The authors thank Drs. Steven Chu and Joe W. Gray for helpful discussions, Henry Marr for his initial work on the BiFC-PALM project, and Alexis Shoemaker for her technical assistance. This work is supported by startup funds to X.N. from OHSU. Research in the Nan laboratory was also supported by NIH 5U54CA143836-05, the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation, the M. J. Murdock Charitable Trust, and the FEI company.

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

BiFC hat eine allgemein verwendete Technik zur Erfassung und Visualisierung PPIs in Zellen, während PALM ist ein neues einzelnes Molekül Auflösungs Mikroskopietechnik, die nanoskalige Abbildungs ​​intakter biologischer Proben ermöglicht. Die Kombination von BIFC mit PALM erreicht selektiven Abbildung von PPI in einer Zelle mit Nanometer-Ortsauflösung und Einzelmolekülempfindlichkeit. BIFC-PALM erweitert den Nutzen der beiden Techniken, und wie in dieser Arbeit gezeigt, ist äußerst viel versprechend bei der A...

Protein-Protein-Wechselwirkungen (PPIs) sind grundlegende Biologie 1 und dicht über Raum-Zeit-Mechanismen über viele Zeit- und Längenskalen geregelt. Untersuchungen an Zellsignal auf der Zellmembran beispielsweise mit dynamischen nanoskaliger Orts Kompartimente spezifischen PPI und zelluläre Prozesse 2 zu erleichtern enthüllt. Daher ist die Fähigkeit, die PPI in biologischen Systemen mit ausreichender räumlicher und zeitlicher Auflösung, hohe Spezifität und eine hohe Empfindlichkeit Sonde Schlüssel zu einem mechanistischen Verständnis der Biologie. Bimolekulare Fluoreszenzkomplementation (BIFC) ist einer der wenigen vorhandenen Werkzeugen zur Visualisierung von PPI in einer Zelle mit subzellulärer Auflösung und Live-Zellverträglichkeit 3-5. Die Technik ist relativ einfach und erfordert Aufspaltung eines fluoreszierenden Proteins in zwei nicht-fluoreszierenden Fragmente; wenn genetisch mit zwei interagierende Proteine ​​markiert undin die Nähe gebracht wird, können die Fragmente zu rekonstituieren, um eine vollständige fluoreszierende Protein zu bilden, wodurch Fluoreszenzsignal. Wenn sie richtig entworfen, sollte BIFC Sonden nicht spontan Rekonstitution in Abwesenheit von PPI. Als solches wird das Fluoreszenz-Signal in einem BiFC Assay nur in Gegenwart von PPI, der die direkte Visualisierung von EPI mit hoher Spezifität ermöglicht auftreten. Zusätzliche Vorteile der Verwendung von Fluoreszenz als Auslese sind hohe Empfindlichkeit, subzelluläre Auflösung, und die Kompatibilität mit hohem Durchsatz und hohem Gehalt Screening-Assays, unter anderem. Für diesen Vorteilen eine Reihe von BiFC Sonden basierend auf unterschiedlichen Mutter fluoreszierenden Proteinen entwickelt worden. Wie in allen anderen Detektionsverfahren auf der Basis konventioneller Lichtmikroskopie ist jedoch die räumliche Auflösung der BiFC auf ~ 250 nm durch die Beugung des Lichts begrenzt. Dies macht es eine Herausforderung für die Regulierung der PPI im Nanobereich, die, wie bereits angedeutet und durch Lipid Rafts 6 eine beispielhaft zu studierennd Ras Nanocluster 7, ist eine kritische Längenskala für das Verständnis vieler zellulärer Prozesse wie Signalisierung. BIFC mit photoaktivierte Lokalisationsmikroskopie (PALM) 8,9 kombiniert, um diese Grenze der räumlichen Auflösung für die Abbildung PPI 10 zu überwinden. PALM ist eine neue Superresolution Mikroskopie-Technik, die die Beugungsgrenze in der Fluoreszenzbildgebung durch stochastische Aktivierung und subdiffractive Lokalisierung der einzelnen fluoreszierenden Molekülen umgeht. In jedem Aktivierungszyklus emittiert ein fluoreszierendes Molekül zu einigen tausend Photonen einige hundert und führt zu einem einzigen Molekül Bild auf dem Detektor. Während das Bild beugungsbegrenzt (~ 250 nm in der Breite), dessen Schwerpunkt mit einer wesentlich höheren Genauigkeit typischerweise in der Größenordnung von 10-50 nm in Abhängigkeit von der Anzahl der detektierten Photonen bestimmt werden. Durch Aktivieren und Lokalisieren jedes Fluoreszenzmolekül in der Probe kann eine hohe Bildauflösung zu rekonstruieren. Performed auf lebende Zellen, einzelnes Molekül Verfolgung (SMT-) PALM gestattet weiterhin Erwerb der Tausende von Proteindiffusionsbahnen von einer einzelnen Zelle 11. Wichtig ist, verwendet PALM Fachfluoreszenzsonden wie photoaktivierbare fluoreszierende Proteine ​​(PA-RP), um stochastische Aktivierung zu erreichen. Da sowohl BIFC und PALM Verwendung fluoreszierender Proteine, werden sie durch die Spaltung von PAmCherry1, eine häufig verwendete PA-FP für PALM, in zwei Fragmente zwischen den Aminosäuren 159 und 160 zusammengefasst wurden. Die BIFC System auf Basis von Split PAmCherry1 zeigt geringe Hintergrundsignal von spontanen Wiederherstellung der beiden Fragmente. Bei genetisch an ein Paar von interagierenden Proteinen markiert, die beiden Fragmente (RN = Reste 1-159; RC = Met + Reste 160-236) effizient rekonstituiert, um eine vollständige PAmCherry1 Proteine ​​auch bei 37 ° C und ohne Inkubation bei niedrigeren Temperaturen zu bilden, die nicht der Fall für andere BiFC Paare 12 wie der Mutter mCherry 13. Furthermore, die rekonstituierte PAmCherry1 Protein behielt die photophysikalischen Eigenschaften der Mutter PAmCherry1 wie hohes Kontrastverhältnis, mittlere Photonenausbeute, und schnelle Photoaktivierung, unter anderem, die entscheidend für eine genaue Einzelmolekül-Lokalisierung und hochauflösende Bildgebung PALM sind. In diesem Protokoll die Verwendung BiFC-PALM zum Abbilden Ras-Raf-Interaktionen in U2OS-Zellen unter Verwendung von geteilten PAmCherry1 (1A) beschrieben wird. Der erste Schritt besteht darin, die Konstrukte für die Expression von Fusionsproteinen zwischen PAmCherry1 Fragmente (dh, RN, RC) und die Proteine ​​von Interesse zu entwerfen. Theoretisch für jedes Paar von Kandidatenproteinen (A und B) gibt es acht Paare von Fusionsproteinen getestet: RN-A / RC-B; RN-A / B-RC; RC-A / RN-B; RC-A / B-RN; A-RN / RC-B; A-RN / B-RC; A-RC / RN-B; und A-RC / B-RN. Dieser Prozess kann oft unter Berücksichtigung der strukturellen oder biochemischen Eigenschaften der Kandidatenproteine ​​vereinfacht werden. Im Fall der Ras ist das Proteinpost-translational an dem C-terminal modifizierten CAAX-Box (C = Cys ist, A = aliphatische, X = beliebiger), wonach der AAX-Motiv abgespalten. Daher RN oder RC kann nur an den N-Terminus von Ras kondensiert sein kann; Dies reduziert die Anzahl der Fusionsprotein-Paare zu vier (1B). Für Raf, die Ras-Bindungsdomäne (RBD; Reste 51-131) verwendet und kann an beiden Enden versehen werden. Diese vier Fusionskonfigurationen generiert: RN-KRAS / RC-Raf RBD; RN-KRAS / Raf-RBD RC; RC-KRAS / RN-Raf RBD; und RC-KRAS / Raf RBD-RN. Zusätzlich wird der Linker zwischen den Fragmenten und den interessierenden Proteine ​​zu berücksichtigen. Ein flexibler Linker von etwa zehn Aminosäuren wird häufig verwendet, da es eine ausreichende Freiheit für die Komplementierung auftreten. Einen solchen Linker (GGGGS) x2, obwohl es viele andere, die erfolgreich eingesetzt worden sind, einschließlich der Zufallsfolgen von einer multiplen Klonierungsstelle (MCS) 14 erzeugt wird. Die Länge der Linker können müssen dependin optimiertg von der Grße der interessierenden Proteine ​​und ihre Orientierungen bei der Interaktion. Die PAmCherry1 Fragmente werden in einem kleinen Klonen Backbone mit flankierenden MCSs enthalten (siehe Materialliste). Gene von Interesse kann über die Restriktionsschnittstellen oder einem ligationsunabhängiges Verfahren eingefügt werden. Nach der Klonierung und Sequenzüberprüfung wird die Expressionskassette ein Expressionsvektor unter Verwendung eines Rekombinase-Reaktion, ein Klonierungsverfahren mit hoher Genauigkeit und hoher Effizienz übertragen. Als nächstes wurden die resultierenden Expressionskonstrukte werden in das Zielzelllinie oder zur Infektion der Zielzelle transfiziert, wenn eine stabile Zelllinie zu erzeugen, in Lentivirus verpackt. Transiente Transfektion ermöglicht eine schnelle Validierung der BIFC Konfigurationen, aber mögliche Probleme zu beachten. Transfektion unter Verwendung von Chemikalien oft betont, die Zellen, was zu hohen Eigenfluoreszenz; während die Verwendung von interner Totalreflexion Fluoreszenz (TIRF) microscopy können dieses Hintergrundsignal zu mildern durch Begrenzung der Beleuchtungsvolumen, TIRF ideal, wenn die PPI auf der Zellmembran statt. Zusätzlich transienten Transfektionen führen oft zu hohe Proteinexpressionsniveaus, die weit über denen der endogene Proteine, die Artefakte bei der Erfassung der PPIs verursachen können. Daher ist es empfehlenswert, dass stabile Zelllinien etabliert, nachdem ein geeigneter BiFC Konfiguration hat erste Test wurde bestimmt. Stabile Zelllinien haben auch das Potenzial für durchstimmbare Expression über Doxycyclin Induktions 15. Nach der Infektion werden die Zellen mit Antibiotika ausgewählt, typischerweise Puromycin und Neomycin, eine für jedes Konstrukt. Die nachfolgenden Schritte für die Probenvorbereitung, Bildaufnahme und Datenanalyse wird im Detail in den Protokollen beschrieben. Mit diesem Ansatz werden die Bildung von Nanoclustern in BiFC-Handabdrücken von Ras-Raf RBD routinemßig beobachtet (2A &lt;/ strong&gt;). Konsequent, smt-PALM Flugbahnen von Ras-Raf-RBD zeigen eine heterogene Verteilung der Diffusionszustände (2B-D). Diese Ergebnisse legen nahe, dass Ras-Raf-Komplexe existieren in mehreren Staaten an der Zellmembran, vermutlich als Monomere und Clustern, mit möglichen biologischen Auswirkungen. Diese Arbeit zeigt die Macht der BIFC-PALM in selektiven Abbildung von PPI in Zellen mit Nanometer-Ortsauflösung und Einzelmolekül-Empfindlichkeit, die nur schwer mit herkömmlichen BIFC, Fluoreszenz-Co-Lokalisation, oder Fluoreszenz-Resonanzenergietransfer (FRET) erhalten würde. Bei der Gestaltung BIFC Experimente und der Interpretation der Ergebnisse ist es wichtig zu beachten, dass die BIFC Vorgang ist irreversibel in den meisten Fällen, einschließlich Split PAmCherry1 halten. Sobald die beiden Fragmente kombiniert und bilden eine komplette PAmCherry1 Protein, die Bindung zwischen den beiden Fragmenten und damit die PPI permanent wird. Dies schränkt die Verwendung von BIFC und BIFC-PALM für die Überwachung der Dynamik der PPI (dh Bindungskinetik und nicht die Diffusion Dynamik des Proteinkomplexes, sobald sie gebildet ist) und manchmal sogar zu Fehllokalisation der PPI-Komplexe führen. Ein weiterer zu berücksichtigender Faktor bei der Gestaltung BIFC-PALM-Experimente ist die Verzögerung bei der Chromophor Reifung, die innewohnende fluoreszierende Proteine ​​ist. Einmal zwei Proteine ​​interagieren, und die FP-Fragmenten zusammenkommen, werden sie rückfalten typischerweise in der Größenordnung von Sekunden (Halbwertszeit von 60 sec für EYFP 3). , Anschließende Chromophor Reifung und Fluoreszenzsignal zu entwickeln jedoch in der Größenordnung von Minuten. Während Fluoreszenz nachweisbar innerhalb von 10 Minuten nach Rekonstitution des Split-Venus, einer schnell Falten YFP-Variante zu sein, ist die Halbwertszeit für die Reifung im Allgemeinen oft rund 60 min 16. Split-PAmCherry1 beobachtet ähnliche Preise haben. Daher BIFC und BIFC-PALM liegen noch schlechte Wahl für die Überwachung der Echtzeit-PPI-Kinetik; andere michthoden wie FRET und einem kürzlich entwickelten Dimerisierung abhängigen Fluoreszenzprotein 17 kann mehr für diesen Zweck geeignet sein.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>TIRF Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60X oil immersion TIRF objective with 1.49 NA</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMCCD camera</td>
			<td>Andor</td>
			<td>iXon Ultra 897</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>561 nm laser</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>405 nm laser</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>561 nm dichroic mirror</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>&#160;Di01-R405/488/561/635-25x36</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>561 nm filter</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>FF01-525/45-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>405/561 nm notch filter</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>NF01-405/488/568-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature and CO2 controlled stage</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pENTR-D-TOPO-PAmCherry1_1-159-MCS</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>60545</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pENTR-D-TOPO-PAmCherry160-236-MCS</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>60546</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pcDNA3.2-DEST</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>12489-019</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pLenti-DEST</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>http://www.addgene.org/Eric_Campeau/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phusion High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>F-531</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>In-Fusion HD Cloning</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>639649</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LR Clonase</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>11791</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vira Power Lentivirus Packaging</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>K497500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X-tremeGENE Transfection Reagent</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>13873800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lab-Tek II Chambered Coverglass</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>155409</td>
			<td>#1.5 glass bottom dishes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U2OS cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>HTB-96</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>293T/17 cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-11268</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM with phenol red</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>11995</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM no phenol red</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>21063</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10082</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leibovit&#39;s L-15, no phenol red</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>21083-027</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reduced serum medium</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>31985</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>14040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>309604</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe filter</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>SLHV033RB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lentiviral concentrator</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>631231</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Retroviral concentrator</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>631455</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 cm culture dish</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>353003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6-well culture plate</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>353046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polybrene</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>107689</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Puromycin</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A11138</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>G-418</td>
			<td>Calbiochem</td>
			<td>345812</td>
			<td>Neomycin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Doxycyline</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP2653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris base</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP152</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>EDS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S5881</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>158127</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G6257</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PIPES</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P6757</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H4034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>3777</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M2643</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>221473</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP358</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>M33</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 nm gold particles</td>
			<td>BBI Solutions</td>
			<td>EM.GC100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Molecular grade water</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10977</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dpn1</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>R0176</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR purification kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Miniprep kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>27104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Midiprep kit</td>
			<td>Macherey-Nagel</td>
			<td>740410</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.6 mL microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>05-408-120</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>05-408-137</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>05-539-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 mL&#160; polypropylene round-bottom tubes</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>352063</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>14 mL polypropylene round-bottom tubes</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>352059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL tube</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>352070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR tube</td>
			<td>GeneMate</td>
			<td>C-3328-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SOC medium</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15544</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>244610</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin sulfate</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP906</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Competent cells</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>C4040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matlab</td>
			<td>Mathworks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

photoactivated localization microscopy with bimolecular fluorescence complementation (bifc-palm)

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are key molecular events to biology. However, it remains a challenge to visualize PPIs with sufficient resolution and sensitivity in cells because the resolution of conventional light microscopy is diffraction-limited to ~250 nm. By combining bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) with photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM), PPIs can be visualized in cells with single molecule sensitivity and nanometer spatial resolution. BiFC is a commonly used technique for visualizing PPIs with fluorescence contrast, which involves splitting of a fluorescent protein into two non-fluorescent fragments. PALM is a recent superresolution microscopy technique for imaging biological samples at the nanometer and single molecule scales, which uses phototransformable fluorescent probes such as photoactivatable fluorescent proteins (PA-FPs). BiFC-PALM was demonstrated by splitting PAmCherry1, a PA-FP compatible with PALM, for its monomeric nature, good single molecule brightness, high contrast ratio, and utility for stoichiometry measurements. When split between amino acids 159 and 160, PAmCherry1 can be made into a BiFC probe that reconstitutes efficiently at 37 &#176;C with high specificity to PPIs and low non-specific reconstitution. Ras-Raf interaction is used as an example to show how BiFC-PALM helps to probe interactions at the nanometer scale and with single molecule resolution. Their diffusion can also be tracked in live cells using single molecule tracking (smt-) PALM. In this protocol, factors to consider when designing the fusion proteins for BiFC-PALM are discussed, sample preparation, image acquisition, and data analysis steps are explained, and a few exemplary results are showcased. Providing high spatial resolution, specificity, and sensitivity, BiFC-PALM is a useful tool for studying PPIs in intact biological samples.

Das gezeigte BIFC-PALM Beispiel ist KRAS-mutierten G12D Interaktion mit den Ras-Bindungsdomäne (RBD) von Craf (Abbildung 1A). Wie diskutiert, wurden die RN oder RC-Fragmente nicht an den C-Terminus von Ras markiert, weil es die Membranlokalisierung und daher die biologische Aktivität von Ras unterbrechen. Dies reduziert die möglichen Kombinationen von acht auf vier (1B). Jede dieser vier Kombinationen wurde in U2OS-Zellen unter Verwendung von lentiviralen Infektion eingeführt. Die Z...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation BiFC-PALM at JoVE.com

Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation BiFC-PALM

Protein-protein interactions are visualized in cells with nanometer spatial resolution by combining bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) with photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM). Described here is the use of BiFC-PALM for imaging Ras-Raf interactions in U2OS cells for visualizing the nanoscale clustering and diffusion of individual Ras-Raf complexes.

Photoaktivierte Lokalisationsmikroskopie mit Bimolekulare Fluoreszenzkomplementation (BIFC-PALM)

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are key molecular events to biology. However, it remains a challenge to visualize PPIs with sufficient resolution and ...

photoactivated-localization-microscopy-with-bimolecular-fluorescence

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC-PALM)

9.8K Aufrufe.  Oregon Health and Science University. Protein-protein interactions are visualized in cells with nanometer spatial resolution by combining bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) with photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM). Described here is the use of BiFC-PALM for imaging Ras-Raf interactions in U2OS cells for visualizing the nanoscale clustering and diffusion of individual Ras-Raf complexes. 

Serie: Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation BiFC-PALM

Visualization of Cortex Organization and Dynamics in Microorganisms, using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

TIRF microscopy has emerged as a powerful imaging technology to study spatio-temporal dynamics of fluorescent molecules in vitro and in living cells1. The optical phenomenon of total internal reflection occurs when light passes from a medium with high refractive index into a medium with low refractive index at an angle larger than a characteristic critical angle (i.e. closer to being parallel with the boundary). Although all light is reflected back under such conditions, an evanescent wave is created that propagates across and along the boundary, which decays exponentially with distance, and only penetrates sample areas that are 100-200 nm near the interface2. In addition to providing superior axial resolution, the reduced excitation of out of focus fluorophores creates a very high signal to noise ratios and minimizes damaging effects of photobleaching2,3. Being a widefield technique, TIRF also allows faster image acquisition than most scanning based confocal setups.
At first glance, the low penetration depth of TIRF seems to be incompatible with imaging of bacterial and fungal cells, which are often surrounded by thick cell walls. On the contrary, we have found that the cell walls of yeast and bacterial cells actually improve the usability of TIRF and increase the range of observable structures4-8. Many cellular processes can therefore be directly accessed by TIRF in small, single-cell microorganisms, which often offer powerful genetic manipulation techniques. This allows us to perform in vivo biochemistry experiments, where kinetics of protein interactions and activities can be directly assessed in living cells.
We describe here the individual steps required to obtain high quality TIRF images for Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Bacillus subtilis cells. We point out various problems that can affect TIRF visualization of fluorescent probes in cells and illustrate the procedure with several application examples. Finally, we demonstrate how TIRF images can be further improved using established image restoration techniques.

Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy is a powerful approach to observe structures close to the cell surface at high contrast and temporal resolution. We demonstrate how TIRF can be employed to study protein dynamics at the cortex of cell wall-enclosed bacterial and fungal cells.

Visualisierung von Cortex Organisation und Dynamik in Mikroorganismen, mit Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

TIRF microscopy has emerged as  a powerful imaging technology to study spatio-temporal dynamics of fluorescent molecules  in vitro and in living cells1. ...

Forschung

Biotechnik

Nanotopology of Cell Adhesion upon Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (VA-TIRFM)

Surface topology, e.g. of cells growing on a substrate, is determined with nanometer precision by Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (VA-TIRFM). Cells are cultivated on transparent slides and incubated with a fluorescent marker homogeneously distributed in their plasma membrane. Illumination occurs by a parallel laser beam under variable angles of total internal reflection (TIR) with different penetration depths of the evanescent electromagnetic field. Recording of fluorescence images upon irradiation at about 10 different angles permits to calculate cell-substrate distances with a precision of a few nanometers. Differences of adhesion between various cell lines, e.g. cancer cells and less malignant cells, are thus determined. In addition, possible changes of cell adhesion upon chemical or photodynamic treatment can be examined. In comparison with other methods of super-resolution microscopy light exposure is kept very small, and no damage of living cells is expected to occur.

Nanotopology of Cell Adhesion upon Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy VA-TIRFM

Topology of cell adhesion on a substrate is measured with nanometre precision by variable-angle total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (VA-TIRFM).

Nanotopologie der Zelladhäsion auf Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (VA-TIRFM)

Surface topology, e.g. of cells growing on a substrate, is determined with nanometer precision by Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence ...

Creating Adhesive and Soluble Gradients for Imaging Cell Migration with Fluorescence Microscopy

Cells can sense and migrate towards higher concentrations of adhesive cues such as the glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix and soluble cues such as growth factors. Here, we outline a method to create opposing gradients of adhesive and soluble cues in a microfluidic chamber, which is compatible with live cell imaging. A copolymer of poly-L-lysine and polyethylene glycol (PLL-PEG) is employed to passivate glass coverslips and prevent non-specific adsorption of biomolecules and cells. Next, microcontact printing or dip pen lithography are used to create tracks of streptavidin on the passivated surfaces to serve as anchoring points for the biotinylated peptide arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) as the adhesive cue. A microfluidic device is placed onto the modified surface and used to create the gradient of adhesive cues (100% RGD to 0% RGD) on the streptavidin tracks. Finally, the same microfluidic device is used to create a gradient of a chemoattractant such as fetal bovine serum (FBS), as the soluble cue in the opposite direction of the gradient of adhesive cues.

A method for the assembly of adhesive and soluble gradients in a microscopy chamber for live cell migration studies is described. The engineered environment combines antifouling surfaces and adhesive tracks with solution gradients and therefore allows one to determine the relative importance of guidance cues.

Erstellen Adhesive und löslichen Farbverläufe for Imaging Cell Migration mit Fluoreszenz-Mikroskopie

Cells can sense and migrate towards higher concentrations of adhesive cues such as the glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix and soluble cues such as ...

Localization and Relative Quantification of Carbon Nanotubes in Cells with Multispectral Imaging Flow Cytometry

Carbon-based nanomaterials, like carbon nanotubes (CNTs), belong to this type of nanoparticles which are very difficult to discriminate from carbon-rich cell structures and de facto there is still no quantitative method to assess their distribution at cell and tissue levels. What we propose here is an innovative method allowing the detection and quantification of CNTs in cells using a multispectral imaging flow cytometer (ImageStream, Amnis). This newly developed device integrates both a high-throughput of cells and high resolution imaging, providing thus images for each cell directly in flow and therefore statistically relevant image analysis. Each cell image is acquired on bright-field (BF), dark-field (DF), and fluorescent channels, giving access respectively to the level and the distribution of light absorption, light scattered and fluorescence for each cell. The analysis consists then in a pixel-by-pixel comparison of each image, of the 7,000-10,000 cells acquired for each condition of the experiment. Localization and quantification of CNTs is made possible thanks to some particular intrinsic properties of CNTs: strong light absorbance and scattering; indeed CNTs appear as strongly absorbed dark spots on BF and bright spots on DF with a precise colocalization.
This methodology could have a considerable impact on studies about interactions between nanomaterials and cells given that this protocol is applicable for a large range of nanomaterials, insofar as they are capable of absorbing (and/or scattering) strongly enough the light.

In this study, the main purpose was to monitor the cellular uptake and eventual exocytosis of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). From this perspective, we proposed here a unique method using multispectral imaging flow cytometry allowing a quantification and localization of CNTs in a statistically relevant number of cells.

Lokalisierung und Relative Quantifizierung der Kohlenstoff-Nanoröhrchen in Zellen mit multispektrale Imaging Durchflusszytometrie

Carbon-based nanomaterials, like carbon nanotubes (CNTs), belong to this type of nanoparticles which are very difficult to discriminate from carbon-rich ...

High-resolution Spatiotemporal Analysis of Receptor Dynamics by Single-molecule Fluorescence Microscopy

Single-molecule microscopy is emerging as a powerful approach to analyze the behavior of signaling molecules, in particular concerning those aspect (e.g., kinetics, coexistence of different states and populations, transient interactions), which are typically hidden in ensemble measurements, such as those obtained with standard biochemical or microscopy methods. Thus, dynamic events, such as receptor-receptor interactions, can be followed in real time in a living cell with high spatiotemporal resolution. This protocol describes a method based on labeling with small and bright organic fluorophores and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy to directly visualize single receptors on the surface of living cells. This approach allows one to precisely localize receptors, measure the size of receptor complexes, and capture dynamic events such as transient receptor-receptor interactions. The protocol provides a detailed description of how to perform a single-molecule experiment, including sample preparation, image acquisition and image analysis. As an example, the application of this method to analyze two G-protein-coupled receptors, i.e., &#946;2-adrenergic and &#947;-aminobutyric acid type B (GABAB) receptor, is reported. The protocol can be adapted to other membrane proteins and different cell models, transfection methods and labeling strategies.

This protocol describes how to use total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to visualize and track single receptors on the surface of living cells and thereby analyze receptor lateral mobility, size of receptor complexes as well as to visualize transient receptor-receptor interactions. This protocol can be extended to other membrane proteins.

Hochauflösende Räumlich-zeitliche Analyse der Rezeptordynamik von Einzelmolekül-Fluoreszenzmikroskopie

Single-molecule microscopy is emerging as a powerful approach to analyze the behavior of signaling molecules, in particular concerning those aspect (e.g., ...

3D Orbital Tracking in a Modified Two-photon Microscope: An Application to the Tracking of Intracellular Vesicles

The objective of this video protocol is to discuss how to perform and analyze a three-dimensional fluorescent orbital particle tracking experiment using a modified two-photon microscope1. As opposed to conventional approaches (raster scan or wide field based on a stack of frames), the 3D orbital tracking allows to localize and follow with a high spatial (10 nm accuracy) and temporal resolution (50 Hz frequency response) the 3D displacement of a moving fluorescent particle on length-scales of hundreds of microns2. The method is based on a feedback algorithm that controls the hardware of a two-photon laser scanning microscope in order to perform a circular orbit around the object to be tracked: the feedback mechanism will maintain the fluorescent object in the center by controlling the displacement of the scanning beam3-5. To demonstrate the advantages of this technique, we followed a fast moving organelle, the lysosome, within a living cell6,7. Cells were plated according to standard protocols, and stained using a commercially lysosome dye. We discuss briefly the hardware configuration and in more detail the control software, to perform a 3D orbital tracking experiment inside living cells. We discuss in detail the parameters required in order to control the scanning microscope and enable the motion of the beam in a closed orbit around the particle. We conclude by demonstrating how this method can be effectively used to track the fast motion of a labeled lysosome along microtubules in 3D within a live cell. Lysosomes can move with speeds in the range of 0.4-0.5 &#181;m/sec, typically displaying a directed motion along the microtubule network8.

In this video protocol we track - at high speed and in three dimensions - fluorescently labeled lysosomes within living cells, using the orbital tracking method in a modified two-photon microscope.

3D-Tracking-Orbital in einer modifizierten Zwei-Photonen-Mikroskop: einen Antrag bei der Verfolgung von intrazellulären Vesikeln

The objective of this video protocol is to discuss how to perform and analyze a three-dimensional fluorescent orbital particle tracking experiment using a ...

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous number of imaging techniques currently available and the progress in instrumentation, there is still a need for highly sensitive probes that are suitable for in vivo imaging. One typical problem of available preclinical fluorescent probes is their rapid clearance in vivo, which reduces their imaging sensitivity. To circumvent rapid clearance, increase number of dye molecules at the target site, and thereby reduce background autofluorescence, encapsulation of the near-infrared fluorescent dye, DY-676-COOH in liposomes and verification of its potential for in vivo imaging of inflammation was done. DY-676 is known for its ability to self-quench at high concentrations. We first determined the concentration suitable for self-quenching, and then encapsulated this quenching concentration into the aqueous interior of PEGylated liposomes. To substantiate the quenching and activation potential of the liposomes we use a harsh freezing method which leads to damage of liposomal membranes without affecting the encapsulated dye. The liposomes characterized by a high level of fluorescence quenching were termed Lip-Q. We show by experiments with different cell lines that uptake of Lip-Q is predominantly by phagocytosis which in turn enabled the characterization of its potential as a tool for in vivo imaging of inflammation in mice models. Furthermore, we use a zymosan-induced edema model in mice to substantiate the potential of Lip-Q in optical imaging of inflammation in vivo. Considering possible uptake due to inflammation-induced enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, an always-on liposome formulation with low, non-quenched concentration of DY-676-COOH (termed Lip-dQ) and the free DY-676-COOH were compared with Lip-Q in animal trials.

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

The use of fluorophores for in vivo imaging can be greatly limited by opsonization, rapid clearance, low detection sensitivity and cytotoxic effects on the host. Encapsulation of fluorophores in liposomes by film hydration and extrusion leads to fluorescence quenching and protection which enables in vivo imaging with high detection sensitivity.

Fluoreszenz-Abschrecken eines Liposomenverkapseltes NIR-Fluorophore als Instrument zur<em&gt; In-vivo-</em&gt; Optical Imaging

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous ...

Single Molecule Fluorescence Microscopy on Planar Supported Bilayers

In the course of a single decade single molecule microscopy has changed from being a secluded domain shared merely by physicists with a strong background in optics and laser physics to a discipline that is now enjoying vivid attention by life-scientists of all venues 1. This is because single molecule imaging has the unique potential to reveal protein behavior in situ in living cells and uncover cellular organization with unprecedented resolution below the diffraction limit of visible light 2. Glass-supported planar lipid bilayers (SLBs) are a powerful tool to bring cells otherwise growing in suspension in close enough proximity to the glass slide so that they can be readily imaged in noise-reduced Total Internal Reflection illumination mode 3,4. They are very useful to study the protein dynamics in plasma membrane-associated events as diverse as cell-cell contact formation, endocytosis, exocytosis and immune recognition. Simple procedures are presented how to generate highly mobile protein-functionalized SLBs in a reproducible manner, how to determine protein mobility within and how to measure protein densities with the use of single molecule detection. It is shown how to construct a cost-efficient single molecule microscopy system with TIRF illumination capabilities and how to operate it in the experiment.

Preparation of protein-functionalized planar glass-supported lipid bilayers, determination of protein mobility within and measurement of protein densities is shown here. A roadmap to building a noise-reduced Total Internal Reflection microscope is outlined, which allows visualizing single bilayer-resident fluorochromes with high spatiotemporal resolution.

Einzelmolekülfluoreszenzmikroskopie auf Planar Unterstützte Bilayers

In the course of a single decade single molecule microscopy has changed from being a secluded domain shared merely by physicists with a strong background ...

Light-sheet Fluorescence Microscopy for the Study of the Murine Heart

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has been widely used for rapid image acquisition with a high axial resolution from micrometer to millimeter scale. Traditional light-sheet techniques involve the use of a single illumination beam directed orthogonally at sample tissue. Images of large samples that are produced using a single illumination beam contain stripes or artifacts and suffer from a reduced resolution due to the scattering and absorption of light by the tissue. This study uses a dual-sided illumination beam and a simplified CLARITY optical clearing technique for the murine heart. These techniques allow for deeper imaging by removing lipids from the heart and produce a large field of imaging, greater than 10 x 10 x 10 mm3. As a result, this strategy enables us to quantify the ventricular dimensions, track the cardiac lineage, and localize the spatial distribution of cardiac-specific proteins and ion-channels from the post-natal to adult mouse hearts with sufficient contrast and resolution.

This study uses a dual-sided illumination light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) technique combined with optical clearing to study the murine heart.

Licht-Blatt Fluoreszenzmikroskopie for the Study of Murine Herzen

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has been widely used for rapid image acquisition with a high axial resolution from micrometer to millimeter scale. ...

Conducting Multiple Imaging Modes with One Fluorescence Microscope

Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool to detect biological molecules in situ and monitor their dynamics and interactions in real-time. In addition to conventional epi-fluorescence microscopy, various imaging techniques have been developed to achieve specific experimental goals. Some of the widely used techniques include single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET), which can report conformational changes and molecular interactions with angstrom resolution, and single-molecule detection-based super-resolution (SR) imaging, which can enhance the spatial resolution approximately ten&#160;to twentyfold compared to diffraction-limited microscopy. Here we present a customer-designed integrated system, which merges multiple imaging methods in one microscope, including conventional epi-fluorescent imaging, single-molecule detection-based SR imaging, and multi-color single-molecule detection, including smFRET imaging. Different imaging methods can be achieved easily and reproducibly by switching optical elements. This set-up is easy to adopt by any research laboratory in biological sciences with a need for routine and diverse imaging experiments at a reduced cost and space relative to building separate microscopes for individual purposes.

Here we present a practical guide of building an integrated microscopy system, which merges conventional epi-fluorescent imaging, single-molecule detection-based super-resolution imaging, and multi-color single-molecule detection, including single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer imaging, into one set-up in a cost-efficient way.

Durchführung von mehreren Imaging-Modi mit einem Fluoreszenzmikroskop

Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool to detect biological molecules in situ and monitor their dynamics and interactions in real-time. In addition to ...