Secondary antibodies</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-guinea pig IgG (H+L)-Biotin</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>711-065-152</td>
			<td>1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-rat IgG (H+L)-Biotin</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>712-065-150</td>
			<td>1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-mouse IgG (H+L)-Biotin</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>715-065-151</td>
			<td>1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">goat &#945;-rat IgG (H+L)-Alexa Fluor 488</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes</td>
			<td>A11006</td>
			<td>1:250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-goat IgG (H+L)-Alexa Fluor 488</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes</td>
			<td>A11055</td>
			<td>1:250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-mouse IgG (H+L)-FITC, Fab-Fragment</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>715-097-003</td>
			<td>1:100</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-mouse IgG (H+L)-Alexa Fluor 647</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>715-605-151</td>
			<td>1:250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-guinea pig IgG (H+L)-Alexa Fluor 647</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>706-605-148</td>
			<td>1:250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-rat IgG (H+L)-Rhodamine Red-X</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>712-295-150</td>
			<td>1:250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">donkey &#945;-rabbit IgG (H+L)-Rhodamine Red-X</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>711-295-152</td>
			<td>1:250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">donkey &#945;-guinea pig IgG (H+L)-Rhodamine Red-X</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>706-296-148</td>
			<td>1:250</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Streptavidin-Rhodamine Red-X&#160;</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>016-290-084</td>
			<td>1:500</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">goat &#945;-rabbit IgG (H+L)-AMCA</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>111-155-144</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">1:250, works only with rabbit &#945;-GFAP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Hoechst 33342</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes</td>
			<td>H3570</td>
			<td>1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">DAPI</td>
			<td>Molecular Probes</td>
			<td>D1306</td>
			<td>1:1000</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Blocking</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Fab-fragment donkey &#945;-mouse IgG (H+L)</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>715-007-003</td>
			<td>1:20</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Fab-fragment donkey &#945;-rabbit IgG (H+L)</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>711-007-003</td>
			<td>1:20</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Normal donkey serum</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>S30</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Normal rabbit serum</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>011-000-010</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Normal goat serum</td>
			<td>Dianova</td>
			<td>005-000-001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Bovine Serum Albumine</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A7906</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Histology</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Cresyl violett</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C5042</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:277px;">Neo-Clear</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>109843</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">non-toxic xylene substitute</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:277px;">Neo-Mount</td>
			<td>Merck Millipore</td>
			<td>109016</td>
			<td style="width:131px;">permanent mounting medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="10">
			<td height="10" style="height:11px;"></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Microscopy</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">Axioskop 2</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss Microscopy</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:277px;">LSM 710</td>
			<td>Carl Zeiss Microscopy</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

immunohistochemistry and multiple labeling with antibodies from the same host species to study adult hippocampal neurogenesis

تكوين الخلايا العصبية الكبار هو عملية متعددة المراحل ينظم للغاية التي يتم إنشاؤها خلايا عصبية جديدة من الخلايا الجذعية العصبية تفعيلها عبر ملتزمة بشكل متزايد فرعية السلف وسيطة. كل من هذه الأنواع الفرعية عن مجموعة من الواسمات الجزيئية محددة، جنبا إلى جنب مع معايير شكلية محددة، ويمكن استخدامها للتعرف عليها. عادة، يتم تطبيق تقنيات مناعي التي تنطوي على الأجسام المضادة نوع فرعي معين في تركيبة مع علامات exo- أو الذاتية انتشار الأسلحة النووية. وصفنا هنا immunolabeling طرق للكشف النوعي والكمي لجميع مراحل تكوين الخلايا العصبية الحصين الكبار. تضم هذه تطبيق النظير ثيميدين، نضح transcardial، معالجة الأنسجة واسترجاعها حاتمة الناجم عن الحرارة، ABC المناعية، متعددة المناعي غير المباشر، الفحص المجهري متحد البؤر النوعي والكمي الخلية. وعلاوة على ذلك فإننا نقدم متتابعة متعددة بروتوكول المناعي التي تلتف مشاكل شالناشئة يو sually من الحاجة لاستخدام الأجسام المضادة الأولية التي أثيرت في الأنواع المضيفة نفسها. انها تسمح لتحديد دقيق لجميع أنواع فرعية السلف قرن آمون معا مع علامة الانتشار داخل قسم واحد. هذه التقنيات هي أداة قوية لدراسة تنظيم أنواع فرعية مختلفة السلف في موازاة ذلك، مشاركتهم في أمراض الدماغ ودورها في وظائف محددة في الدماغ.

طبقنا الأساليب المذكورة أعلاه لتحديد وتوصيف الخلايا حديثي الولادة في بعد الولادة وتعليم الكبار الحصين. لذلك، كنا wildtype وتكوين الخلايا العصبية نقص السيكلين D2 تدق من أصل (Ccnd2 KO) الفئران الموجودة في ظل ظروف المعروفة بتأثيرها على معدل تكوين الخلايا العصبية (أي ب...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Immunohistochemistry and Multiple Labeling with Antibodies from the Same Host Species to Study Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis at JoVE.com

Immunohistochemistry and Multiple Labeling with Antibodies from the Same Host Species to Study Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

This video article illustrates a comprehensive protocol to detect and quantify all stages of adult hippocampal neurogenesis within the same tissue section. We elaborated a method to overcome the limitations of indirect multiple immunofluorescence that arise when suitable antibodies from different host species are unavailable.

المناعية وصفها متعددة مع الأجسام المضادة من نوع المضيف نفسه لدراسة الكبار الحصين تكوين الخلايا العصبية

Adult neurogenesis is a highly regulated, multi-stage process in which new neurons are generated from an activated neural stem cell via increasingly ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

26.4K Views.  Jena University Hospital. This video article illustrates a comprehensive protocol to detect and quantify all stages of adult hippocampal neurogenesis within the same tissue section. We elaborated a method to overcome the limitations of indirect multiple immunofluorescence that arise when suitable antibodies from different host species are unavailable.

Video: Immunohistochemistry and Multiple Labeling with Antibodies from the Same Host Species to Study Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of Larval, Pupal and Adult Drosophila Retinas

The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster consists of about 750 ommatidia (unit eyes). Each ommatidium is composed of about 20 cells, including lens-secreting cone cells, pigment cells, a bristle cell and eight photoreceptors (PRs) R1-R8 2. The PRs have specialized microvillar structures, the rhabdomeres, which contain light-sensitive pigments, the Rhodopsins (Rhs). The rhabdomeres of six PRs (R1-R6) form a trapezoid and contain Rh1 3 4. The rhabdomeres of R7 and R8 are positioned in tandem in the center of the trapezoid and share the same path of light. R7 and R8 PRs stochastically express different combinations of Rhs in two main subtypes5: In the 'p' subtype, Rh3 in pR7s is coupled with Rh5 in pR8s, whereas in the 'y' subtype, Rh4 in yR7s is associated with Rh6 in yR8s 6 7 8.
Early specification of PRs and development of ommatidia begins in the larval eye-antennal imaginal disc, a monolayer of epithelial cells. A wave of differentiation sweeps across the disc9 and initiates the assembly of undifferentiated cells into ommatidia10-11. The 'founder cell' R8 is specified first and recruits R1-6 and then R7 12-14. Subsequently, during pupal development, PR differentiation leads to extensive morphological changes 15, including rhabdomere formation, synaptogenesis and eventually rh expression.
In this protocol, we describe methods for retinal dissections and immunohistochemistry at three defined periods of retina development, which can be applied to address a variety of questions concerning retinal formation and developmental pathways. Here, we use these methods to visualize the stepwise PR differentiation at the single-cell level in whole mount larval, midpupal and adult retinas (Figure 1).

Dissection and Immunohistochemistry of Larval, Pupal and Adult Drosophila Retinas

The Drosophila retina is a crystal-like lattice composed of a small number of cell types that are generated in a stereotyped manner 1. Its amenability to sophisticated genetic analysis allows the study of complex developmental programs. This protocol describes dissections and immunohistochemistry of retinas at three discrete developmental stages, with a focus on photoreceptor differentiation.

تشريح والمناعية من اليرقات، العذراء وتعليم الكبار<em&gt; ذبابة الفاكهة</em&gt; شبكية العين

The compound eye of Drosophila melanogaster consists of about 750 ommatidia (unit eyes). Each ommatidium is composed of about 20 cells, including ...

Functional Interrogation of Adult Hypothalamic Neurogenesis with Focal Radiological Inhibition

The functional characterization of adult-born neurons remains a significant challenge. Approaches to inhibit adult neurogenesis via invasive viral delivery or transgenic animals have potential confounds that make interpretation of results from these studies difficult. New radiological tools are emerging, however, that allow one to noninvasively investigate the function of select groups of adult-born neurons through accurate and precise anatomical targeting in small animals. Focal ionizing radiation inhibits the birth and differentiation of new neurons, and allows targeting of specific neural progenitor regions. In order to illuminate the potential functional role that adult hypothalamic neurogenesis plays in the regulation of physiological processes, we developed a noninvasive focal irradiation technique to selectively inhibit the birth of adult-born neurons in the hypothalamic median eminence. We describe a method for Computer tomography-guided focal irradiation (CFIR) delivery to enable precise and accurate anatomical targeting in small animals. CFIR uses three-dimensional volumetric image guidance for localization and targeting of the radiation dose, minimizes radiation exposure to nontargeted brain regions, and allows for conformal dose distribution with sharp beam boundaries. This protocol allows one to ask questions regarding the function of adult-born neurons, but also opens areas to questions in areas of radiobiology, tumor biology, and immunology. These radiological tools will facilitate the translation of discoveries at the bench to the bedside.

The function of adult-born mammalian neurons remains an active area of investigation. Ionizing radiation inhibits the birth of new neurons. Using computer tomography-guided focal irradiation (CFIR), three-dimensional anatomical targeting of specific neural progenitor populations can now be used to assess the functional role of adult neurogenesis.

الاستجواب وظيفية من الكبار طائية تكوين الخلايا العصبية مع البؤري الإشعاعية تثبيط

The functional characterization of adult-born neurons remains a significant challenge. Approaches to inhibit adult neurogenesis via invasive viral ...

Heat-Induced Antigen Retrieval: An Effective Method to Detect and Identify Progenitor Cell Types during Adult Hippocampal Neurogenesis

Traditional methods of immunohistochemistry (IHC) following tissue fixation allow visualization of various cell types. These typically proceed with the application of antibodies to bind antigens and identify cells with characteristics that are a function of the inherent biology and development. Adult hippocampal neurogenesis is a sequential process wherein a quiescent neural stem cell can become activated and proceed through stages of proliferation, differentiation, maturation and functional integration. Each phase is distinct with a characteristic morphology and upregulation of genes. Identification of these phases is important to understand the regulatory mechanisms at play and any alterations in this process that underlie the pathophysiology of debilitating disorders. Our heat-induced antigen retrieval approach improves the intensity of the signal that is detected and allows correct identification of the progenitor cell type. As discussed in this paper, it especially allows us to circumvent current problems in detection of certain progenitor cell types.

During adult hippocampal neurogenesis, a distinct set of genetic markers are expressed when a quiescent neural stem cell sequentially progresses and develops into a functionally integrated neuron in the circuit. Using heat-induced antigen retrieval, progenitor cell types that are otherwise difficult to detect are identified with improved effectiveness.

Traditional  methods of immunohistochemistry (IHC) following tissue fixation allow visualization  of various cell types. These typically proceed with the ...

Membrane Potential Dye Imaging of Ventromedial Hypothalamus Neurons From Adult Mice to Study Glucose Sensing

Studies of neuronal activity are often performed using neurons from rodents less than 2 months of age due to the technical difficulties associated with increasing connective tissue and decreased neuronal viability that occur with age. Here, we describe a methodology for the dissociation of healthy hypothalamic neurons from adult-aged mice. The ability to study neurons from adult-aged mice allows the use of disease models that manifest at a later age and might be more developmentally accurate for certain studies. Fluorescence imaging of dissociated neurons can be used to study the activity of a population of neurons, as opposed to using electrophysiology to study a single neuron. This is particularly useful when studying a heterogeneous neuronal population in which the desired neuronal type is rare such as for hypothalamic glucose sensing neurons. We utilized membrane potential dye imaging of adult ventromedial hypothalamic neurons to study their responses to changes in extracellular glucose. Glucose sensing neurons are believed to play a role in central regulation of energy balance. The ability to study glucose sensing in adult rodents is particularly useful since the predominance of diseases related to dysfunctional energy balance (e.g.&#160;obesity) increase with age.

The activity of single neurons from adult-aged mice can be studied by dissociating neurons from specific brain regions and using fluorescent membrane potential dye imaging. By testing responses to changes in glucose, this technique can be used to study the glucose sensitivity of adult ventromedial hypothalamic neurons.

غشاء المحتملة صبغ التصوير من بطني إنسي المهاد الخلايا العصبية من الفئران الكبار لدراسة الجلوكوز الاستشعار

Studies of neuronal activity are often performed using neurons from rodents less than 2 months of age due to the technical difficulties associated with ...

Methods for the Modulation and Analysis of NF-&#954;B-dependent Adult Neurogenesis

The hippocampus plays a pivotal role in the formation and consolidation of episodic memories, and in spatial orientation. Historically, the adult hippocampus has been viewed as a very static anatomical region of the mammalian brain. However, recent findings have demonstrated that the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus is an area of tremendous plasticity in adults, involving not only modifications of existing neuronal circuits, but also adult neurogenesis. This plasticity is regulated by complex transcriptional networks, in which the transcription factor NF-&#954;B plays a prominent role. To study and manipulate adult neurogenesis, a transgenic mouse model for forebrain-specific neuronal inhibition of NF-&#954;B activity can be used.
In this study, methods are described for the analysis of NF-&#954;B-dependent neurogenesis, including its structural aspects, neuronal apoptosis and progenitor proliferation, and cognitive significance, which was specifically assessed via a dentate gyrus (DG)-dependent behavioral test, the spatial pattern separation-Barnes maze (SPS-BM). The SPS-BM protocol could be simply adapted for use with other transgenic animal models designed to assess the influence of particular genes on adult hippocampal neurogenesis. Furthermore, SPS-BM could be used in other experimental settings aimed at investigating and manipulating DG-dependent learning, for example, using pharmacological agents.

Methods for the Modulation and Analysis of NF-&amp;#954;B-dependent Adult Neurogenesis

Methods for the manipulation and analysis of NF-&#954;B-dependent adult hippocampal neurogenesis are described. A detailed protocol is presented for a dentate gyrus-dependent behavioral test (termed the spatial pattern separation-Barnes maze) for the investigation of cognitive outcome in mice. This technique should also help enable investigations in other experimental settings.

طرق لتعديل وتحليل NF كيلوبايت التي تعتمد على تكوين الخلايا العصبية الكبار

The hippocampus plays a pivotal role in the formation and consolidation of episodic memories, and in spatial orientation. Historically, the adult ...

Retrograde Labeling of Retinal Ganglion Cells in Adult Zebrafish with Fluorescent Dyes

As retrograde labeling retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) can isolate RGCs somata from dying sites, it has become the gold standard for counting RGCs in RGCs survival and regeneration experiments. Many studies have been performed in mammalian animals to research RGCs survival after optic nerve injury. However, retrograde labeling of RGCs in adult zebrafish has not yet been reported, though some alternative methods can count cell numbers in retinal ganglion cell layers (RGCL). Considering the small size of the adult zebrafish skull and the high risk of death after drilling on the skull, we open the skull with the help of acid-etching and seal the hole with a light curing bond, which could significantly improve the survival rate. After absorbing the dyes for 5 days, almost all the RGCs are labeled. As this method does not need to transect the optic nerve, it is irreplaceable in the research of RGCs survival after optic nerve crush in adult zebrafish. Here, we introduce this method step by step and provide representative results.

We introduce an efficient method to retrograde label retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) in adult zebrafish.

وصفها الوراء من خلايا الشبكية العقدة في اسماك الزرد الكبار مع الأصباغ نيون

As retrograde labeling retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) can isolate RGCs somata from dying sites, it has become the gold standard for counting RGCs in RGCs ...

Juxtasomal Biocytin Labeling to Study the Structure-function Relationship of Individual Cortical Neurons

The cerebral cortex is characterized by multiple layers and many distinct cell-types that together as a network are responsible for many higher cognitive functions including decision making, sensory-guided behavior or memory. To understand how such intricate neuronal networks perform such tasks, a crucial step is to determine the function (or electrical activity) of individual cell types within the network, preferentially when the animal is performing a relevant cognitive task. Additionally, it is equally important to determine the anatomical structure of the network and the morphological architecture of the individual neurons to allow reverse engineering the cortical network. Technical breakthroughs available today allow recording cellular activity in awake, behaving animals with the valuable option of post&#160;hoc identifying the recorded neurons. Here, we demonstrate the juxtasomal biocytin labeling technique, which involves recording action potential spiking in the extracellular (or loose-patch) configuration using conventional patch pipettes. The juxtasomal recording configuration is relatively stable and applicable across behavioral conditions, including anesthetized, sedated, awake head-fixed, and even in the freely moving animal. Thus, this method allows linking cell-type specific action potential spiking during animal behavior to reconstruction of the individual neurons and ultimately, the entire cortical microcircuit. In this video manuscript, we show how individual neurons in the juxtasomal configuration can be labeled with biocytin in the urethane-anaesthetized rat for post&#160;hoc identification and morphological reconstruction.

To understand the structure of neuronal networks, functional and morphological characterization of individual neurons is a necessity. Here, we demonstrate juxtasomal biocytin labeling, which allows electrophysiological recordings in the extracellular configuration, yet maintaining the ability to intracellularly label the neuron for post&#160;hoc reconstruction of dendritic and axonal architecture.

Juxtasomal Biocytin وصفها لدراسة بنية وظيفة علاقة فردية القشرية الخلايا العصبية

The cerebral cortex is characterized by multiple layers and many distinct cell-types that together as a network are responsible for many higher cognitive ...

Stab Wound Injury of the Zebrafish Adult Telencephalon: A Method to Investigate Vertebrate Brain Neurogenesis and Regeneration

Adult zebrafish have an amazing capacity to regenerate their central nervous system after injury. To investigate the cellular response and the molecular mechanisms involved in zebrafish adult central nervous system (CNS) regeneration and repair, we developed a zebrafish model of adult telencephalic injury.
In this approach, we manually generate an injury by pushing an insulin syringe needle into the zebrafish adult telencephalon. At different post injury days, fish are sacrificed, their brains are dissected out and stained by immunohistochemistry and/or in situ hybridization (ISH) with appropriate markers to observe cell proliferation, gliogenesis, and neurogenesis. The contralateral unlesioned hemisphere serves as an internal control. This method combined for example with RNA deep sequencing can help to screen for new genes with a role in zebrafish adult telencephalon neurogenesis, regeneration, and repair.

To shed light on the cellular and molecular mechanisms of zebrafish adult neurogenesis and regeneration, we developed a protocol for invasive surgery causing mechanical injuries in the zebrafish adult telencephalon and subsequent monitoring of changes in the stabbed hemisphere by immunohistochemistry or in situ hybridization.

طعنة الإصابة بالجروح من اسماك الزرد الكبار الدماغ الانتهائي: طريقة المعنية بالتحقيق في تكوين الخلايا العصبية والدماغ الفقارية التجديد

Adult zebrafish have an amazing capacity to regenerate their central nervous system after injury. To investigate the cellular response and the molecular ...

Assessing Primary Neurogenesis in Xenopus Embryos Using Immunostaining

Primary neurogenesis is a dynamic and complex process during embryonic development that sets up the initial layout of the central nervous system. During this process, a portion of neural stem cells undergo differentiation and give rise to the first populations of differentiated primary neurons within the nascent central nervous system. Several vertebrate model organisms have been used to explore the mechanisms of neural cell fate specification, patterning, and differentiation. Among these is the African clawed frog, Xenopus, which provides a powerful system for investigating the molecular and cellular mechanisms responsible for primary neurogenesis due to its rapid and accessible development and ease of embryological and molecular manipulations. Here, we present a convenient and rapid method to observe the different populations of neuronal cells within Xenopus central nervous system. Using antibody staining and immunofluorescence on sections of Xenopus embryos, we are able to observe the locations of neural stem cells and differentiated primary neurons during primary neurogenesis.

Assessing Primary Neurogenesis in Xenopus Embryos Using Immunostaining

This article presents a convenient and rapid method for visualizing different neuronal cell populations in the central nervous system of Xenopus embryos using immunofluorescent staining on sections.

تقييم تكوين الخلايا العصبية الابتدائية في<em&gt; القيطم</em&gt; الأجنة عن طريق المناعية

Primary neurogenesis is a dynamic and complex process during embryonic development that sets up the initial layout of the central nervous system. During ...

Minimizing Hypoxia in Hippocampal Slices from Adult and Aging Mice

Acute hippocampal slices have enabled generations of neuroscientists to explore synaptic, neuronal, and circuit properties in detail and with high fidelity. Exploration of LTP and LTD mechanisms, single neuron dendritic computation, and experience-dependent changes in circuitry, would not have been possible without this classical preparation. However, with a few exceptions, most basic research using acute hippocampal slices has been performed using slices from rodents of relatively young ages, ~P20-P40, even though synaptic and intrinsic excitability mechanisms have a long developmental tail that reaches past P60. The main appeal of using young hippocampal slices is preservation of neuronal health aided by higher tolerance to hypoxic damage. However, there is a need to understand neuronal function at more mature stages of development, further accentuated by the development of various animal models of neurodegenerative diseases that require an aging brain preparation. Here we describe a modification to an acute hippocampal slice preparation that reliably delivers healthy slices from adult and aging mouse hippocampi. The protocol&#8217;s critical steps are transcardial perfusion and cutting with ice-cold sodium-free NMDG-aSCF. Together, these steps attenuate the hypoxia-induced drop in ATP upon decapitation, as well as cytotoxic edema caused by passive sodium fluxes. We demonstrate how to cut transversal slices of hippocampus plus cortex using a vibrating microtome. Acute hippocampal slices obtained in this way are reliably healthy over many hours of recording, and are appropriate for both field-recordings and targeted patch-clamp recordings, including targeting of fluorescently labeled neurons.

This is a protocol for acute slice preparation from adult and aging mouse hippocampi that takes advantage of transcardial perfusion and slice cutting with ice-cold NMDG-aCSF to reduce hypoxic damage to the tissue. The resulting slices stay healthy over many hours, and are suitable for long-term patch-clamp and field-recordings.