这项工作是由美国国家精神卫生研究所和美国国家科学基金会的支持。特别感谢仁Gutzman博士，博士阿曼达迪金森和其他许多有益的讨论和建设性的批评的的西伯实验室成员，并奥利维尔Paugois专家鱼的饲养。

1。准备显微注射针和细胞电<ol><li>根据制造商的指示，填写Eppendorf公司CellTram油微量注射器装置与矿物油。 </li><li>准备显微注射针拉毛细管萨特仪器针拔出器。 </li><li>微操作机器人连接到Eppendorf公司CellTram上安装针。 </li><li>小心打破针尖。为针尖大小均匀，用千分尺测量，或比较的参考针。 </li><li>填写针的长度与油，使用CellTram，推动油价下跌的长度，小心，以避免任何气泡。 </li></ol> 2。准备胚胎<ol><li>在1％的琼脂糖涂布菜用1-200微升的移液管尖戳孔，并除去琼脂糖插头。填写菜与胚胎媒体（根据韦斯特25）。 </li><li>钳，dechorionate的胚胎体视显微镜下。 </li><li>转让dechorionated胚胎到琼脂糖凝胶涂层菜。 </li><li>若要麻醉胚胎，三卡因（0.1毫克/毫升）添加琼脂糖培养皿直到胚胎停止移动（韦斯特25根据）。 </li></ol> 3。排水eCSF <ol><li>东方胚胎的琼脂糖和最接近显微操纵后部两侧的孔中与它们的尾巴，允许可视化的大脑的背侧。 </li><li>针定位在菱0/1的铰接点或后脑心室（ 图1A）的最宽点。 </li><li>小心刺破屋顶板的后脑心室进入蛋黄，千万不要去通过深入的大脑。 </li><li>沥干eCSF使用CellTram和收集液中显微注射针。要小心，以避免任何细胞。 </li></ol> 4。成分分析收集eCSF的<ol><li>一旦被收集在针eCSF，仔细停止从CellTram的吸入。 </li><li>莫从下针，没办法菜，小心地将针管所需的缓冲区。 </li><li>使用CellTram，沥干eCSF满分针进入尝试，以避免污染的油溶液与缓冲。 </li><li>为了除去细胞您已吸气一起以10,000×g的eCSF，自旋eCSF。收集未受污染的eCSF（上清），并存储在-80°C，直到准备进行进一步的分析。 </li></ol> 5。重新的选择因素<ol><li>沥干eCSF在所需的时间间隔期间每2小时，由于流体在此期限内补充。排水时间点之间，取出针和储存的胚胎在28.5°C，或所需的温度。 </li><li>将第二的微量移液器针与测试因素。 </li><li>地点连接到微量注射器针头插入微操作机器人。 </li><li>调整注射量的墨滴大小通过测量在油和调整喷射时间和p 1 NLressure。 </li><li>注入1-2 NL到如前所述26脑室。 </li></ol>

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没有利益冲突的声明。

使用这种技术的手动排水eCSF的从斑马鱼脑室用于确定eCSF在开发过程中的要求将是有益的。此外，这种技术将允许在胚胎发育过程中描述的eCSF蛋白更新。在此期间，不同的蛋白质的鉴定将能够进一步调查到CSF和大脑发育过程中的潜在作用的功能。在脊椎动物中，在eCSF（FGF2，IGF2，视黄酸和载脂蛋白）的一些因素有证明作用在神经上皮细胞存活，增殖和神经细胞13,17,20,23,27,28。然而，似乎有...

<table border="1"><tbody><tr><td> 试剂名称 </td><td> 公司 </td><td> 目录编号 </td></tr><tr><td> Eppendorf公司CellTram油</td><td> Eppendorf公司</td><td> 516 000.025 </td></tr><tr><td>矿物油</td><td>西格玛</td><td> M8410 </td></tr><tr><td>三卡因粉</td><td>西格玛</td><td> A5040 </td></tr><tr><td>毛细管</td><td> FHC公司</td><td> 30-30-1 </td></tr></tbody></table>

manual drainage of the zebrafish embryonic brain ventricles

脑脊液（CSF）是一种富含蛋白质的脑室内所含的流体。这是目前早期脊椎动物的胚胎发育过程中，坚持在整个生命。成人CSF认为，以减轻大脑，排除废物，并进行分泌的分子1,2。在成人和年龄较大的胚胎中，大多数的CSF是由脉络丛，一系列的高度血管化的分泌位于脑室3-5相邻的区域。在斑马鱼，脉络丛完全形成受精后144小时（HPF）6。在此之前，在包括鼠标，一个显着量的胚胎CSF（eCSF）的斑马鱼和其他脊椎动物胚胎是本。这些数据和研究表明，在鸡的神经上皮分泌在开发的早期，可能是之前的主要来源eCSF发展脉络丛7。 eCSF包含了大约3倍以上的蛋白质吨韩成人CSF，这表明它可能具有重要作用，在发展8,9。研究表明，在小鸡和老鼠分泌因子eCSF，流体压力，或这些的组合，是非常重要的神经发生，基因表达，细胞增殖和细胞生存的神经上皮10-20中。人，大鼠，小鼠和小鸡eCSF的蛋白质组学分析，已经确定了许多蛋白质​​可能是必要的CSF功能。这些包括胞外基质成分，载脂蛋白，渗透压调节蛋白和蛋白参与细胞死亡和增殖21-24。然而，复杂的功能在很大程度上是未知的eCSF。 我们已经开发出一种方法，用于除去从斑马鱼脑室eCSF，从而允许识别eCSF组件，并在开发过程中进行分析的eCSF规定的。虽然可以采集更多eCSF，从其他脊椎动物系统W第i个较大的胚胎，eCSF可以收集到的斑马鱼发育的早期阶段，与遗传或环境条件下，导致脑室体积异常或形态。拆卸和回收的eCSF允许质谱分析，调查eCSF功能，并重新选择因素破入脑室分析它们的功能。因此，斑马鱼早期胚胎的可访问性可以在开发过程中的eCSF功能进行详细的分析。

一个排水脑室的一个例子示出在图1B-C。作为他们缺乏eCSF的（ 图1B和C），脑室倒塌。可以看出在背侧的图像（ 图1B-C，以及图2A-D）的后脑神经上皮确实保留其特征的形态，而且似乎是开放，尽管缺乏eCSF可能是由于强大的铰接点。然而，横向次（ 图2A&#39;-D&#39;）表明已后脑脑室沥干，的存在下，一薄的柔性顶板上皮折叠腹侧一致。在?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Manual Drainage of the Zebrafish Embryonic Brain Ventricles at JoVE.com

Manual Drainage of the Zebrafish Embryonic Brain Ventricles

我们提出一个方法，收集脑脊液（CSF），并建立系统，缺乏的胚胎斑马鱼大脑脑室系统内脑脊液。 CSF的组成及其胚胎大脑发育过程中的要求，这使得进一步的检查。

手动排水的斑马鱼胚胎脑室

Cerebrospinal fluid  (CSF) is a protein rich fluid contained within the brain ventricles. It is  present during early vertebrate embryonic development and ...

manual-drainage-of-the-zebrafish-embryonic-brain-ventricles

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Neuroscience

9.9K 次观看.  Massachusetts Institute of Technology. 我们提出一个方法，收集脑脊液（CSF），并建立系统，缺乏的胚胎斑马鱼大脑脑室系统内脑脊液。 CSF的组成及其胚胎大脑发育过程中的要求，这使得进一步的检查。

视频: Manual Drainage of the Zebrafish Embryonic Brain Ventricles

An Assay for Permeability of the Zebrafish Embryonic Neuroepithelium

The brain ventricular system is conserved among vertebrates and is composed of a series of interconnected cavities called brain ventricles, which form during the earliest stages of brain development and are maintained throughout the animal's life. The brain ventricular system is found in vertebrates, and the ventricles develop after neural tube formation, when the central lumen fills with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) 1,2. CSF is a protein rich fluid that is essential for normal brain development and function3-6.
In zebrafish, brain ventricle inflation begins at approximately 18 hr post fertilization (hpf), after the neural tube is closed. Multiple processes are associated with brain ventricle formation, including formation of a neuroepithelium, tight junction formation that regulates permeability and CSF production. We showed that the Na,K-ATPase is required for brain ventricle inflation, impacting all these processes 7,8, while claudin 5a is necessary for tight junction formation 9. Additionally, we showed that "relaxation" of the embryonic neuroepithelium, via inhibition of myosin, is associated with brain ventricle inflation.
To investigate the regulation of permeability during zebrafish brain ventricle inflation, we developed a ventricular dye retention assay. This method uses brain ventricle injection in a living zebrafish embryo, a technique previously developed in our lab10, to fluorescently label the cerebrospinal fluid. Embryos are then imaged over time as the fluorescent dye moves through the brain ventricles and neuroepithelium. The distance the dye front moves away from the basal (non-luminal) side of the neuroepithelium over time is quantified and is a measure of neuroepithelial permeability (Figure 1). We observe that dyes 70 kDa and smaller will move through the neuroepithelium and can be detected outside the embryonic zebrafish brain at 24 hpf (Figure 2).
This dye retention assay can be used to analyze neuroepithelial permeability in a variety of different genetic backgrounds, at different times during development, and after environmental perturbations. It may also be useful in examining pathological accumulation of CSF. Overall, this technique allows investigators to analyze the role and regulation of permeability during development and disease.

We describe a live whole animal quantitative measurement for permeability of the embryonic zebrafish brain. The technique analyzes the ability to retain cerebrospinal fluid and molecules of different molecular weights within the neural tube lumen and quantifies their movement out of the ventricles. This method is useful for determining differences in epithelial permeability and maturation during development and disease.

的斑马鱼胚胎神经上皮通透性的测定

The brain ventricular system is conserved among vertebrates and is composed of a series of interconnected cavities called brain ventricles, which form ...

科研

神经科学

Micromanipulation of Gene Expression in the Adult Zebrafish Brain Using Cerebroventricular Microinjection of Morpholino Oligonucleotides

Manipulation of gene expression in tissues is required to perform functional studies. In this paper, we demonstrate the cerebroventricular microinjection (CVMI) technique as a means to modulate gene expression in the adult zebrafish brain. By using CVMI, substances can be administered into the cerebroventricular fluid and be thoroughly distributed along the rostrocaudal axis of the brain. We particularly focus on the use of antisense morpholino oligonucleotides, which are potent tools for knocking down gene expression in vivo. In our method, when applied, morpholino molecules are taken up by the cells lining the ventricular surface. These cells include the radial glial cells, which act as neurogenic progenitors. Therefore, knocking down gene expression in the radial glial cells is of utmost importance to analyze the widespread neurogenesis response in zebrafish, and also would provide insight into how vertebrates could sustain adult neurogenesis response. Such an understanding would also help the efforts for clinical applications in human neurodegenerative disorders and central nervous system regeneration. Thus, we present the cerebroventricular microinjection method as a quick and efficient way to alter gene expression and neurogenesis response in the adult zebrafish forebrain. We also provide troubleshooting tips and other useful information on how to carry out the CVMI procedure.

In this article, we demonstrate a method for manipulation of gene expression in the ventricular cells of the adult zebrafish telencephalon using antisense morpholino oligonucleotides. We present this method as an efficient and quick protocol that can be used for functional studies in the adult vertebrate brain.

显微吗啉代寡核苷酸脑室微量注射成年斑马鱼大脑中的基因表达

Manipulation of gene expression in tissues is  required to perform functional studies. In this paper, we demonstrate the  cerebroventricular ...

Patch Clamp Recordings from Embryonic Zebrafish Mauthner Cells

Mauthner cells (M-cells) are large reticulospinal neurons located in the hindbrain of teleost fish. They are key neurons involved in a characteristic behavior known as the C-start or escape response that occurs when the organism perceives a threat. The M-cell has been extensively studied in adult goldfish where it has been shown to receive a wide range of excitatory, inhibitory and neuromodulatory signals1. We have been examining M-cell activity in embryonic zebrafish in order to study aspects of synaptic development in a vertebrate preparation. In the late 1990s Ali and colleagues developed a preparation for patch clamp recording from M-cells in zebrafish embryos, in which the CNS was largely intact2,3,4. The objective at that time was to record synaptic activity from hindbrain neurons, spinal cord neurons and trunk skeletal muscle while maintaining functional synaptic connections within an intact brain-spinal cord preparation. This preparation is still used in our laboratory today. To examine the mechanisms underlying developmental synaptic plasticity, we record excitatory (AMPA and NMDA-mediated)5,6 and inhibitory (GABA and glycine) synaptic currents from developing M-cells. Importantly, this unique preparation allows us to return to the same cell (M-cell) from preparation to preparation to carefully examine synaptic plasticity and neuro-development in an embryonic organism. The benefits provided by this preparation include 1) intact, functional synaptic connections onto the M-cell, 2) relatively inexpensive preparations, 3) a large supply of readily available embryos 4) the ability to return to the same cell type (i.e. M-cell) in every preparation, so that synaptic development at the level of an individual cell can be examined from fish to fish, and 5) imaging of whole preparations due to the transparent nature of the embryos.

We have developed an intact brain-spinal cord preparation to record and monitor electrical activity via patch clamp recording from the Mauthner neurons and other reticulospinal cells in zebrafish embryos. Thus, we are able to record excitatory and inhibitory synaptic currents, voltage-gated channel activity and action potentials from key neurons in a developing embryo.

从胚胎斑马鱼的毛特纳细胞膜片钳记录

Mauthner cells (M-cells) are large  reticulospinal neurons located in the hindbrain of teleost fish. They are key  neurons involved in a characteristic ...

Isolation and Culture of Endothelial Cells from the Embryonic Forebrain

Embryonic brain endothelial cells can serve as an important tool in the study of angiogenesis and neurovascular development and interactions. The two vascular networks of the embryonic forebrain, pial and periventricular, are spatially distinctive and have different origins and growth patterns. Endothelial cells from the pial and periventricular vascular networks have unique gene expression profiles and functions. Here we present a step-by-step protocol for isolation, culture, and verification of pure populations of endothelial cells from the periventricular vascular network (PVECs) of the embryonic forebrain (telencephalon). In this approach, telencephalon devoid of pial membrane obtained from embryonic day 15 mice is minced, digested with collagenase/dispase, and dispersed mechanically into a single cell suspension. PVECs are purified from cell suspension using positive selection with anti-CD-31/PECAM-1 antibody conjugated to MicroBeads using a strong magnetic separation method. Purified cells are cultured on collagen 1&#160;coated culture dishes in endothelial cell culture medium until they become confluent and further subcultured. PVECs obtained with this protocol exhibit cobblestone and spindle shaped phenotypes, as visualized by phase-contrast light microscopy and fluorescence microscopy. Purity of PVEC cultures was established with endothelial cell markers. In our hands, this method reliably and consistently yields pure populations of PVECs. This protocol will benefit studies aimed at gaining mechanistic insights into forebrain angiogenesis, understanding PVEC interactions, and cross-talks with neuronal cell types and holds tremendous potential for therapeutic angiogenesis.

This video demonstrates an easy and reliable strategy for preparation of pure cultures of endothelial cells from the embryonic forebrain within 10-12 days and will be useful for research focused on many aspects of cerebral angiogenesis.

从胚胎前脑内皮细胞的分离和培养

Embryonic brain endothelial cells can serve as an important tool in the study of angiogenesis and neurovascular development and interactions. The two ...

Electrophysiological Recording in the Brain of Intact Adult Zebrafish

Previously, electrophysiological studies in adult zebrafish have been limited to slice preparations or to eye cup preparations and electrorentinogram recordings. This paper describes how an adult zebrafish can be immobilized, intubated, and used for in vivo electrophysiological experiments, allowing recording of neural activity. Immobilization of the adult requires a mechanism to deliver dissolved oxygen to the gills in lieu of buccal and opercular movement. With our technique, animals are immobilized and perfused with habitat water to fulfill this requirement. A craniotomy is performed under tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222; tricaine) anesthesia to provide access to the brain. The primary electrode is then positioned within the craniotomy window to record extracellular brain activity. Through the use of a multitube perfusion system, a variety of pharmacological compounds can be administered to the adult fish and any alterations in the neural activity can be observed. The methodology not only allows for observations to be made regarding changes in neurological activity, but it also allows for comparisons to be made between larval and adult zebrafish. This gives researchers the ability to identify the alterations in neurological activity due to the introduction of various compounds at different life stages.

This paper describes how an adult zebrafish can be immobilized, intubated, and used for in vivo electrophysiological experiments to allow recordings and manipulation of neural activity in an intact animal.

在完整的成年斑马鱼大脑电生理记录

Previously, electrophysiological studies in adult zebrafish have been limited to slice preparations or to eye cup preparations and electrorentinogram ...

Live Imaging of Mitosis in the Developing Mouse Embryonic Cortex

Although of short duration, mitosis is a complex and dynamic multi-step process fundamental for development of organs including the brain. In the developing cerebral cortex, abnormal mitosis of neural progenitors can cause defects in brain size and function. Hence, there is a critical need for tools to understand the mechanisms of neural progenitor mitosis. Cortical development in rodents is an outstanding model for studying this process. Neural progenitor mitosis is commonly examined in fixed brain sections. This protocol will describe in detail an approach for live imaging of mitosis in ex vivo embryonic brain slices. We will describe the critical steps for this procedure, which include: brain extraction, brain embedding, vibratome sectioning of brain slices, staining and culturing of slices, and time-lapse imaging. We will then demonstrate and describe in detail how to perform post-acquisition analysis of mitosis. We include representative results from this assay using the vital dye Syto11, transgenic mice (histone H2B-EGFP and centrin-EGFP), and in utero electroporation (mCherry-&#945;-tubulin). We will discuss how this procedure can be best optimized and how it can be modified for study of genetic regulation of mitosis. Live imaging of mitosis in brain slices is a flexible approach to assess the impact of age, anatomy, and genetic perturbation in a controlled environment, and to generate a large amount of data with high temporal and spatial resolution. Hence this protocol will complement existing tools for analysis of neural progenitor mitosis.

Neural progenitor mitosis is a critical parameter of neurogenesis. Much of our understanding of neural progenitor mitosis is based on analysis of fixed tissue. Live imaging in embryonic brain slices is a versatile technique to assess mitosis with high temporal and spatial resolution in a controlled environment.

有丝分裂中的不同发育阶段小鼠胚胎皮层实时成像

Although of short duration, mitosis is a complex and dynamic multi-step process fundamental for development of organs including the brain. In the ...

Conditional Genetic Transsynaptic Tracing in the Embryonic Mouse Brain

Anatomical path tracing is of pivotal importance to decipher the relationship between brain and behavior. Unraveling the formation of neural circuits during embryonic maturation of the brain however is technically challenging because most transsynaptic tracing methods developed to date depend on stereotaxic tracer injection. To overcome this problem, we developed a binary genetic strategy for conditional genetic transsynaptic tracing in the mouse brain. Towards this end we generated two complementary knock-in mouse strains to selectively express the bidirectional transsynaptic tracer barley lectin (BL) and the retrograde transsynaptic tracer Tetanus Toxin fragment C from the ROSA26 locus after Cre-mediated recombination. Cell-specific tracer production in these mice is genetically encoded and does not depend on mechanical tracer injection. Therefore our experimental approach is suitable to study neural circuit formation in the embryonic murine brain. Furthermore, because tracer transfer across synapses depends on synaptic activity, these mouse strains can be used to analyze the communication between genetically defined neuronal populations during brain development at a single cell resolution. Here we provide a detailed protocol for transsynaptic tracing in mouse embryos using the novel recombinant ROSA26 alleles. We have utilized this experimental technique in order to delineate the neural circuitry underlying maturation of the reproductive axis in the developing female mouse brain.

Capitalizing on a binary genetic strategy we provide a detailed protocol for neural circuit tracing in mice that express complementary transsynaptic tracers after Cre-mediated recombination. Because cell-specific tracer production is genetically encoded, our experimental approach is suitable to study the formation and maturation of neural circuitry during murine embryonic brain development at a single cell resolution.

有条件的遗传跨突触标记在胚胎小鼠脑

Anatomical path tracing is of pivotal importance to decipher the relationship between brain and behavior. Unraveling the formation of neural circuits ...

Live Imaging of the Ependymal Cilia in the Lateral Ventricles of the Mouse Brain

Multiciliated ependymal cells line the ventricles in the adult brain. Abnormal function or structure of ependymal cilia is associated with various neurological deficits. The current ex vivo live imaging of motile ependymal cilia technique allows for a detailed study of ciliary dynamics following several steps. These steps include: mice euthanasia with carbon dioxide according to protocols of The University of Toledo&#8217;s Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC); craniectomy followed by brain removal and sagittal brain dissection with a vibratome or sharp blade to obtain very thin sections through the brain lateral ventricles, where the ependymal cilia can be visualized. Incubation of the brain&#8217;s slices in a customized glass-bottom plate containing Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle&#8217;s Medium (DMEM)/High-Glucose at 37 &#176;C in the presence of 95%/5% O2/CO2 mixture is essential to keep the tissue alive during the experiment. A video of the cilia beating is then recorded using a high-resolution differential interference contrast microscope. The video is then analyzed frame by frame to calculate the ciliary beating frequency. This allows distinct classification of the ependymal cells into three categories or types based on their ciliary beating frequency and angle. Furthermore, this technique allows the use of high-speed fluorescence imaging analysis to characterize the unique intracellular calcium oscillation properties of ependymal cells as well as the effect of pharmacological agents on the calcium oscillations and the ciliary beating frequency. In addition, this technique is suitable for immunofluorescence imaging for ciliary structure and ciliary protein localization studies. This is particularly important in disease diagnosis and phenotype studies. The main limitation of the technique is attributed to the decrease in live motile cilia movement as the brain tissue starts to die.

Using high-resolution differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy, an ex vivo observation of the beating of motile ependymal cilia located within the mouse brain ventricles is demonstrated by live-imaging. The technique allows a recording of the unique ciliary beating frequency and beating angle as well as their intracellular calcium oscillation pacing properties.

室管膜纤毛在小鼠脑侧脑室实时成像

Multiciliated ependymal cells line the ventricles in the adult brain. Abnormal function or structure of ependymal cilia is associated with various ...

Exposure of the Pig CNS for Histological Analysis: A Manual for Decapitation, Skull Opening, and Brain Removal

Pigs have become increasingly popular in large-animal translational neuroscience research as an economically and ethically feasible substitute to non-human primates. The large brain size of the pig allows the use of conventional clinical brain imagers and the direct use and testing of neurosurgical procedures and equipment from the human clinic. Further macroscopic and histological analysis, however, requires postmortem exposure of the pig central nervous system (CNS) and subsequent brain removal. This is not an easy task, as the pig CNS is encapsulated by a thick, bony skull and spinal column. The goal of this paper and instructional video is to describe how to expose and remove the postmortem pig brain and the pituitary gland in an intact state, suitable for subsequent macroscopic and histological analysis.

The goal of this paper and instructional video is to describe how to expose and remove the postmortem pig brain and pituitary gland in an intact state, suitable for subsequent macroscopic and histological analysis.

猪中枢神经系统的组织学分析的曝光：一个手册斩首，颅骨打开，并去除脑

Pigs have become increasingly popular in large-animal translational neuroscience research as an economically and ethically feasible substitute to ...

Exploring Deep Space - Uncovering the Anatomy of Periventricular Structures to Reveal the Lateral Ventricles of the Human Brain

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this challenging. Because the ventricles are negative spaces located deep within the brain, the only way to understand their anatomy is by appreciating their boundaries formed by related structures. Looking at a 2D representation of these spaces, in any of the cardinal planes, will not enable visualisation of all of the structures that form the boundaries of the ventricles. Thus, using 2D sections alone requires students to compute their own mental image of the 3D ventricular spaces. The aim of this study was to develop a reproducible method for dissecting the human brain to create an educational resource to enhance student understanding of the intricate relationships between the ventricles and periventricular structures. To achieve this, we created a video resource that features a step-by-step guide using a fiber dissection method to reveal the lateral and third ventricles together with the closely related limbic system and basal ganglia structures. One of the advantages of this method is that it enables delineation of the white matter tracts that are difficult to distinguish using other dissection techniques. This video is accompanied by a written protocol that provides a systematic description of the process to aid in the reproduction of the brain dissection. This package offers a valuable anatomy teaching resource for educators and students alike. By following these instructions educators can create teaching resources and students can be guided to produce their own brain dissection as a hands-on practical activity. We recommend that this video guide be incorporated into neuroanatomy teaching to enhance student understanding of the morphology and clinical relevance of the ventricles.

This paper demonstrates the effective use of a fiber dissection method to reveal the superficial white matter tracts and periventricular structures of the human brain, in three-dimensional space, to aid student comprehension of ventricular morphology.

探索深空-揭开人脑侧脑室的脑室结构解剖

Anatomy students are typically provided with two-dimensional (2D) sections and images when studying cerebral ventricular anatomy and students find this ...