Name: cannula implantation into the cisterna magna of rodents
Uploaded: 2018-05-23T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cannula Implantation into the Cisterna Magna of Rodents at JoVE.com

This work was supported by the Novo Nordisk Foundation and National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NINDS/NIH (M.N.). A.L.R.X. and S.H-R are recipients of a postdoctoral fellowship and a PhD scholarship from the Lundbeck Foundation, respectively.

All procedures were performed in accordance with the European Directive 2010/63/EU for animal research and were approved by the Animal Experiments Council under the Danish Ministry of Environment and Food (2015-15-0201-00535).
1. Procedure for Cannulation
<ol>
	<li>Cannula preparation 
	NOTE: Avoid touching the cannula with non-sterile gloves.
	<ol>
		<li>Break off the beveled metal tip of a 30G dental needle using a needle holder.</li>
		<li>Using a needle holder, prepare the cannula b...

<ol>
	<li>Xie, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sleep+Drives+Metabolite+Clearance+from+the+Adult+Brain.">Sleep Drives Metabolite Clearance from the Adult Brain.</a> Science. , 373-377 (2013).</li><li>Iliff, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+paravascular+pathway+facilitates+CSF+flow+through+the+brain+parenchyma+and+the+clearance+of+interstitial+solutes,+including+amyloid+&#946;.">A paravascular pathway facilitates CSF flow through the brain parenchyma and the clearance of interstitial solutes, including amyloid &#946;.</a> Sci. Transl. Med. 4, 147ra111 (2012).</li><li>Jessen, N. A., Munk, A. S. F., Lundgaard, I., Nedergaard, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Glymphatic+System:+A+Beginner's+Guide.">The Glymphatic System: A Beginner's Guide.</a> Neurochem. Res. 40, 2583-2599 (2015).</li><li>Louveau, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Structural+and+functional+features+of+central+nervous+system+lymphatic+vessels.">Structural and functional features of central nervous system lymphatic vessels.</a> Nature. , (2015).</li><li>Aspelund, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+dural+lymphatic+vascular+system+that+drains+brain+interstitial+fluid+and+macromolecules.">A dural lymphatic vascular system that drains brain interstitial fluid and macromolecules.</a> J. Exp. Med. 212, 991-999 (2015).</li><li>Kress, B. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impairment+of+paravascular+clearance+pathways+in+the+aging+brain.">Impairment of paravascular clearance pathways in the aging brain.</a> Ann. Neurol. 76, 845-861 (2014).</li><li>Plog, B. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biomarkers+of+Traumatic+Injury+Are+Transported+from+Brain+to+Blood+via+the+Glymphatic+System.">Biomarkers of Traumatic Injury Are Transported from Brain to Blood via the Glymphatic System.</a> J. Neurosci. 35, 518-526 (2015).</li><li>Jiang, Q., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Impairment+of+glymphatic+system+after+diabetes.">Impairment of glymphatic system after diabetes.</a> J. Cereb. Blood Flow Metab. , (2016).</li><li>Peng, W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Suppression+of+glymphatic+fluid+transport+in+a+mouse+model+of+Alzheimer's+disease.">Suppression of glymphatic fluid transport in a mouse model of Alzheimer's disease.</a> Neurobiol. Dis. 93, 215-225 (2016).</li><li>Ore&#353;kovi&#263;, D., Klarica, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+formation+of+cerebrospinal+fluid:+Nearly+a+hundred+years+of+interpretations+and+misinterpretations.">The formation of cerebrospinal fluid: Nearly a hundred years of interpretations and misinterpretations.</a> Brain Res. Rev. 64, 241-262 (2010).</li><li>Dusart, I., Schwab, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Secondary+Cell+Death+and+the+Inflammatory+Reaction+After+Dorsal+Hemisection+of+the+Rat+Spinal+Cord.">Secondary Cell Death and the Inflammatory Reaction After Dorsal Hemisection of the Rat Spinal Cord.</a> Eur. J. Neurosci. 6, 712-724 (1994).</li><li>Eide, K., Eidsvaag, V. A., Nagelhus, E. A., Hansson, H. -. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cortical+astrogliosis+and+increased+perivascular+aquaporin-4+in+idiopathic+intracranial+hypertension.">Cortical astrogliosis and increased perivascular aquaporin-4 in idiopathic intracranial hypertension.</a> Brain Res. , (2016).</li><li>Pullen, R. G., DePasquale, M., Cserr, H. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bulk+flow+of+cerebrospinal+fluid+into+brain+in+response+to+acute+hyperosmolality.">Bulk flow of cerebrospinal fluid into brain in response to acute hyperosmolality.</a> Am. J. Physiol. 253, F538-F545 (1987).</li><li>Ichimura, T., Fraser, P. A., Cserr, H. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distribution+of+extracellular+tracers+in+perivascular+spaces+of+the+rat+brain.">Distribution of extracellular tracers in perivascular spaces of the rat brain.</a> Brain Res. 545, 103-113 (1991).</li><li>Iliff, J. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Brain-wide+pathway+for+waste+clearance+captured+by+contrast-enhanced+MRI.">Brain-wide pathway for waste clearance captured by contrast-enhanced MRI.</a> J. Clin. Invest. 123, 1299-1309 (2013).</li><li>Ratner, V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Optimal-mass-transfer-based+estimation+of+glymphatic+transport+in+living+brain.">Optimal-mass-transfer-based estimation of glymphatic transport in living brain.</a> Proc. SPIE--the Int. Soc. Opt. Eng. 9413, (2015).</li><li>Lee, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Effect+of+Body+Posture+on+Brain+Glymphatic+Transport.">The Effect of Body Posture on Brain Glymphatic Transport.</a> J. Neurosci. 35, 11034-11044 (2015).</li><li>Nouri, S., Sharif, M. R., Sahba, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+ferric+chloride+on+superficial+bleeding.">The effect of ferric chloride on superficial bleeding.</a> Trauma Mon. 20, e18042 (2015).</li></ol>

We have presented a protocol that describes a detailed procedure for cisterna magna cannulation (CMc), which offers a straightforward method to deliver labeled molecules to the CSF compartment. CMc allows the subsequent visualization of CSF dynamics, both in vivo and ex vivo, using different imaging modalities or histology.
One of the main advantages of the CMc technique lies in its direct access to the subarachnoid space without the need to expose the brain by craniotomy. By...

Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) bathes the central nervous system (CNS) throughout the ventricular system and along the subarachnoid spaces, an anatomically defined space in continuum with the ventricles, which surrounds the brain and the spinal cord. One of the main functions of the CSF is to provide a route for clearance of metabolites and solutes from the brain parenchyma. Clearance is facilitated via the recently discovered glymphatic system1, the brain analog to the peripheral lymphatic system. Herein, we describe and discuss the cisterna magna cannulation (CMc), a minimally invasive method for the direct delivery of molecules into the CSF. CMc is the key method for studying the glymphatic function. Furthermore, CMc can also be applied for the study of CSF dynamics and for a fast, brain-wide delivery of non-blood brain barrier (BBB) permeable molecules into the brain parenchyma, along the perivascular space.
The CMc exploits physiological principles of CSF movement dynamics through the CNS to deliver labeled tracer molecules or drugs into the CSF-filled space of the cisterna magna (CM). Molecules are injected through a cannula implanted into the atlanto-occipital dural membrane covering the CM. Molecules are then carried by CSF bulk flow into the brain parenchyma via the paravascular space1. Tracer or contrast agent injected via the CMc follows the movement of CSF, which allows the assessment of CSF movement and glymphatic influx by quantifying intensity levels of labeled molecules that enter the brain parenchyma. CMc is compatible with different imaging techniques including epifluorescence, 2-photon microscopy, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Also, this assessment can be performed both in vivo or ex vivo. Importantly, CMc allows for the visualization of the glymphatic system under anesthesia or during natural sleep, as well as in awake, freely moving animals.
The CMc technique can be utilized to study different aspects of fluid dynamics in the CSF, but has proven to be particularly useful for studying the glymphatic system. Glymphatic activity drives the convective flow of CSF from the periarterial space via aquaporin-4 (AQP-4) water channels, which are tethered in the membrane of astrocytic vascular-wrapping endfeet. The convective flow enables the interchange of CSF and interstitial fluid (ISF) within the brain parenchyma. CSF/ISF containing metabolic waste and solutes is then removed from the brain parenchyma via the perivenous space2,3. Ultimately, CSF/ISF reaches the periphery via the recently described dural lymphatic vessels4,5. The glymphatic system has been shown crucial for the clearance of harmful waste metabolites such as amyloid-&#946;2. Further, glymphatic clearance is impaired in aging6, after traumatic brain injury7, and in animal models of diabetes8 and Alzheimer&#39;s disease9. Notably, glymphatic activity is state dependent, showing significantly higher activity during sleep or anesthesia in comparison to wakefulness1. Indeed, young anesthetized animals exhibit the highest glymphatic activity. Thus, experimental quantification of glymphatic activity is critical when studying its role in health and disease.
Several studies have addressed CSF dynamics and its interchange with interstitial fluid (ISF) in the brain parenchyma. However, the methods by which labeled molecules are delivered are rather invasive, triggering brain parenchyma damage and changes in the intracranial pressure (ICP) (see review10). Some examples are intraventricular or intraparenchymal injections which involve craniotomy or drilling of a burr hole in the skull. These procedures have been shown to alter ICP, thus disrupting glymphatic function2. Also, such invasive methods induce astrogliosis and increase AQP-4 immunoreactivity in the brain parenchyma damaged area and its surroundings11,12. As astrocytes and AQP-4 are key elements of the glymphatic system, the CMc is the method of choice for its studies. The major advantages of CMc in comparison to more invasive procedures are the maintenance of an intact skull and brain parenchyma, avoiding ICP alterations and astrogliosis, respectively. Thus, CMc in conjunction with different imaging tools opens for a wide range of possibilities to study not only the glymphatic system, but also the dynamics and mechanisms of fluid flow in homeostasis, as well as in animal models of neurological diseases.
The cisterna magna cannulation (CMc) procedure allows easy and direct access to the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). By injecting different molecules (e.g. fluorescent tracers, MRI contrast agents) the experimenter can track their movement within the CSF compartment and assess the activity of the glymphatic system. The following protocol describes both the acute CMc, for injections immediately following the surgery, and chronic implantation of the cannula, in which the animal recovers from the surgical procedure for a later injection. The most important difference between the acute and chronic implantation is that the chronic implantation allows for the study of glymphatic activity in awake mice.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1153">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">SOPIRA Carpule 30G 0.3 x 12mm</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Kulzer</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">AA001</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Polyethylene Tubing 0.024&#8221; OD x 0.011&#8221; ID</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Scandidact</td>
			<td>PE10-CL-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">30G x &#189;&#8221; 0.3 x 12 mm Luer-Lock</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Chirana T. Injecta</td>
			<td>CHINS01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:22px;width:485px;">Chlorhexidine 0.5% (chlorhexidine digluconate)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Meda AS</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">no catalogue number, see link in comments</td>
			<td>http://www.meda.dk/behandlingsomrader/desinfektion/desinfektion-af-hud/klorhexidin-sprit-medic-05/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Alcohol Swab 70% Isopropyl Alcohol 30 x 60mm</td>
			<td>Vitrex Medical A/S</td>
			<td>520213</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Viskoese Oejendraeber Ophtha</td>
			<td>Ophtha</td>
			<td>145250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:485px;">Wooden applicator, Double cotton bud (&#216; appr. 4 - 5 mm, length appr. 12 mm)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Heinz Herenz</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">1032018</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Eye spears</td>
			<td>Medicom</td>
			<td>A18005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Ferric chloride 10% solution</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Algeos</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">NV0382</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Kimtech Science Precision Wipes Tissue Wipers</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Kimberly Clark Professional</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">05511</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">Loctite Super Glue Precision 5g</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Loctite</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">no catalogue number, see link in comments</td>
			<td>http://www.loctite-consumer.dk/da/produkter/superglue-liquid.html&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Insta-Set CA Accelerator</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Bob Smith Industries</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">BSI-152</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Dental Cement Powder</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">A-M Systems</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">525000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Surgical weld&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Kent Scientific Corporation</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">INS750391</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:485px;">Hamilton syringe GASTIGHT&#174; , 1700 series, 1710TLL, volume 100 &#956;L, PTFE Luer lock</td>
			<td>Hamilton syringes</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">1710TLL</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">LEGATO 130 Syringe pump</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">KD Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">788130</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Paraformaldehyde powder, 95%</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">158127</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Phosphate buffered saline (PBS; 0.01M; pH 7.4)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">P3813</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Ovalbumin, Alexa Fluor 647 Conjugate</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">O34784</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;width:485px;"> 
			DAPI (diamidino-2-phenylindole) Solution (1 mg/mL)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">62248</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Dextran, Fluorescein, 3000 MW, Anionic</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Thermo Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">D3305</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">E-Z Anesthesia EZ-7000 Classic System</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">E-Z Systems</td>
			<td>EZ-7000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Attane Isofluran 1000 mg/g</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">ScanVet</td>
			<td>55226</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Euthanimal 200mg/mL (sodium pentobarbital)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">ScanVet</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">545349</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Ketaminol Vet 100 mg/mL (ketamine)</td>
			<td>Intervet International BV</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">511519</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:485px;">Rompin Vet 20 mg/mL (xylazin)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">KVP Pharma + Veterin&#228;r Produkte GmbH</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">148999</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Xylocain 20 mg/mL (lidocain)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">AstraZeneca</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">158543</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Marcain 2.5 mg/mL (bupivacain)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">AstraZeneca</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">123918</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:485px;">Bupaq Vet 0.3 mg/mL (buprenorphine)</td>
			<td style="width:245px;">Richter Pharma AG</td>
			<td style="width:257px;">185159&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

cannula implantation into the cisterna magna of rodents

Cisterna magna cannulation (CMc) is a straightforward procedure that enables direct access to the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) without operative damage to the skull or the brain parenchyma. In anesthetized rodents, the exposure of the dura mater by blunt dissection of the neck muscles allows the insertion of a cannula into the cisterna magna (CM). The cannula, composed either by a fine beveled needle or borosilicate capillary, is attached via a polyethylene (PE) tube to a syringe. Using a syringe pump, molecules can then be injected at controlled rates directly into the CM, which is continuous with the subarachnoid space. From the subarachnoid space, we can trace CSF fluxes by convective flow into the perivascular space around penetrating arterioles, where solute exchange with the interstitial fluid (ISF) occurs. CMc can be performed for acute injections immediately following the surgery, or for chronic implantation, with later injection in anesthetized or awake, freely moving rodents. Quantitation of tracer distribution in the brain parenchyma can be performed by epifluorescence, 2-photon microscopy, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), depending on the physico-chemical properties of the injected molecules. Thus, CMc in conjunction with various imaging techniques offers a powerful tool for assessment of the glymphatic system and CSF dynamics and function. Furthermore, CMc can be utilized as a conduit for fast, brain-wide delivery of signaling molecules and metabolic substrates that could not otherwise cross the blood brain barrier (BBB).

Upon fixation of mice or rats in a stereotaxic frame, the neck muscles around the occipital crest region are bluntly dissected to expose the cisterna magna (CM). The triangular structure of the CM is readily recognized between the caudal portion of the cerebellum and the medulla (Figure 1A-1C). The cannula is inserted 1 - 2 mm into the CM by gently piercing the atlanto-occipital membrane (Figure 1D). The dura mem...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Cannula Implantation into the Cisterna Magna of Rodents at JoVE.com

Cannula Implantation into the Cisterna Magna of Rodents

Here we describe a protocol to perform cisterna magna cannulation (CMc), a minimally invasive way to deliver tracers, substrates and signaling molecules into the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Combined with different imaging modalities, CMc enables glymphatic system and CSF dynamics assessment, as well as brain-wide delivery of various compounds.

Cisterna magna cannulation (CMc) is a straightforward procedure that enables direct access to the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) without operative damage to ...

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Isolating Nasal Olfactory Stem Cells from Rodents or Humans

The olfactory mucosa, located in the nasal cavity, is in charge of detecting odours. It is also the only nervous tissue that is exposed to the external ...

A Fully Automated and Highly Versatile System for Testing Multi-cognitive Functions and Recording Neuronal Activities in Rodents

We have developed a fully automated system for operant behavior testing and neuronal activity recording by which multiple cognitive brain functions can be ...

A Method to Make a Craniotomy on the Ventral Skull of Neonate Rodents

The use of a craniotomy for in vivo experiments provides an opportunity to investigate the dynamics of diverse cellular processes in the mammalian brain ...

Stereotaxic Infusion of Oligomeric Amyloid-beta into the Mouse Hippocampus

Alzheimer&#8217;s disease is a neurodegenerative disease affecting the aging population. A key neuropathological feature of the disease is the ...

Microelectrode Guided Implantation of Electrodes into the Subthalamic Nucleus of Rats for Long-term Deep Brain Stimulation

Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a widely used and effective therapy for several neurologic disorders, such as idiopathic Parkinson&#8217;s disease, ...

Operant Protocols for Assessing the Cost-benefit Analysis During Reinforced Decision Making by Rodents

Reinforcement-guided decision making is the ability to choose between competing courses of action based on the relative value of the benefits and their ...

Laminectomy and Spinal Cord Window Implantation in the Mouse

This protocol describes a method for spinal cord laminectomy and glass window implantation for in vivo imaging of the mouse spinal cord. An integrated ...

The Power of Interstimulus Interval for the Assessment of Temporal Processing in Rodents

Temporal processing deficits have been implicated as a potential elemental dimension of higher-level cognitive processes, commonly observed in ...

Double Direct Injection of Blood into the Cisterna Magna as a Model of Subarachnoid Hemorrhage

Among strokes, subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) consecutive to the rupture of a cerebral arterial aneurysm represents 5-9% but is responsible for about 30% ...

Direct Cannula Implantation in the Cisterna Magna of Pigs

The glymphatic system is a waste clearance system in the brain that relies on the flow of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in astrocyte-bound perivascular spaces ...