This research was supported in part by a grant from the Social Science and Humanities Research Council. Also, a special thank you to the many families who participated in this study, and the volunteers and research staff who helped with the data collection.

注意:以下协议是按照由麦吉尔大学研究伦理委员会批准的道德标准开发的。对于有孩子，涉及欺骗所有的研究，它需要获得来自大学或机构伦理委员会批准。请注意，不同的伦理委员会可能有不同的要求。 1.准备用于实验<ol><li>指导E1记住每个实验条件（附录B）必要的对话，E2应该熟悉面试协议（附录A）的问题。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/53773/JOVE_Appendix_A.docx" target="_blank">请点击此处下载附录A.</a> <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/53773/JOVE_Appendix_B.docx" target="_blank">请点击这里下载附录B.</a> </li><li>在一次测试只有一个参与者。使用三个独立的房间为目前的研究:检测室，面试řOOM，普通房。 </li><li>使用了E1和儿童参与者之间的相互作用检测室。 </li><li>放置必要的协议和用于填料的活动的材料，并在该检测室的钱包。钱包放在隐蔽的位置，如一个表上的花盆后面的位置。请确保儿童不看钱包E1被盗情况之前。 </li><li>把二十块钱里面的钱包。此外，将假身份证（ 例如 ，一个旧公交月票和身份证）在钱包给人的印象到钱包属于别人的参与者。 </li><li>将外套（或其他项目）钱包附近通过E1前夕盗窃情况进行检索。 </li><li>放在考场，以避免干扰门"测试进行中"的牌子。 </li><li>用于与E2和孩子参与者采访室;确保房间里有一张桌子，两把椅和隐藏的相机S中的记录采访。 <ol><li>准备面试室，包括与相对的两个桌椅。 注:面试协议和剪贴板不应该在面试室，因为之前立即E2和孩子之间参加面试，E2指出，他们正在与E1去考场，以得到他们的剪贴板的面试问题。然而，E2是允许在采访过程中使用的采访脚本。 </li><li>确保在面试室的录像设备可以在面试开始时很容易激活。 </li></ol></li><li>指导家长和其他家庭成员留在一个公共空间研究的持续时间。 注:孩子的参与者都在这个房间的时候父母填写知情同意书研究的开端。同意书完成后，孩子参与者将不会回到这个房间或与父母或家人交流，直到年底研究。 </li><li>将同意和人口统计的形式在公共休息室剪贴板。 </li></ol> 2.与会者<ol><li>当招募参加者，指导招聘，提供参与者的法定监护人与研究的详细说明。 注意:为了避免在研究过程中影响参与者的行为，家长应该披露有关盗窃和采访对孩子的细节气馁。儿童学员必须精通协议的语言，并有参与任何其它研究的经验（ 如睡懒觉告诉调查），可能导致他们确定的盗窃和面试情况实验性质。此外，与阻止他们挑剔的真理与谎言之间的区别生理，智力和/或发育残疾儿童不应该被招募为这项研究。 </li><li>指导谁是次的始作俑者研究员Ë盗窃（E1）选择为孩子参加实验条件。 <ol><li>在研究开始前选择的条件。 </li><li>考虑选择的条件时，参与者的年龄和性别;因此，确保每个条件有一个类似的从每个年龄和性别组参加人数。 注:在每个年龄和性别组，此消彼长的情况。例如，如果E1选择FD条件为6-7岁年龄组中的男性参与者，这种情况不能再次直到其他三个条件被选择用于此年龄或性别的群体。确保面试官（E2）不知道实验条件，以避免在采访中影响他们的行为。 注意:一旦在研究开始不要更改条件。只有在特殊情况下应该E1被指示更改的条件，如认为一个特定的孩子将经历从witnes严重的情绪困扰唱盗窃和/或被要求躺下。在这种情况下，E1应要求条件更改为true否认，因此孩子被要求讲真话，不亲眼目睹盗窃。 </li></ol></li><li>在此之前开始学习，要求法定监护人完成一份同意书，介绍了研究的过程和目的。 注:实验的真正性质不应该被披露给孩子参与者直到试验结束。 </li><li>指示父母完成人口统计形式提供所需要的研究任何人口统计信息。 </li></ol> 3.填料活动<ol><li>父母相继完成了知情同意书后，指示E1问孩子参与者与他们去考场。 </li><li>在此之前开始填充物的活动，通知他们会搞一些游戏与E1的孩子，他们可以随意在任何时候停止学习，如果他们觉得uncomfortable或烦恼。 <ol><li>如果孩子或显示在研究期间阐明了在任何时候的情绪困扰，指示研究者（E1和E2）立即停止学习和孩子回到他们的父母被盘问有关研究的真正本质。 </li></ol></li><li>开始填料活动的孩子提供了口头同意他们理解研究的指示后。 注:填料活动应采取30-40分钟之间。该活动的目的是帮助建立融洽E1和孩子参与者之间，以及掩饰研究的本色。 注:填料的活动可包括一系列的认知任务（ 例如 ，标准化语言能力的任务），或者它们可以是一个游戏。这些任务的目的是吸引孩子，并为E1开发与孩子融洽。 </li></ol> 4.盗窃情况<ol><li>完成填料活动后，指示E1抢他或之前与孩子面试房间去她的外套（或其他项目）。 <ol><li>找到夹克附近的钱包。打开钱包，并通知钱包属于另一个研究员孩子。 </li><li>从钱包中取出二十元，并根据孩子被安排在条件，要么拿钱或者把它放回钱包。 </li><li>在被盗的情况，如果孩子出现心烦意乱，指示E1的钱包前需得到孩子的注意力。 </li><li>放置钱包回到原来的位置。从提供有关钱包或他们采取或离开金钱理由的任何其他信息阻止E1。如果孩子问起钱包，转移谈话中，如通过填料任务赞美孩子的表现。 </li></ol></li><li>钱包的情况后，去与孩子面试房间。离开夹克或其他项目（即E1正在寻找）的叔他测试室。 </li></ol> 5.设置实验条件<ol><li>在面试室，指示E2迎接E1和孩子。接下来，有E1介绍孩子E2。指导E1声明，他们忘记了自己的外套，测试室。这时，E2应表明他们忘记了他们的剪贴板在同一个房间的面试问题。有E2 E1与去考场，以获得问题。 注意:以后，孩子得知E2认为E1偷钱从钱包;因此，E1和E2之间的相互作用的目的是要帮助孩子认识E2如何意识到与钱包的情况。 </li><li>此前E2离开房间与E1，指导孩子完成，而他们都走了填料活动（ 例如 ，一个谜）。 </li><li> 2分钟后，指示E1返回到采访室无E2。在此期间，有E1问孩子讲一个有关使用情况真话还是假话钱包。参见附录B为设定每个条件所使用的E1对话。 <ol><li>诬告条件（FA） <ol><li>有孩子见证E1离开钱在钱包;然而，让他们通过诬告的拿了钱E1撒谎到E2。 </li></ol></li><li>假拒绝条件（FD） <ol><li>拿钱从钱包里，但要求孩子们通过说E1没拿钱错误地否认盗窃E2。 </li></ol></li><li>真正的罪名条件（TA） <ol><li>有孩子目睹E1采取从钱包里的钱，并要求他们如实指责拿了钱E1。 </li></ol></li><li>真正的拒绝条件（TD） <ol><li>不要把钱从钱包。问学生如实否认盗窃E2。 注:通过与E1的互动结束后，孩子应该了解什么是E1要求他们重复自己的病情的指示做。如果孩子母鹿不是似乎明白什么是问他们，问E1重复状态的指示给他们。从提供有关失窃情况或条件的任何其他信息阻止E1。 注:孩子不一定要同意遵守每个条件的说明。例如，进一步说服孩子劝阻E1，如果他们指出，他们不愿意骗他们。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li>指导E1设置条件后离开房间。 </li><li> E1设置条件，并离开房间后一分钟，指示E2返回采访孩子有关与E1的事件。 </li></ol> 6.面试<ol><li>如果孩子愿意谈论在面试前的钱包的情况下，指示E2疏导谈话。 </li><li>孩子完成活动（ 例如 ，益智）后，开始与孩子面谈。请参阅附录A的采访脚本。 <ol><li>问在面试开始基线问题（N = 2）E2和孩子之间建立融洽的关系，以及提供关于每个孩子的口头表达能力和/或意愿披露信息的基准数据。 </li><li>使用 在整个采访的开放式问题（N = 3）鼓励孩子形容自己的话他们与E1的经历。此外，利用每个问题后的提示（ 例如 ，"你能告诉我吗？"），以儿童提供更多的机会，透露的信息。下面是所使用的开放式问题的类型: <ol><li>问需要孩子来描述尽可能详细，因为他们从他​​们与E1经验想起一切可能的两家免费召回的问题。再问一个免费召回问题立即基线的问题后，并问在采访的最后第二个。 </li><li>问问孩子来形容他们的一切从他们的时间与E1想起，却以相反的顺序。在几个订单描述的事件已经表明，以增加维持一个谎言34，37所需的认知努力。 </li><li>问封闭式问题（N = 7），以鼓励孩子们提供有关情况的钱包短期和直接的信息。 </li></ol></li></ol></li><li>为了保持所有与会者一致采访的协议，从改写或改变在采访脚本提供的信息劝阻E2。 </li><li>如果孩子不明白的问题，重申这个问题给他们。 </li><li>为了避免影响长度，准确性和儿童证词的质量，不要让E2提供任何额外的提示和/或增强孩子的回应（那些在脚本之外）。出于这个原因，指示E2保持声音的色调一致在整个采访过程，并避免使用可能加强再非言语行为响应情况，如点头或头部颤抖。 </li></ol> 7.总结研究<ol><li>完成面试后，带孩子到公共室。接下来，指示E1和E2来引导孩子对学习的欺骗性，并且告诉他或她，盗窃假装并没有实际发生。 注:此外，保证E1或E2告诉孩子，他们在研究中参与可能会帮助其他孩子在未来，他们应该告诉他们的监护人，如果他们曾经要求躺在另一个成人。 </li><li>述职后，补偿参与者和感谢他们在研究中参与。 </li></ol> 8.准备采访记录<ol><li>根据各地的视频录像采访中创建每个孩子的口头答复和非言语行为的书面稿件。 </li><li>转录由孩子提供的所有信息，即使他们再泥炭某些细节多次。 </li><li>不要使用缩写或录制视频，录制时的符号（ 如数字）。 </li><li>指示抄写下面的相应问题记录参与者的反应被问。告诉他们只记录行为和面试官的语句，如果他们从采访剧本有很大不同。 </li></ol> 9.编码儿童不限成员名额响应<ol><li>评估孩子们在3个开放式问题披露数量和类型的信息。 注:确保三个程序员如果忽视他们正在评估孩子的实验条件。 </li><li>计算孩子的话（ 响应长度 ）和大约钱包和盗窃的情况（ 事件详细信息 ）的详细信息的总数。 注:响应长度是跨越三个开放式的问题儿童使用的字数。字处理程序可以用来阻止挖掘孩子的响应长度。 注:活动内容包括信息的披露儿童有关在他们的三个开放式的反应钱包的情况。记录有关情况钱包每一个人和新的细节。例如，句子，"E1接过钱从钱包里"，包含五个事件的详细信息。但是，如果孩子在以后的问题说，"E1花二十元钱从钱包里"，然后分别仅提供了两个新的事件的详细信息。 </li><li>指示编码器从其他程序员独立评估每个脚本的事件详细信息，以避免在脚本编码任何潜在的偏见。使用来自三个编码统计分析词和事件的详细信息的平均数。 </li></ol> 10.编码儿童封闭式响应<ol><li>指导1编码器评估，以保持他们的故事，孩子们的能力在整个4封闭式问题上市附录C参考附录C为用于评估孩子的维护他们的四个实验条件下故事的编码措施。 <a href="https://www.jove.com/files/ftp_upload/53773/JOVE-Appendix_C(Feb_25,_2016).docx" target="_blank">请点击此处下载附录C.</a> </li><li>首先，确定如果孩子告诉接受记者采访时真理或谎言。 <ol><li>使用最后一个封闭式的问题（"难道E1拿钱从钱包？"），以确定是否一个孩子讲述一个关于潜在失窃真相（得分为0）或谎言（记为1）。 注意:谁的孩子提供了不符合自己的病情报告不应包括在维护故事的评估。于是，孩子们谁在说真话条件谎言算命条件真话还是假话被排除在这一分析。 </li></ol></li><li>给孩子一个点支持他们的真或假报告（总婆每个封闭式响应ssible维护的4分）。 </li><li>使用统计检验从研究分析数据。例如，进行卡方或逻辑回归儿童愿意趴在孩子的分数维护数据和线性回归。 </li></ol>

The authors declare that they have no competing financial or conflicts of interests in regards to this manuscript.

目前的方法的目的是为研究人员提供用于评估不同类型的儿童真假报告一个生态的有效方法。该代表调查结果表明，目前的方法可以鼓励孩子提供虚假都否认和大约高成本事件诬告。相较于过去的研究，见证了一个低成本的事件（ 例如 ，打破了玩具）8，9，12，目前的研究可以产生关于儿童的证词作为参与者普及信息将见证一个高成本后才检查孩子的假否认事件讲述不同类型的真?...

本研究的主要目标是为在实验环境评估儿童的真假法度提供一个生态有效方法。儿童在警方和法医的访谈故意不实报道已经降低，因为被告，原告和刑事司法系统3-6潜在的负面影响公众对儿童证言的合法性的信任。大量的研究已经评估，以实地否认事件，以保护别人7-12孩子的能力，或者犯，但相当少的人知道孩子的能力，使诬告13-14。即使孩子们进行虚假的否认和/或有意忽略他们的证词的信息，也出现了被说服孩子们的众多现实生活中的情况下，诬告犯有罪过的人，如被羁押战斗5虐待的诬告，15-18。通过让孩子心甘情愿地产生假的否认和虚假指控在实验环境，目前的研究方法旨在提供各类虚假报道的儿童有更强的理解，可以在自己的证词目击者告诉。 上一页谎言算命研究与儿童已普遍涉及到一个低成本的情况来看，他们是说谎关于非威胁性的事件，如破玩具9，12，14，谁给警察或法医调查员提供的证词儿童经常披露成本高事件的信息，如目击犯罪行为或遭受虐待。被要求召回约一个不具威胁性的事件信息可能不会促进相同的方式，当孩子真正见证一个严重的罪过或犯罪行为谲。例如，谁见证了罪的孩子可能会遇到创伤后应激19-20的症状;因而，他们往往reluct蚂蚁讨论其潜在的惨痛经历（S）与他人21-22。为了提高孩子们的产生，他们被要求提供证词的情况不实报道的能力的理解，目前的研究有孩子讲一个关于一个涉嫌盗窃真话还是假话，他们可能（或可能不会）亲眼目睹。 对孩子的谎言，告诉技能过去的实验研究通常使用三至四个后续问题，以评估孩子的最初虚报是否保持整个采访中10-11，23-25。此外，许多这些采访的协议都依赖于封闭式问题，其中一个孩子必须提供一个字的回应，如"是"或"否"。虽然这种方法确实提供了一些深入孩子们的欺骗能力，结果可能不能一概而论到儿童证人受到质疑有关事件的真实生活的设置。当省iding证明了警察或法医调查员，儿童常要回答要求他们提供闭环和开放式的反应很多问题;因此，如果一个孩子在说谎，他们将不得不保持过来多种类型的后续问题。为了解决这个限制，本研究将使用更长的访谈法来评估孩子的谎言，告诉技能，以及他们的证词的特点。面试协议是由认知面试（CI）及儿童健康和人类发展（NICHD）协议的研究所，这是用于增加从目击者26-30获得的信息量生态有效警方面试技巧的影响。而不是依靠几个封闭式问题，采访由两个基线，三个开放式的，和七个封闭式问题（参见附录A）的。的问题较大数量和种类允许对所述的年龄，性别和在长度和类型的信息的儿童实验基于条件的差异检查愿意在他们的法度透露。 为了显得有说服力的，骗人的算命往 ​​往要同时管理自己的语言和非语言行为，并评估谎言收件人10，31-32的精神状态。然而，当面试问题需要从响应增加认知努力，睡懒觉出纳员比真相出纳员更容易在他们的证词33-34做出明显的错误。此外，越来越多的响应所需的心力实际上阻碍了谎言，告诉35，如说谎，并令人信服地应对具有挑战性的和意想不到的问题的认知负荷可太认知费力一些34，36。由于这些原因，警方和法医调查员一直鼓励使用开放式问题和提示，如在Cognitive采访中，增加的受访者33-34，35所需要的认知努力。此外，这些类型的问题给予诚实的反应多次机会阐述他们此前披露的信息，这可能会导致更详细和准确的证词30， 38-39。当他们被要求概括的面试问题，以及旨在提高响应的认知负荷提示，他们愿意透露有关事件的信息的数量目前的方法可以因此提供了对儿童的真假证词数据。 为了克服以往研究的局限性，目前的研究方法采用四实验条件来评估不同类型的真假报告孩子愿意对涉嫌盗窃提供。在这项研究中，儿童（6-11岁）将见证煽动者（E1）发现一个陌生人的钱包具有二十美元吧。孩子随后被E1通过问虚假或者否认发生失窃（假否定条件）骗面试官（E2），或诬告未发生（诬告条件）盗窃的E1。此外，一些孩子会被要求讲述一个盗窃做了真相（真指责条件），或未能成行（真拒绝的条件）。孩子们则通过关于发生与E1的事件第二研究员（E2）接受采访。面试是被录像，后来转录成书面成绩单。编码然后记录的话，并通过在开放性问题儿童钱包披露相关的详细信息的数量;对封闭式问题的回答被用来评估儿童保持自己的真与假报告的能力。

<table><tbody><tr><td>Testing Room</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>The room where the rapport-building activities and theft occur. The room should have at least two chairs and two tables. One table will be used for the rapport-building activities and interactions between the instigator (E1) and the child participant. The second table will have the jacket and wallet placed on it. Other items, such as books, a labtop, flowers and office items can be placed on the second table to conceal the wallet.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Common Room</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>Parents and other family members will remain in this room for the duration of the study. Comfortable chairs, a table, magazines, and age-appropriate toys will make the overall study experience more enjoyable for the family.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Interview Room</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>The room that will be used to interview the children. The room should have a table, two-chairs, and hidden cameras to record the interview.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Consent Form</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>Form that the parents complete prior to beginning the study. It should include a detailed explanation of the study, along with all the ethics considerations. Parents should sign this form before commencing the activities with the child.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Demographics Form</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>A form that that provides any demographic information that is needed for the study, such as the race, income, religious background, and level of education of the family.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Rapport-building Activities</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>Age-appropriate games and cognitive measures, such as a standardized verbal ability task. The rapport-building activities should take between 30 to 40 min.</td></tr><tr><td>Jacket</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>A jacket that would realistically be worn according to the weather outside.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Wallet</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>A gender-neutral wallet that includes fake identification cards, such as an old bus pass, and a twenty-dollar bill.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Puzzle</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>A child-friendly puzzle that can be completed in 5 to 10 min. The current study utilized a puzzle that included 30 pieces.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Interview Script</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>The interview script used in the current study.</td></tr><tr><td>Hidden Cameras</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>Any camera that can easily be hidden from the child participants. The camera(s) should also be able to record individual HD videos for at least 30 min.</td></tr><tr><td>Word Processing Program</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>Any word processing program that can be used to transcribe the videos. This program should also be able to count the number of words in a document.&amp;nbsp;&amp;nbsp;</td></tr><tr><td>Statistical Analysis Program</td><td>N/A</td><td>N/A</td><td>Any statistical analysis program that can perform chi-square or logistic regressions for children&amp;rsquo;s willingness to lie data, and linear regressions on children&amp;rsquo;s maintenance scores.&amp;nbsp;</td></tr></tbody></table>

an experimental analysis of children's ability to provide a false report about a crime

A considerable amount of research has evaluated children's lie-telling behaviors and skills1-2; however, limitations with the tasks used for eliciting false testimonies and interviewing children have restricted the generalizability of the findings. The primary aim of the current study is to provide an easy-to-administer and ecologically valid method for measuring the veracity and quality of school-aged children's (ages 6-11) testimonies when they are asked to provide different types of true and false reports. Moreover, the methodology enables researchers to examine the social and developmental factors that could influence the credibility of a child's testimony. In the current study, children will witness a theft, and are then asked to either falsely deny the transgression, falsely accuse a researcher of the theft, or tell the truth. Afterwards, children are to be interviewed by a second researcher using a thorough and ecologically valid interview protocol that requires children to provide closed-ended and free-recall responses about the events with the instigator (E1). Coders then evaluate the length and number of theft-related details the children give throughout the interview, as well as their ability to maintain their true and false reports. The representative results indicate that the truth and lie-telling conditions elicit the intended behaviors from the children. The open-ended interview questions encouraged children to provide free-recall information about their experiences with E1. Moreover, findings from the closed-ended questions suggest that children are significantly better at maintaining their lies with age, and when producing a false denial compared to a false accusation. Results from the current study can be used to develop a greater understanding of the characteristics of children's true and false testimonies about crime, which can potentially benefit law enforcement, legal staff and professionals who interview children.

烈告诉行为模式 图1示出的在各实验条件下的儿童谎言算命行为的速率。作为纬塔耶布 - Lachance，福斯特，格罗斯曼和塔瓦尔（审查）报道，孩子的参与者更愿意告诉相比真理条件谎言算命条件谎言;但是，没有差异的谎言，出纳员在FD和FA条件的百分比被发现了。此外，没有发现有关儿童的意愿，谎言年龄或性别差...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Experimental Analysis of Children's Ability to Provide a False Report about a Crime at JoVE.com

An Experimental Analysis of Children's Ability to Provide a False Report about a Crime

The current methodology is designed to provide an ecologically relevant approach for measuring the veracity, length and quality of children's true and false testimonies. Implications of the current methodology for future research and professionals who interview children will also be discussed.

儿童能够提供有关犯罪虚假报告的实验分析

A considerable amount of research has evaluated children's lie-telling behaviors and skills1-2; however, limitations with the tasks used for eliciting ...

an-experimental-analysis-children-s-ability-to-provide-false-report

Research

JoVE Journal

Behavior

8.5K 次观看.  McGill University. The current methodology is designed to provide an ecologically relevant approach for measuring the veracity, length and quality of children's true and false testimonies. Implications of the current methodology for future research and professionals who interview children will also be discussed.

视频: An Experimental Analysis of Children's Ability to Provide a False Report about a Crime

Measurement of Fronto-limbic Activity Using an Emotional Oddball Task in Children with Familial High Risk for Schizophrenia

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with schizophrenia who are at familial high risk (FHR) may show similar cognitive and emotional changes. However, the neurological changes underlying the emergence of these symptoms remain unclear. This study sought to identify differences in frontal, striatal, and limbic regions in children and adolescents with FHR using functional magnetic resonance imaging. Groups of 21 children and adolescents at FHR and 21 healthy controls completed an emotional oddball task that relied on selective attention and the suppression of task-irrelevant emotional information. The standard oddball task was modified to include aversive and neutral distractors in order to examine potential group differences in both emotional and executive processing. This task was designed specifically to allow for children and adolescents to complete by keeping the difficulty and emotional image content age-appropriate. Furthermore, we demonstrate a technique for suitable fMRI registration for children and adolescent participants. This paradigm may also be applied in future studies to measure changes in neural activity in other populations with hypothesized developmental changes in executive and emotional processing.

This paper describes how to use the emotional oddball task and fMRI to measure brain activation in children and adolescents at familial high risk for schizophrenia (FHR).&#160;FMRI was used to measure differences in fronto-striato-limbic regions during an emotional oddball task. Children with FHR exhibited abnormal functional activation during adolescence.

的额边缘活度测量在儿童使用情绪穿着或行为古怪的任务与家族性高风险的精神分裂症

Adolescence is a critical developmental period where the early symptoms of schizophrenia frequently emerge. First-degree relatives of people with ...

科研

行为学

Eye Tracking, Cortisol, and a Sleep vs. Wake Consolidation Delay: Combining Methods to Uncover an Interactive Effect of Sleep and Cortisol on Memory

Although rises in cortisol can benefit memory consolidation, as can sleep soon after encoding, there is currently a paucity of literature as to how these two factors may interact to influence consolidation. Here we present a protocol to examine the interactive influence of cortisol and sleep on memory consolidation, by combining three methods: eye tracking, salivary cortisol analysis, and behavioral memory testing across sleep and wake delays. To assess resting cortisol levels, participants gave a saliva sample before viewing negative and neutral objects within scenes. To measure overt attention, participants&#8217; eye gaze was tracked during encoding. To manipulate whether sleep occurred during the consolidation window, participants either encoded scenes in the evening, slept overnight, and took a recognition test the next morning, or encoded scenes in the morning and remained awake during a comparably long retention interval. Additional control groups were tested after a 20&#160;min&#160;delay in the morning or evening, to control for time-of-day effects. Together, results showed that there is a direct relation between resting cortisol at encoding and subsequent memory, only following a period of sleep. Through eye tracking, it was further determined that for negative stimuli, this beneficial effect of cortisol on subsequent memory may be due to cortisol strengthening the relation between where participants look during encoding and what they are later able to remember. Overall, results obtained by a combination of these methods uncovered an interactive effect of sleep and cortisol on memory consolidation.

We present a protocol used to discover an interactive effect between sleep and cortisol on memory consolidation, particularly for negative arousing images. Specifically, the experimental design utilizes eye tracking, salivary cortisol analysis, and behavioral memory testing &#8211; methods that can be used with both healthy and clinical participants.

眼睛跟踪，皮质醇和睡眠与唤醒延迟合并：合并方法来揭开睡眠和皮质醇的交互式影响记忆

Although rises in cortisol can benefit memory consolidation, as can sleep soon after encoding, there is currently a paucity of literature as to how these ...

Experimental Assessment of Mouse Sociability Using an Automated Image Processing Approach

Mouse is the preferred model organism for testing drugs designed to increase sociability. We present a method to quantify mouse sociability in which the test mouse is placed in a standardized apparatus and relevant behaviors are assessed in three different sessions (called session I, II, and III).
The apparatus has three compartments (see Figure 1), the left and right compartments contain an inverted cup which can house a mouse (called &#34;stimulus mouse&#34;).
In session I, the test mouse is placed in the cage and its mobility is characterized by the number of transitions made between compartments. In session II, a stimulus mouse is placed under one of the inverted cups and the sociability of the test mouse is quantified by the amounts of time it spends near the cup containing the enclosed stimulus mouse vs. the empty inverted cup. In session III, the inverted cups are removed and both mice interact freely. The sociability of the test mouse in session III is quantified by the number of social approaches it makes toward the stimulus mouse and by the number of times it avoids a social approach by the stimulus mouse.
The automated evaluation of the movie detects the nose of the test mouse, which allows the determination of all described sociability measures in session I and II (in session III, approaches are identified automatically but classified manually). To find the nose, the image of an empty cage is digitally subtracted from each frame of the movie and the resulting image is binarized to identify the mouse pixels. The mouse tail is automatically removed and the two most distant points of the remaining mouse are determined; these are close to nose and base of tail. By analyzing the motion of the mouse and using continuity arguments, the nose is identified.
<img alt="Figure 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/52508/52508fig1.jpg" /> 
Figure 1. Assessment of Sociability During 3 sessions. Session I (top): Acclimation of test mouse to the cage. Session II (middle): Test mouse moving freely in the cage while the stimulus mouse is enclosed in an inverted cup. Session III (bottom): Both test mouse and stimulus mouse are allowed to move freely and interact with each other.

This protocol describes a method to quantify mouse sociability. Mice are videotaped as they move and interact in a special cage. Movie processing allows for the automated quantification of sociability with excellent accuracy and reliability.

使用自动图像处理方法鼠标社交性的实验评估

Mouse is the preferred model organism for testing drugs designed to increase sociability. We present a method to quantify mouse sociability in which the ...

Holistic Facial Composite Creation and Subsequent Video Line-up Eyewitness Identification Paradigm

The paradigm detailed in this manuscript describes an applied experimental method based on real police investigations during which an eyewitness or victim to a crime may create from memory a holistic facial composite of the culprit with the assistance of a police operator. The aim is that the composite is recognized by someone who believes that they know the culprit. For this paradigm, participants view a culprit actor on video and following a delay, participant-witnesses construct a holistic system facial composite. Controls do not construct a composite. From a series of arrays of computer-generated, but realistic faces, the holistic system construction method primarily requires participant-witnesses to select the facial images most closely meeting their memory of the culprit. Variation between faces in successive arrays is reduced until ideally the final image possesses a close likeness to the culprit. Participant-witness directed tools can also alter facial features, configurations between features and holistic properties (e.g., age, distinctiveness, skin tone), all within a whole face context. The procedure is designed to closely match the holistic manner by which humans&#8217; process faces. On completion, based on their memory of the culprit, ratings of composite-culprit similarity are collected from the participant-witnesses. Similar ratings are collected from culprit-acquaintance assessors, as a marker of composite recognition likelihood. Following a further delay, all participants &#8212; including the controls&#160;&#8212; attempt to identify the culprit in either a culprit-present or culprit-absent video line-up, to replicate circumstances in which the police have located the correct culprit, or an innocent suspect. Data of control and participant-witness line-up outcomes are presented, demonstrating the positive influence of holistic composite construction on identification accuracy. Correlational analyses are conducted to measure the relationship between assessor and participant-witness composite-culprit similarity ratings, delay, identification accuracy, and confidence to examine which factors influence video line-up outcomes.

This applied experimental paradigm replicates circumstances by which an eyewitness to a real crime may create a holistic facial composite of the culprit from memory, and then attempt to identify the culprit from a video line-up containing the culprit or one in which he or she is not present.

整体面部复合创作以后的视频阵容目击者识别范式

The paradigm detailed in this manuscript describes an applied experimental method based on real police investigations during which an eyewitness or victim ...

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott (DRM) Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

The Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words (e.g., nurse, hospital, etc.) at encoding. After a delay, subjects are asked to recall or recognize these words. In the recognition memory version of the task, subjects are asked whether they remember previously presented words, as well as related (but never presented) critical lure words (&#39;doctor&#39;). Typically, the critical word is recognized with high probability and confidence. This false memory effect has been robustly demonstrated across short (e.g., immediate, 20 min) and long (e.g., 1, 7, 60 d) delays between encoding and memory testing. A strength of using this task to study false memory is its simplicity and short duration. If encoding and retrieval components of the task occur in the same session, the entire task can take as little as 2 - 30 min. However, although the DRM task is widely considered a &#39;false memory&#39; paradigm, some researchers consider DRM illusions to be based on the activation of semantic memory networks in the brain, and argue that such semantic gist-based false memory errors may actually be useful in some scenarios (e.g., remembering the forest for the trees; remembering that a word list was about &#34;doctors&#34;, even though the actual word &#34;doctor&#34; was never presented for study). Remembering the gist of experience (instead of or along with individual details) is arguably an adaptive process and this task has provided a great deal of knowledge about the constructive, adaptive nature of memory. Therefore, researchers should use caution when discussing the overall reach and implications of their experiments when using this task to study &#39;false memory&#39;, as DRM memory errors may not adequately reflect false memories in the real world, such as false memory in eyewitness testimony, or false memories of sexual abuse.

The Deese-Roediger-McDermott DRM Task: A Simple Cognitive Paradigm to Investigate False Memories in the Laboratory

Here we present the Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task, a tool to study false memories in the laboratory. Subjects study lists of semantically related words (e.g.,&#160;nurse, sick, etc.), and later falsely remember an unstudied word (doctor) that represents the gist, or theme, of the word list.

该德泽 - 洛蒂格 - 麦克德莫特（DRM）任务:一个简单的认知范式来研究实验室错误记忆

The Deese,&#160;Roediger and McDermott&#160;(DRM) task is a false memory paradigm in which subjects are presented with lists of semantically related words ...

The Modified Temptation Resistance Task: A Paradigm to Elicit Children's Strategic Lie-telling

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children's strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of transgression was intended to be too tempting to resist, so that children's spontaneous lie-telling behavior in the presence of irreversible evidence due to the transgression could be observed. Conducted in a developmental psychology laboratory behind a one-way mirror and video recorded with a hidden camcorder, the protocol starts with a guessing game where the child is given three trials to guess the identities of hidden objects under an upside down cup. The experimenter gives hints in the first two trials to make sure the child "guess" them correctly. At the beginning of the final trial, the experimenter leaves the room briefly and asks the child not to peek under the cup. If the child could not resist the temptation and peeks, small particles previously filled in the cup would scatter on a grooved surface. Upon the experimenter's return, the child is asked if he/she has peeked. If he/she denies transgression contrary to the presence of the physical evidence, he/she is asked to explain why the particles are on the table. Three responses could be observed in the procedure, including the initial transgression, truth-telling or lie-telling behavior if the child peeked, and the strategic lie-telling behavior in the presence of the physical evidence.

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children&#39;s strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of transgression was intended to be too tempting to resist, so that children&#39;s spontaneous lie-telling behavior in the presence of irreversible evidence due to the transgression could be observed.

修正诱惑力的任务: 一种诱导儿童战略说谎的范式

The protocol for the temptation resistance paradigm was designed to elicit 2- to 8-year-old children's strategic lie-telling behaviors. The reward of ...

Marginal Dishonesty: The Adding-to-10 Task

Source: Julian Wills &#38; Jay Van Bavel&#8212;New York University
Classical economic theory asserts that people are rational and self-interested. In addition to seeking wealth and status, people are motivated by other goals. As a result, financial motives can sometimes be dwarfed by other internal needs, such as maintaining a positive self-concept or affiliating with other group members. 
Ethical dilemmas, such as the temptation to cheat on taxes, can result when these motives are in conflict. On the one hand, people may be tempted to save money by underreporting their taxable income. On the other hand, no one wants to perceive themselves as a dishonest, free-rider. As a result, people are reluctant to fully exploit unethical opportunities because doing so can severely undermine their self-image as morally upstanding individuals. Instead, people cheat to a much smaller degree than they are capable of: just enough to gain additional resources, but not so much as to compromise their self-image. 
This tendency for marginal dishonesty, or the "fudge factor," is an important principle in social psychology and can be tested through a variety of techniques. Mazar, Amir, and Ariely originally described six separate experiments involving (dis)honesty and a theory of self-concept maintenance.1 The "Adding-to-10 Task" is one of the experimental techniques discussed and is prevalent in research that involves testing honesty. This video demonstrates how to produce and interpret the Adding-to-10 Task.

边际不诚实: 添加 10 任务

Source: Julian Wills &#38; Jay Van Bavel&#8212;New York University
Classical economic theory asserts that people are rational and self-interested. In ...

教育

JoVE Science Education

心理学

社会心理学

Metacognitive Development: How Children Estimate Their Memory

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
Human memory is fallible, and people often cannot accurately recall what they have seen or heard. Adults are aware of their limited memory capacity, so they use strategies, such as rehearsal and mnemonic devices, to improve their recall of important information. Because adults understand the limits of memory, they know it makes more sense to write down the items on their shopping list rather than to try to remember the items when they get to the store. This ability to think about one&#8217;s own memory is called metamemory. Metamemory is one component of a broader set of cognitive processes that allow humans to think about their own knowledge and thinking, which is called metacognition.
Although young children understand that people have thoughts and a limited amount of knowledge, they often have trouble acknowledging the limits of their own knowledge and cognitive skills. Children&#8217;s ability to accurately estimate their own memory capacity and abilities improves over the elementary school years. One common way of measuring metamemory and its development is by giving children an opportunity to predict how well they can remember something, and then observing how well their prediction matches their actual recall.
This experiment demonstrates how to measure children&#8217;s metamemory based on the methods developed by Shin, Bjorklund, and Beck.1

元认知的发展: 儿童如何估计他们的记忆

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
Human memory is fallible, and people often cannot accurately ...

发展心理学

Measuring Children's Trust in Testimony

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
How does a person learn about the world around them? One way is through direct observation and exploration. However, not every piece of information can be observed firsthand. Instead, a person must often rely on other people as information sources. This is particularly true for children who have so many questions about the world around them, yet have limited means of accessing the answers. Thus, children must rely on other people to provide answers to their questions.
There is a popular viewpoint that children are gullible and that they believe everything they hear. However, recent research has shown this is not the case. Children as young as age 3 evaluate what other people say and show selective trust in other people&#8217;s testimony. Children pay attention to and use their knowledge about an individual&#8217;s prior behavior and characteristics to judge whether that individual is a trustworthy informational source. &#160;
This video demonstrates how to measure children&#8217;s trust in testimony based on methods developed by Birch, Vauthier, and Bloom1 and Koenig, Clement, and Harris.2&#160;

Measuring Children&#039;s Trust in Testimony

测量在证词中孩子们的信任

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
How does a person learn about the world around them? One way ...

Memory Development: Demonstrating How Repeated Questioning Leads to False Memories

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
A person is defined as a unique individual based on the people and events they encounter in their lives. Thus, creating, storing, and recalling memories are essential elements of the human experience. However, memory, as adults experience it, takes time to develop. Although young children can learn facts and remember details of their lives from moment-to-moment and day-to-day, they do not create autobiographical memories or detailed memories of events that happen in their lives until age 3 or older.
Even after age 3, children&#8217;s memories differ from those of adults in important ways. Children are less effective at evaluating their own memories than adults, which makes it difficult for them to determine, for example, whether or not their memories are accurate. False memories are a problem for both children and adults, as it is quite easy to create a false memory with a poorly-worded question or a story repeated over and over. However, young children are more susceptible to creating false memories than either older children or adults.
This video demonstrates children&#8217;s vulnerability to false memories using a method developed by Steven Ceci and his collaborators.1-2

Demonstrating How Repeated Questioning Leads to False Memories

内存发展: 展示如何反复质疑导致虚假记忆

Source: Laboratories of Judith Danovitch and Nicholaus Noles&#8212;University of Louisville
A person is defined as a unique individual based on the people ...