This work was supported by NIH grant GM085232 and an Irma T. Hirschl/ Monique Weill-Caulier Scholar Award (to A.A.).

1. Lipid Vorbereitung <ol><li> Aliquot die gewünschte Menge Lipide in eine klare Glasröhre. Du Siehst. coli polaren Lipidextrakt, aber die meisten Lipidzusammensetzungen verwendet werden. Wenn die Lipide in Form von Pulver, resuspendieren sie in Chloroform bis zu einer Konzentration von 20 mg / ml. Trocknen der Lipide bei RT unter N 2 -Gas, bis das gesamte Lösungsmittel verdampft ist. </li><li> Resuspendieren der Lipide in Pentan und trocknen Sie es wieder einen stetigen Strom von Gas N 2 zu übrig gebliebenen Spuren von Chloroform zu entfernen. Trocken, bis alle Lösungsmittel verdampft. Während des Trocknens, stark drehen das Rohr, so dass das Lipid in einer gleichförmigen Film, der die untere Drittel des Rohres anstelle einer Bildung einer dichten Masse am Boden verteilt. </li><li> Hinzufügen der Rekonstitutionspuffer enthält Detergens (300 mM KCl, 50 mM Zitronensäure, 25 mM K 2 HPO 4, pH 4,5, 35 mM CHAPS), um die Lipide zu lösen. Benutzen Sie anderen milden Reinigungsmitteln für diesen Schritt, wenn das Protein ist schlecht, tolerant zu CHAPS. </li><li> Resuspend die Lipide zur Klarheit mit einem Wasserbad Sonicator. Tauchen Sie den Schlauch in der Mitte des Wassers Ultraschallbad bei maximaler Leistung in kurzen (30 sec-1 min) mit kurzen Impulsen (30 sec-1 min) unterbricht. Die Lösung sollte klar sein. HINWEIS: Die endgültige Grad an Klarheit erreicht, hängt von der spezifischen verwendeten Lipid-Zusammensetzung. Einige von Charge zu Charge Variation in diesem Schritt auch bei nominell identischen Lipiden ist ebenfalls möglich. Resttrübung aufgrund der Lichtstreuung durch große Partikel in der Suspension, welche durch Zentrifugation entfernt werden kann. </li><li> Inkubieren der resuspendierten Lipide bei RT für 20-60 min. </li></ol> 2. Proteoliposom Bildung HINWEIS: Verschiedene Strategien können verwendet werden, um das Detergens-solubilisierten Protein in Liposomen einfügen. Für CLC-ec1 Dialyse funktioniert gut und ist daher das Mittel der Wahl 6,9,10. <ol><li> Füge das gereinigte Protein, das gewünschte Protein-zu-Lipid (P / L) Verhältnis (in ug o ausgedrückt<html> f Protein / mg Lipid). Die Wahl von P / L-Verhältnis hängt von dem Zweck des Experiments. <ol><li> Wenn es das Ziel ist es, die Aktivität des Proteins von Interesse zu bewerten, zu rekonstituieren bei hohen P / L&#39;s, um das Signal zu maximieren, da jedes Liposom mehrere Kopien des Proteins enthält. Um die Aktivität und / oder einheitlichen Transportrate des Proteins zu quantifizieren, zu rekonstituieren in einer Poisson Verdünnungsregelung bei niedrigen P / L&#39;s, so daß jedes Vesikel enthalten durchschnittlich 1 Protein. Siehe Schritt 7 und Diskussion für eine tiefergehende Analyse, wann die einzelnen Regime zu nutzen. </li></ol></li><li> Um die optimale P / L-Werte für die verschiedenen Schemata zu bestimmen, führen eine vollständige Titration der Aktivität als Funktion der Proteinkonzentration 8,11-13. Jedoch für jedes Protein, für das das Molekulargewicht (MW, in kDa exprimiert) der aktiven Einheit ist bekannt folgende P / L-Werte als Anfangs guesstimates verwendet werden: pg &quot;/&gt; <img alt="Gleichung 2" fo:content-width="1.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq2.jpg" /></li><li> Geladen, die das Protein und Lipidgemisch in eine vorbefeuchtete Dialyserohr oder eine Kassette. Platzieren der Dialyseeinrichtung in einem Becherglas mit 500-1,000x das Volumen der Lipid Rekonstitutionspuffer (dh 1 l Puffer für 1 ml Lipid Resuspension) unter vorsichtigem Rühren. <ol><li> Ändern Puffer 3-4 mal im Abstand&gt; 3 Std. Bei jeder Lösung Wechsel, waschen Sie die Kassette / Schläuche und das Becherglas mit destilliertem Wasser und füllen Sie den Becher mit frischem Rekonstitutionspuffer. Fügen Sie 1-2 O / N Intervalle für die Lösung zu ändern. Die genaue Anzahl und die Dauer der Lösung ändert sich abhängig von der genauen Lipid und Detergentien verwendet. </li></ol></li><li> Nachdem der letzte Schritt ist, entfernen Sie die Liposomen aus dem Dialysegefäß, aliquotieren sie in Rohre und Flash frieren sie in flüssigem N 2 oder Einfrieren bei -80 ° C. </li></ol> 3. Aufnahme Set-up &lt;p class = &quot;jove_content&quot;&gt; Hinweis: Die Aufnahme-Setup (Abbildung 2A) besteht aus zwei Kammern (Flachboden-Zylinder, ~ 3-4 ml Volumen), eine Cl - (siehe unten) Elektrode, einem pH-Meter mit einem Analog- oder digitale elektrische Ausgang, einen Digitalisierer und einen Computer mit einem entsprechenden Erfassungssoftware. <ol><li> Verbinden der Cl - Elektrode mit dem pH-Meter, das Ausgangssignal des pH-Meter auf dem Digitalisierer die an den Computer angeschlossen ist. Legen Sie die Referenzelektrode in einer Kammer und die Umkodierung Draht in die andere (2B). HINWEIS: Die Polarität der Leitungen ist korrekt, wenn AV Cal (siehe Schritt 6.4 und 7.2) ist positiv. </li><li> Legen Sie die Kammern auf einer Rührplatte mit einem Rührstäbchen in den Aufnahmeraum (Abbildung 1B). Stellen Sie sicher, der Rührstab nicht die Elektrode berühren. </li><li> Schließen der Kammern mit einem Agarbrücke (2B) (100 mM KCl und 2% Agarose). Bewahren Sie die Agar-Brücken in 100 mM KCl. </li&gt; </ol> 4. Vorbereitung der Cl - Elektroden <ol><li> Nehmen Sie einen alten und -possibly- nicht funktionierende pH-Elektrode. Brechen Sie die Glas-Beschichtung, um die Silberdrähte vollständig offenbaren. </li><li> Die Beschichtung vorsichtig aus der Silberdrähte mit einem Skalpell. Reinigen Sie die Drähte mit reichlich H 2 O und EtOH. </li><li> Platz in einer gesättigten Lösung von FeCl 3 (oder Bleichmittel), bis Drähte mit einem einheitlichen dunklen Mantel AgCl bedeckt. </li></ol> 5. Herstellung von unilamellaren Vesikeln <ol><li> In der Nacht vor den Experimenten, schwellen 1 g Sephadex G-50-Perlen in 15 ml externen Puffer (1 mM KCl, 150 mM K 2 SO 4, 25 mM Zitronensäure, pH 4,5) unter leichtem Schütteln (nicht rühren) für mindestens 3 Stunden bei Raumtemperatur vor dem Gebrauch. Jedes Experiment erfordert ~ 3 ml geschwollene Perlen. Halten Sie die geschwollenen Perlen bei 4 ° C für ein paar Tage in den meisten. </li><li> Während die Liposomen bei RT aufgetaut, gießen Sie in jeder Spalte ~ 3 ml geschwollene G-50-Perlen. Lassen Sie sie trocknen durch Schwerkraft bei RT; Dies dauert in der Regel 1-2 min. </li><li> Bereiten unilamellare Vesikel durch Extrudieren des Proteo 11 Mal durch ein Mini-Extruder mit einer 0,4 m Teflon-Cutoff. </li><li> Die Säule in einem Kunststoffrundrohr. Drehen Sie die Spalten, um überschüssige Lösung zu entfernen. Zentrifugieren Sie für 20 bis 30 s bei 1400 x g in einer klinischen Zentrifuge. </li><li> Durchfluss verwerfen, statt Spalte in einer 13 x 100 mm Glasröhrchen und fügen Sie 100 ul der extrudierte Vesikel an der Säule. Spin Säule für 1 min bei 500 xg in einer klinischen Zentrifuge. </li><li> Sammeln ~ 200 ul Durchströmung zu dem Aufzeichnungskammer in Schritt 6.5 hinzugefügt wird. </li></ol> 6. Efflux Mess <ol><li> Je 2 ml 100 mM KCl in der Referenz (Masse) Kammer und 1,8 ml der externen Puffer (1 mM KCl, 150 mM K 2 SO 4, 25 mM Citronensäure, pH 4.5) zur Aufnahme Kammer. Der leichte osmotischen Ungleichgewicht zwischen der internenund externe Lösungen wirkt sich nicht auf </li><li> Starten Sie die Aufnahme-Programm. Lassen Sie die Grundlinie ins Gleichgewicht kommen, dies kann einige Minuten dauern. </li><li> Sobald das Signal eine stabile Basislinie (die Liposomen bereit sind und die Spalten trocknen) erreicht, startet die Aufnahme (3A). </li><li> Werden 15 ul einer 10 mM KCl-Lösung, um das System (2A) zu kalibrieren. </li><li> In Liposomen. Von Proteoliposomen (3A) - ein kleiner Sprung vielleicht aufgrund einer unvollständigen Entfernung der externen Cl sichtbar. Warten Sie, bis die Grundlinie stabilisiert. </li><li> Hinzufügen Valinomycin (1 ul 1 mg / ml in EtOH) zum Ausströmen (3A) zu initiieren. </li><li> Lassen Sie die Auslauf laufen ihr zeitlicher Verlauf, bis es Plateaus (3A). </li><li> Hinzufügen von 40 ul von 1,5 M β-Octylglucosid (β-OG) in dem externen Puffer alle Liposomen (3A) zu lösen, hergestellt. Beenden Sie die Aufnahme. </li></ol> 7. Daten Analyse <ol><li> Exportieren Sie die Trace-Datei von der im ASCII- oder Text-Format und importieren Sie sie in die Analyse-Programm der Wahl. </li><li> Messen Sie die Spannung an den folgenden Punkten (3A): Zu Beginn der Aufnahme (V 0); Nach Zugabe des Eichpulses (V cal); Nach der Zugabe der Liposomen (V lipo); Am Ende des Auslauf (V fin); Nach Zugabe von Reinigungsmittel (V ges); Grundlinie die Spannungen so dass V 0 = 0 ist. </li><li> Verwenden Sie die Nernst-Planck-Gleichung, um den experimentellen Wert bestimmen <img alt="Gleichung 3" fo:content-width=".3in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq3.jpg" /> durch Messung <img alt="Gleichung 4" fo:content-width="3in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq4.jpg" /> Wo Vol Cal ist das Volumen der Kalibrierungspuls in ul, 1.800 wird das Kammervolumen zu Beginn des Experiments in exprimiert1, l, [Cl] cal / in sind die Cl - Konzentrationen der Kalibrierungsimpuls und der externen Puffer in mM und AV cal ist der Sprung in mV nach dem Kalibrierungsimpuls gemessen. ANMERKUNG: Diese empirische Bestimmung α dient drei Zwecken: sie gewährleistet, dass das System korrekt reagiert, bietet ein Maß für die Konsistenz der Reaktion des Instruments zwischen den Experimenten als auch zu prüfen, dass keine Fehler in der Lösung Herstellung hergestellt. </li><li> Berechnen Sie die Cl-Konzentrationen nach jedem Schritt wie folgt: <img alt="Gleichung 5" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq5.jpg" /> <img alt="Gleichung 6" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq6.jpg" /> <img alt="Gleichung 7" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq7.jpg" /> Der Faktor 3/400 kommt von der Verdünnung der 15 &amp; mgr; l Kalibrierungspuls in die 2.000 &amp; mgr; l Endvolumen. </li><li> Calculaßen die Veränderungen in [Cl] bei jedem Schritt, ΔCl Lipo / end / ges. </li><li> Konvertieren V (t) in Cl (t) mit <img alt="Gleichung 8" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq8.jpg" /> Die [Cl] Werte direkt zu bestimmen, an den kritischen Punkten und vergleicht sie mit den berechneten Werten als eine interne Kontrolle. </li><li> Normalisieren der Spur, so dass das Cl rel Lipo = 0 und Cl rel tot = 1 <img alt="Gleichung 9" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq9.jpg" /></li><li> Den Auslaufzeit natürlich der folgenden Gleichung: <img alt="Gleichung 10" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq10.jpg" /> Wobei L die Rate der Cl - Leck, die experimentell durch Messung bestimmt wird Cl - Efflux aus proteinfreien Liposomen unter den gleichen Bedingungen und τ hergestellt wird die Zeitkonstante des Prozesses. </li><li> Berechnen v, die Anfangsgeschwindigkeit: Wo ΔCl Rippe in millimolaren ausgedrückt und V das Volumen der Kammer in ul. </li><li> Berechnen Sie die Transportgeschwindigkeit / Leitwert <img alt="Gleichung 12" fo:content-width="3.5in" src="/files/ftp_upload/52369/52369eq12.jpg" /> Wobei p der P / L, MW das Molekulargewicht des aktiven Komplexes, ausgedrückt in kDa </li></ol>

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The authors declare no competing financial interests.

Transport von gereinigtem anionenselektive Kanäle oder Transporter in Liposomen rekonstituiert vermittelt - haben wir ein ausführliches Protokoll zu messen Cl beschrieben. Das verwendete Beispiel war der prokaryotischen H + / Cl - Tauscher CLC-ec1. Jedoch kann die Methodik leicht angepasst, um Kanäle durch Liganden 12,13,15, 11,12 Spannung oder sportlich verschiedenen anionischen Selektivität 15,16 durch Ersetzen des Ag gated untersuchen: AgCl-Elektrode mit eine...

In den letzten zwei Jahrzehnten die Fähigkeit, Überexpression und Reinigung von Membrantransportproteine ​​hat sich dramatisch erhöht: Ionenkanäle, primäre und sekundäre Transporter werden nun routinemäßig von heterologen Expressionssystemen sowie natürlichen Quellen gereinigt. Neue Wege in der Ausdrucks überwachen, zu verbessern und die Extraktion und erhöhen die Stabilität dieser Proteine ​​werden ständig weiterentwickelt 1-5. Diese technologischen Durchbrüche haben dazu beigetragen, das Auslösen der Explosion der Atomebene Informationen über die Struktur von Membranproteinen, die wiederum verbessert das Verständnis der strukturellen Grundlagen ihrer Funktion. Im Gegensatz dazu können wir auch die funktionellen Eigenschaften der gereinigten Proteine ​​Sonde nicht mit der gleichen Geschwindigkeit zu erhöhen, so dass in einigen Fällen hochauflösende Strukturinformation durch qualitative Funktionsdaten begleitet, wodurch die Fähigkeit zur quantitativen Test strukturbasierte Prognosen einschränkend. Daher ist die development quantitativer und verallgemeinerbare funktionellen Tests ist ein wichtiger Schritt zur Aufklärung der mechanistischen Grundlagen von Membranproteinfunktion. Hier beschreiben wir eine Auslauf Assay, der verwendet werden kann, wichtige Funktionseigenschaften gereinigt und wiederhergestellt Cl quantitativ zu bestimmen - Kanäle und Transporter. Die Prinzipien des Assays Basiswert kann auf eine Vielzahl von Transportsystemen, sowie auf nichtIonenTransportProteine ​​verallgemeinern. Kanal / Transporter in Gegenwart eines großen Cl - - ​​Liposomen werden mit gereinigtem Cl rekonstituiert Gradienten (1A, B). Cl - Ausfluß wird durch die Zugabe eines Ionophors initiiert, um für Gegenionenfluss zu ermöglichen, in unserem Fall der K + Ionophor Valinomycin, der die Spannung von der etablierten Cl Shunt - Gradienten und den ursprünglichen Membranpotential auf das Gleichgewichtspotential von K + 6,7. Ohne ter Ionophor keine signifikante Netto Cl - Efflux auftritt, wie es durch die Erzeugung eines Transmembranpotentials verhindert. - Efflux und f 0, die Fraktion von Liposomen keine aktive Protein enthaltenden τ die Zeitkonstante von Cl: Die Daten werden quantitativ durch zwei messbare Parameter (Abbildung 1C) beschrieben. Von τ und f 0 die unitäre Cl - Transportgeschwindigkeit kann der Anteil von aktiven Proteinen und die Molekularmasse des aktiven Komplexes 8 abgeleitet werden. Tauscher bekannter Struktur und Funktion - Die Technik wird hier mit Proteo mit CLC-ec1, einem gut charakterisierten CLC-Typ H + / Cl wiederhergestellt dargestellt. Dieser Assay wird leicht um Kanäle oder Transporteure mit unterschiedlicher Ionenselektivität, oder deren Aktivität von der Anwesenheit von Spannung und / oder Liganden verallgemeinert. Darüber hinaus kann dieser Assay verwendet werden, um zu bestimmen, ob kleine Moleküle unmittelbar auf die rekonstituierte Protein,um die Wirkungen dieser Verbindungen und wie die Zusammensetzung der Membran oder Lipidmodifizierungsreagenzien auf die Funktion der rekonstituierten Kanäle und Transporter zu quantifizieren.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="995">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:372px;">Name of Reagent/ Equipment</td>
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			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Liposomicator, Avanti Polar Lipids Inc.</td>
			<td style="width:337px;">&#160;Avanti Polar Lipids Inc.</td>
			<td>610200</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">IEC Centra CL2 Benchtop</td>
			<td style="width:337px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Orion Research Model 701A Digital pH-mV meter</td>
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			<td>These can be found on Ebay.</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">&#160;Non-functional pH probe</td>
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			<td>Any pH meter probe with silver wires will work. The glass/plastic coating needs to be removed and the wires cleaned.</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">&#160; DI-710 Data Logger</td>
			<td style="width:337px;">DATAQ instruments</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">WinDAQ acquisition software</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Pierce Disposable Plastic Columns, Gravity-flow, 2ml</td>
			<td style="width:337px;">Pierce (Thermo Scientific)</td>
			<td>29922</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">KIMAX Culture Tubes, Disposable, Borosilicate Glass</td>
			<td style="width:337px;">Kimble Chase</td>
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			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">610000</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Computer</td>
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</table>

a proteoliposome-based efflux assay to determine single-molecule properties of cl- channels and transporters

The last 15 years have been characterized by an explosion in the ability to overexpress and purify membrane proteins from prokaryotic organisms as well as from eukaryotes. This increase has been largely driven by the successful push to obtain structural information on membrane proteins. However, the ability to functionally interrogate these proteins has not advanced at the same rate and is often limited to qualitative assays of limited quantitative value, thereby limiting the mechanistic insights that they can provide. An assay to quantitatively investigate the transport activity of reconstituted Cl- channels or transporters is described. The assay is based on the measure of the efflux rate of Cl- from proteoliposomes following the addition of the K+ ionophore valinomycin to shunt the membrane potential. An ion sensitive electrode is used to follow the time-course of ion efflux from proteoliposomes reconstituted with the desired protein. The method is highly suited for mechanistic studies, as it allows for the quantitative determination of key properties of the reconstituted protein, such as its unitary transport rate, the fraction of active protein and the molecular mass of the functional unit. The assay can also be utilized to determine the effect of small molecule compounds that directly inhibit/activate the reconstituted protein, as well as to test the modulatory effects of the membrane composition or lipid-modifying reagents. Where possible, direct comparison between results obtained using this method were found to be in good agreement with those obtained using electrophysiological approaches. The technique is illustrated using CLC-ec1, a CLC-type H+/Cl- exchanger, as a model system. The efflux assay can be utilized to study any Cl- conducting channel/transporter and, with minimal changes, can be adapted to study any ion-transporting protein.

Wir beschreiben eine detaillierte und robuste Protokoll zu messen Cl - Transport von gereinigtem CLC-ec1, einem prokaryontischen CLC-Typ H + / Cl vermittelt - Tauscher, in Liposomen rekonstituiert. Eine schematische Darstellung des Experiments ist in Abbildung 3 dargestellt Proteoliposomen mit gereinigtem CLC-EC1 und mit hohen internen Cl rekonstituiert. - In einer Badlösung, die geringe Cl taucht -. Unter diesen Bedingungen net Cl - Aus...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Proteoliposome-Based Efflux Assay to Determine Single-molecule Properties of Cl- Channels and Transporters at JoVE.com

A Proteoliposome-Based Efflux Assay to Determine Single-molecule Properties of Cl- Channels and Transporters

Proteoliposomes are used to study purified channels and transporters reconstituted in a well-defined biochemical environment. An experimental procedure to measure efflux mediated by these proteins is illustrated. The steps to prepare proteoliposomes, perform the recordings, and analyze data to quantitatively determine the functional properties of the reconstituted protein are described.

Ein Proteoliposom Basierte Efflux-Assay auf Einzelmoleküleigenschaften von Cl Bestimmen<sup&gt; -</sup&gt; Kanäle und Transporter

The last 15 years have been characterized by an explosion in the ability to overexpress and purify membrane proteins from prokaryotic organisms as well as ...

a-proteoliposome-based-efflux-assay-to-determine-single-molecule

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

A Proteoliposome-Based Efflux Assay to Determine Single-molecule Properties of Cl- Channels and Transporters

9.7K Aufrufe.  Weill Cornell Medical College. Proteoliposomes are used to study purified channels and transporters reconstituted in a well-defined biochemical environment. An experimental procedure to measure efflux mediated by these proteins is illustrated. The steps to prepare proteoliposomes, perform the recordings, and analyze data to quantitatively determine the functional properties of the reconstituted protein are described.

Serie: A Proteoliposome-Based Efflux Assay to Determine Single-molecule Properties of Cl- Channels and Transporters

Single Molecule Methods for Monitoring Changes in Bilayer Elastic Properties

Membrane protein function is regulated by the cell membrane lipid composition.  This regulation is due to a combination of specific lipid-protein interactions and more general lipid bilayer-protein interactions. These interactions are particularly important in pharmacological research, as many current pharmaceuticals on the market can alter the lipid bilayer material properties, which can lead to altered membrane protein function.   The formation of gramicidin channels are dependent on conformational changes in gramicidin subunits which are in turn dependent on the properties of the lipid.  Hence the gramicidin channel  current is a reporter of altered properties of the bilayer due to certain compounds.  

Membrane protein function is regulated by the cell membrane lipid composition. This video-article details how to form a patch using bilayer patch electrodes, as well as how to use gramicidin channels as reporters of altered membrane properties.

Single Molecule Methoden zur Überwachung von Veränderungen in Bilayer Elastic Properties

Membrane protein function is regulated by the cell membrane lipid composition.  This regulation is due to a combination of specific lipid-protein ...

Forschung

Biologie

Visualizing Single-molecule DNA Replication with Fluorescence Microscopy

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA template is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and replicated extensively after introduction of replication proteins and nucleotides (Figure 1). The growing product double-strand DNA (dsDNA) is extended with laminar flow and visualized by using an intercalating dye. Measuring the position of the growing DNA end in real time allows precise determination of replication rate (Figure 2). Furthermore, the length of completed DNA products reports on the processivity of replication. This experiment can be performed very easily and rapidly and requires only a fluorescence microscope with a reasonably sensitive camera.


This protocol demonstrates a simple single-molecule fluorescence microscopy technique for visualizing DNA replication by individual replisomes in real time.

Visualizing Einzel-Molekül-DNA-Replikation mit Fluoreszenz-Mikroskopie

We describe a simple fluorescence microscopy-based real-time method for observing DNA replication at the single-molecule level. A circular, forked DNA ...

Direct Observation of Enzymes Replicating DNA Using a Single-molecule DNA Stretching Assay

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system. Linearized &lambda; DNA is modified to have a biotin on the end of one strand, and a digoxigenin moiety on the other end of the same strand. The biotinylated end is attached to a functionalized glass coverslip and the digoxigeninated end to a small bead. The assembly of these DNA-bead tethers on the surface of a flow cell allows a laminar flow to be applied to exert a drag force on the bead. As a result, the DNA is stretched close to and parallel to the surface of the coverslip at a force that is determined by the flow rate (Figure 1). The length of the DNA is measured by monitoring the position of the bead. Length differences between single- and double-stranded DNA are utilized to obtain real-time information on the activity of the replication proteins at the fork. Measuring the position of the bead allows precise determination of the rates and processivities of DNA unwinding and polymerization (Figure 2).

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system.

Direkte Beobachtung von Enzymen Replizieren DNA Mit einem Single-Molekül DNA Stretching Assay

We describe a method for observing real time replication of individual DNA molecules mediated by proteins of the bacteriophage replication system. ...

Single-Molecule Imaging of Nuclear Transport

The utility of single molecule fluorescence microscopy approaches has been proven to be of a great avail in understanding biological reactions over the last decade. The investigation of molecular interactions with high temporal and spatial resolutions deep within cells has remained challenging due to the inherently weak signals arising from individual molecules. Recent works by Yang et al. demonstrated that narrow-field epifluorescence microscopy allows visualization of nucleocytoplasmic transport at the single molecule level. By the single molecule approach, important kinetics, such as nuclear transport time and efficiency, for signal-dependent and independent cargo molecules have been obtained. Here we described a protocol for the methodological approach with an improved spatiotemporal resolution of 0.4 ms and 12 nm. The improved resolution enabled us to capture transient active transport and passive diffusion events through the nuclear pore complexes (NPC) in semi-intact cells. We expect this method to be used in elucidating other binding and trafficking events within cells.

Single molecule microscopy approch provided novel insights into nuclear transport.

The utility of single molecule fluorescence microscopy approaches has been proven to be of a great avail in understanding biological reactions over the ...

A Fluorescent Screening Assay for Identifying Modulators of GIRK Channels

G protein-gated inward rectifier K+ (GIRK) channels function as cellular mediators of a wide range of hormones and neurotransmitters and are expressed in the brain, heart, skeletal muscle and endocrine tissue1,2. GIRK channels become activated following the binding of ligands (neurotransmitters, hormones, drugs, etc.) to their plasma membrane-bound, G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). This binding causes the stimulation of G proteins (Gi and Go) which subsequently bind to and activate the GIRK channel. Once opened the GIRK channel allows the movement of K+ out of the cell causing the resting membrane potential to become more negative. As a consequence, GIRK channel activation in neurons decreases spontaneous action potential formation and inhibits the release of excitatory neurotransmitters. In the heart, activation of the GIRK channel inhibits pacemaker activity thereby slowing the heart rate.
GIRK channels represent novel targets for the development of new therapeutic agents for the treatment neuropathic pain, drug addiction, cardiac arrhythmias and other disorders3. However, the pharmacology of these channels remains largely unexplored. Although a number of drugs including anti-arrhythmic agents, antipsychotic drugs and antidepressants block the GIRK channel, this inhibition is not selective and occurs at relatively high drug concentrations3.
Here, we describe a real-time screening assay for identifying new modulators of GIRK channels. In this assay, neuronal AtT20 cells, expressing GIRK channels, are loaded with membrane potential-sensitive fluorescent dyes such as bis-(1,3-dibutylbarbituric acid) trimethine oxonol [DiBAC4(3)] or HLB 021-152 (Figure 1). The dye molecules become strongly fluorescent following uptake into the cells (Figure 1). Treatment of the cells with GPCR ligands stimulates the GIRK channels to open. The resulting K+ efflux out of the cell causes the membrane potential to become more negative and the fluorescent signal to decrease (Figure 1). Thus, drugs that modulate K+ efflux through the GIRK channel can be assayed using a fluorescent plate reader. Unlike other ion channel screening assays, such atomic absorption spectrometry4 or radiotracer analysis5, the GIRK channel fluorescent assay provides a fast, real-time and inexpensive screening procedure.

A real-time screening procedure for identifying drugs that interact with G protein-gated inward rectifier K+ (GIRK) channels is described. The assay utilizes membrane potential-sensitive fluorescent dyes to measure GIRK channel activity. This technique is adaptable for use on a number of cell lines.

Ein fluoreszierendes Screening Assay zur Identifizierung von Modulatoren der GIRK Kanäle

G protein-gated inward rectifier K+ (GIRK) channels function as cellular mediators of a wide range of hormones and neurotransmitters and are expressed in ...

Combining Single-molecule Manipulation and Imaging for the Study of Protein-DNA Interactions

The paper describes the combination of optical tweezers and single molecule fluorescence detection for the study of protein-DNA interaction. The method offers the opportunity of investigating interactions occurring in solution (thus avoiding problems due to closeby surfaces as in other single molecule methods), controlling the DNA extension and tracking interaction dynamics as a function of both mechanical parameters and DNA sequence. The methods for establishing successful optical trapping and nanometer localization of single molecules are illustrated. We illustrate the experimental conditions allowing the study of interaction of lactose repressor (lacI), labeled with Atto532, with a DNA molecule containing specific target sequences (operators) for LacI binding. The method allows the observation of specific interactions at the operators, as well as one-dimensional diffusion of the protein during the process of target search. The method is broadly applicable to the study of protein-DNA interactions but also to molecular motors, where control of the tension applied to the partner track polymer (for example actin or microtubules) is desirable.

Here we describe the instrumentation and methods for detecting single fluorescently-labeled protein molecules interacting with a single DNA molecule suspended between two optically trapped microspheres.

Die Kombination von Einzelmolekül-Imaging und Manipulation für das Studium der Protein-DNA-Wechselwirkungen

The paper describes the combination of optical tweezers and single molecule fluorescence detection for the study of protein-DNA interaction. The method ...

Studying DNA Looping by Single-Molecule FRET

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into nucleosomes. Thermodynamics of dsDNA bending has been studied by a method called cyclization which relies on DNA ligase to covalently join short sticky ends of a dsDNA. However, ligation efficiency can be affected by many factors that are not related to dsDNA looping such as the DNA structure surrounding the joined sticky ends, and ligase can also affect the apparent looping rate through mechanisms such as nonspecific binding. Here, we show how to measure dsDNA looping kinetics without ligase by detecting transient DNA loop formation by FRET (Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer). dsDNA molecules are constructed using a simple PCR-based protocol with a FRET pair and a biotin linker. The looping probability density known as the J factor is extracted from the looping rate and the annealing rate between two disconnected sticky ends. By testing two dsDNAs with different intrinsic curvatures, we show that the J factor is sensitive to the intrinsic shape of the dsDNA.

This study presents a detailed experimental procedure to measure looping dynamics of double-stranded DNA using single-molecule Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET). The protocol also describes how to extract the looping probability density called the J factor.

Studieren von DNA-Looping von Einzelmolekül-FRET

Bending of double-stranded DNA (dsDNA) is associated with many important biological processes such as DNA-protein recognition and DNA packaging into ...

Measurement and Analysis of Extracellular Acid Production to Determine Glycolytic Rate

Extracellular measurement of oxygen consumption and acid production is a simple and powerful way to monitor rates of respiration and glycolysis1. Both mitochondrial (respiration) and non-mitochondrial (other redox) reactions consume oxygen, but these reactions can be easily distinguished by chemical inhibition of mitochondrial respiration. However, while mitochondrial oxygen consumption is an unambiguous and direct measurement of respiration rate2, the same is not true for extracellular acid production and its relationship to glycolytic rate 3-6. Extracellular acid produced by cells is derived from both lactate, produced by anaerobic glycolysis, and CO2, produced in the citric acid cycle during respiration. For glycolysis, the conversion of glucose to lactate- + H+ and the export of products into the assay medium is the source of glycolytic acidification. For respiration, the export of CO2, hydration to H2CO3 and dissociation to HCO3- + H+ is the source of respiratory acidification. The proportions of glycolytic and respiratory acidification depend on the experimental conditions, including cell type and substrate(s) provided, and can range from nearly 100% glycolytic acidification to nearly 100% respiratory acidification 6. Here, we demonstrate the data collection and calculation methods needed to determine respiratory and glycolytic contributions to total extracellular acidification by whole cells in culture using C2C12 myoblast cells as a model.

Glycolysis is a defining metabolic marker in multiple biological systems. Monitoring glycolysis by measuring the extracellular flux of H+ is common, but requires correction to be quantitative and unambiguous. Here, we demonstrate how to gather and correct extracellular flux data to distinguish between respiratory and glycolytic sources of extracellular acidification.

Messung und Analyse von extrazellulären Säureproduktion zu ermitteln glykolytischen Rate

Extracellular measurement of oxygen consumption and acid production is a simple and powerful way to monitor rates of respiration and glycolysis1. Both ...

The Lactate Dehydrogenase Sequestration Assay &#8212; A Simple and Reliable Method to Determine Bulk Autophagic Sequestration Activity in Mammalian Cells

Bulk autophagy is characterized by the sequestration of large portions of cytoplasm into double/multi-membrane structures termed autophagosomes. Here a simple protocol to monitor this process is described. Moreover, typical results and experimental validation of the method under autophagy-inducing conditions in various types of cultured mammalian cells are provided. During bulk autophagy, autophagosomes sequester cytosol, and thereby also soluble cytosolic proteins, alongside other autophagic cargo. LDH is a stable and highly abundant, soluble cytosolic enzyme that is non-selectively sequestered into autophagosomes. The amount of LDH sequestration therefore reflects the amount of bulk autophagic sequestration. To efficiently and accurately determine LDH sequestration in cells, we employ an electrodisruption-based fractionation protocol that effectively separates sedimentable from cytosolic LDH, followed by measurement of enzymatic activity in sedimentable fractions versus whole-cell samples. Autophagic sequestration is determined by subtracting the proportion of sedimentable LDH in untreated cells from that in treated cells. The advantage of the LDH sequestration assay is that it gives a quantitative measure of the autophagic sequestration of endogenous cargo, as opposed to other methods that either involve ectopic expression of sequestration probes or semi-quantitative protease protection analyses of autophagy markers or receptors.

The Lactate Dehydrogenase Sequestration Assay &amp;#8212; A Simple and Reliable Method to Determine Bulk Autophagic Sequestration Activity in Mammalian Cells

Here a simple and well-validated protocol for measuring bulk autophagic sequestration activity in mammalian cells is described. The method is based on quantifying the proportion of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) in sedimentable cell fractions compared to total cellular LDH levels.

Laktat-Dehydrogenase Sequestrierung Assay – Eine einfache und zuverlässige Methode zur Bestimmung Bulk Selbstverdauende Sequestration Aktivität in Säugerzellen

Bulk autophagy is characterized by the sequestration of large portions of cytoplasm into double/multi-membrane structures termed autophagosomes. Here a ...

Parallel High Throughput Single Molecule Kinetic Assay for Site-Specific DNA Cleavage

Site-specific DNA cleavage (SSDC) is a key step in many cellular processes, and it is crucial to gene editing. This work describes a kinetic assay capable of measuring SSDC in many single DNA molecules simultaneously. Bead-tethered substrate DNAs, each containing a single copy of the target sequence, are prepared in a microfluidic flow channel. An external magnet applies a weak force to the paramagnetic beads. The integrity of up to 1,000 individual DNAs can be monitored by visualizing the microbeads under darkfield imaging using a wide-field, low magnification objective. Injecting of a restriction endonuclease, NdeI, initiates the cleavage reaction. Video microscopy is used to record the exact moment of each DNA cleavage by observing the frame in which the associated bead moves up and out of the focal plane of the objective. Frame-by-frame bead counting quantifies the reaction, and an exponential fit determines the reaction rate. This method allows collection of quantitative and statistically significant data on single molecule SSDC reactions in a single experiment.

A highly parallel method for measuring the site-specific cleavage of DNA at the single molecule level is described. This protocol demonstrates the technique using the restriction endonuclease NdeI. The method can easily be modified to study any process that results in site-specific DNA cleavage.

Paralleler Hochdurchsatz-Single Molecule Kinetic Assay für standortspezifische DNA-Spaltung

Site-specific DNA cleavage (SSDC) is a key step in many cellular processes, and it is crucial to gene editing. This work describes a kinetic assay capable ...