Die Autoren danken Yeon-Joo Jung für ihre experimentelle Unterstützung während Synaptosome Reinigung und Jungjoo Park für Bilder von Synaptosomes mit PS-Exposition. Darüber hinaus danken wir allen Mitgliedern in chungs Labor für hilfreiche Diskussion. Diese Arbeit wurde unterstützt durch die National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) Zuschuss finanziert von der koreanischen Regierung (MSIP) (NRF-2016M3C7A1905391 und NRF-2016R1C1B3006969) (W.-S. (C).

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Die Autoren haben nichts preisgeben.

In diesem Artikel präsentieren wir Methoden für einen langfristigen live-Imaging in Vitro Phagozytose-Assay mit gereinigtem Gliazellen und pH-Indikator-konjugiert Synaptosomes. Wir zeigen, dass im Vergleich zu Mikroglia, Astrozyten besitzen unterschiedlichen Engulfment und Abbau Kapazität während der Phagozytose von Synaptosomes. Darüber hinaus unsere Daten deuten darauf hin, dass Astrozyten abgesondert Faktoren, die Überbrückung Moleküle wie GAS6, Proteine und MEGE8 enthalten, entscheidend für effizien...

Gliazellen, die nicht leicht erregbaren Zellen im Gehirn beziehen, sind die wichtigen Zelltyp in das zentrale Nervensystem (ZNS). Zuvor galten Gliazellen als bloße Stützzellen, die vor allem passive Rollen bei der Aufrechterhaltung neuronaler überleben und basalen synaptischen Eigenschaften spielen. Anzeichen dafür ergab jedoch, dass Gliazellen in verschiedene Aspekte der Neurobiologie, wie Gehirn Homöostase, Vermittlung von Synapse Bildung1,2,3 und Synapse eine aktivere Rolle spielen Beseitigung4,5, und modulierenden synaptische Plastizität6,7. Gliazellen des ZNS gehören Oligodendrozyten, Astrozyten und Mikroglia. Zwischen diesen Zellen, Astrozyten und Mikroglia haben gezeigt, dass phagocytic Rollen zu spielen, indem Sie verschlingen Synapsen4,5, apoptotischen Zellen8, neuronale Trümmer9und Pathogene Proteine wie Amyloid beta Plaketten10,11. In das sich entwickelnde Gehirn beseitigen Astrozyten Synapsen im dorsalen seitlichen gekniet Nucleus (CGN) durch MERTK und MEGF10-abhängige Phagozytose4. In ähnlicher Weise Mikroglia auch beseitigen C1q-beschichtete Synapsen während Entwicklungsstadien durch die klassische Ergänzung Kaskade5. Interessanterweise wurde vermutet, dass Mängel in Synapse beschneiden einer der Initiatoren von verschiedenen neurologischen Störungen sein können. Zum Beispiel hat sich gezeigt, dass Mutationen in Ergänzung Komponente 4 (C4), die Ergänzung-vermittelten Synapse Beschneiden von Mikroglia zunimmt, eng mit der Prävalenz von Schizophrenie in Menschen12 sind. Eine neuere Arbeit hat auch gezeigt, dass die klassische Ergänzung Bahn Überaktivierung in der Einleitung von AD und frühem Verlust der Synapse in dieser Krankheit13induziert.
Verglichen mit Mikroglia-vermittelten Phagozytose, ob Astrozyten vermittelt Phagozytose, die Initiierung und Progression von verschiedenen neurologischen Erkrankungen beiträgt, ist weniger klar. Eine neuere Arbeit legt jedoch nahe, dass Faktoren, die die Rate der normalen Synapse Beschneidung von Astrozyten verändern können Gehirn Homöostase zu stören und zu AD Anfälligkeit und Pathologie14beitragen. Die Rate der Synapse Beschneidung von Astrozyten steuert kraftvoll ApoE -Isomere, mit einer schützenden Allel für AD (ApoE2) stark erhöhen die Rate und eine Risiko-Allel für AD (ApoE4) die Rate deutlich zu senken. Darüber hinaus angesammelt transgene Mäuse, die mit dem Ausdruck ApoE4 viel mehr synaptische C1q als Kontrolle oder ApoE2 Mäuse14. Diese Daten deuten darauf hin, dass Sehbehinderte Astrozyten vermittelt Phagozytose in den frühen AD Gehirn kann induzieren die Anhäufung der alternde C1q-beschichtete Synapsen/synaptische Trümmer, die Ergänzung-vermittelten Mikroglia Phagozytose, fahren synaptischen Degeneration aktiviert . Die beeinträchtigte phagocytic Kapazität der Astrozyten in ApoE4 Trägern kann auch die unkontrollierte Anhäufung von Beta Amyloid-Plaques im Gehirn AD betroffen beitragen.
Darüber hinaus hat gezeigt, dass Gliazellen im Gehirn im Alter von Drosophila ihre phagocytic Kapazität aufgrund der verringerten Übersetzung von Draper, ein Homolog des Megf10 , die Astrozyten verwenden verlieren für phagocytosing Synapsen. Wiederherstellen von Draper Ebenen gerettet phagocytic Kapazität von Gliazellen, die effizient beschädigte axonalen Schutt im alten Gehirn in ähnlichem Ausmaß wie im jungen Gehirn darauf hinweist, dass Altern ausgeglichen-induzierte Veränderungen in der phagocytic Kapazität von Astrozyten können zu Störungen des Gehirns Homöostase15beitragen.
Möglicherweise modulieren die phagocytic Kapazität der Astrozyten basierend auf diese neuen Erkenntnisse, eine attraktive therapeutische Strategie zur Vorbeugung und Behandlung von verschiedenen neurologischen Erkrankungen. In diesem Zusammenhang gab es mehrere Versuche, phagocytic Astrozyten, beispielsweise verstärkt durch Induktion Versauerung der Lysosomen mit sauren Nanopartikel16 und überexprimierenden Transkriptionsfaktor EB (TFEB), die erhöhen können Lysosomen Biogenese17. Trotz dieser Bemühungen ist noch unklar, wie Astrozyten und Mikroglia-Zellen unterscheiden sich in ihrer phagocytic Kinetik und ob wir erhöhen oder verringern Sie ihre phagocytic Kapazitäten bei verschiedenen Erkrankungen sollten.
In diesem Beitrag präsentieren wir eine neuartige in-vitro- Test zur Erkennung von phagocytic Kapazität der Astrozyten in Echtzeit. Die Daten zeigen unterschiedliche Kinetik der Engulfment und Abbau in Astrozyten und Mikroglia. Astrozyten konditioniertes Medium (ACM), die von Astrozyten sezernierten Faktoren enthält, ist essentiell für effektive Phagozytose von Astrozyten und Mikroglia. Darüber hinaus spielt Megf10, einen phagocytic Rezeptor in Astrozyten und ein Homolog von Ced-1 und Draper, wichtige Rollen in Astrozyten vermittelt Phagozytose8,18.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Synaptosome purification</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Percoll</td>
			<td>GE healthcare life sciences</td>
			<td>17-0891-01</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Quick Start Bradford Protein Assay Kit 2</td>
			<td>BIO-RAD</td>
			<td>5000202</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pH indicator conjugation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dimethyl sulfoxide(DMSO)</td>
			<td>LPS solution</td>
			<td>DMSO100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pHrodo red, succinimidyl ester</td>
			<td>Molecula probes</td>
			<td>P36600</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Immunopanning</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10X Earle&#8217;s balanced salt solution (EBSS)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>E7510</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Bovogen</td>
			<td>BSA025</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Deoxyrebonuclease 1 (DNase)</td>
			<td>Worthington</td>
			<td>Is002007</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(DMEM)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11960-044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>(dPBS)</td>
			<td>Welgene</td>
			<td>LB001-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum (FBS)</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>16000-044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Griffonia Simplicifolia Lectin(BSL-1)</td>
			<td>Vector Labs</td>
			<td>L-1100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-mouse IgG+IgM(H+L)</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>115-005-044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-mouse IgM (&#956;-chain)</td>
			<td>Jackson ImmunoResearch</td>
			<td>115-005-020</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Heparin-binding epidermal growth factor</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>E4643</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Human HepaCAM antibody</td>
			<td>R&#38;D systems</td>
			<td>MAB4108</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Integrin beta 5 monoclonal antibody (KN52)</td>
			<td>eBioscience</td>
			<td>14-0497-82</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-cysteine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>C7880</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>L-glutamate</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>25030-081</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-acetly-L-cyteine (NAC)</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A8199</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Neurobasal media</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>21103-049</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>O4 hybridoma supernatant(mouse IgM)</td>
			<td>Bansal et al.23</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Papain</td>
			<td>Worthington</td>
			<td>Is003126</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Penicillin/streptomycin</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>15140-122</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pluristrainer 20 &#956;m</td>
			<td>PluriSelect</td>
			<td>43-50020-03</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-D-lysine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P6407</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Progesterone</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P8783</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Putrescine dihydrochloride</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P5780</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Purified rat anti-mouse CD45</td>
			<td>BD Pharmingen</td>
			<td>550539</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Purified mouse anti-rat CD45</td>
			<td>BD Pharmingen</td>
			<td>554875</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium pyruvate</td>
			<td>Gibco</td>
			<td>11360-070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium selenite</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S5261</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Transferrin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T1147</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>T9935</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trypsin inhibitor</td>
			<td>Worthington</td>
			<td>LS003086</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ultra-clear tube (Tube, Thinwall, Ultra-Clear)</td>
			<td>Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td>344059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collect IP-ACM</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Macrosep Advance Centrifugal Devices with Omega Membrane (10k)</td>
			<td>PALL</td>
			<td>MAP010C37</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Macrosep Advance Centrifugal Devices with Omega Membrane (30k)</td>
			<td>PALL</td>
			<td>MAP030C37</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phagocytosis live imaging assay</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Juli stage</td>
			<td>NanoEntek</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Time Series Analyzer V3 plugins</td>
			<td>https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/plugins/time-series.html</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a novel in vitro live-imaging assay of astrocyte-mediated phagocytosis using ph indicator-conjugated synaptosomes

Astrozyten sind die wichtigen Zelltyp im Gehirn und Synapsen und Blutgefäße direkt zu kontaktieren. Obwohl Mikroglia-Zellen die wichtigsten Immunzellen und nur Fresszellen im Gehirn betrachtet, haben neuere Studien gezeigt, dass Astrozyten auch Teilnahme an verschiedenen phagocytic Prozesse, z. B. Entwicklungsstörungen Synapse Beseitigung und Clearance von Beta Amyloid-Plaques bei Alzheimer-Krankheit (AD). Trotz dieser Erkenntnisse ist die Effizienz der Astrozyten Engulfment und Abbau ihrer Ziele unklar im Vergleich mit der Mikroglia. Dieser Mangel an Informationen ist meist aufgrund des Fehlens von einem Testsystem, in denen die Kinetik der Astrozyten und Mikroglia vermittelt Phagozytose sind leicht vergleichbar. Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, entwickelten wir einen langfristige live-Imaging in Vitro Phagozytose Assay zur Bewertung der phagocytic Kapazität der gereinigten Astrozyten und Mikroglia. In diesem Test ist Echtzeit-Erkennung von Engulfment und Abbau möglich mit pH-Indikator-konjugiert Synaptosomes, die leuchtend rote Fluoreszenz in sauren Organellen, wie Lysosomen abgeben. Unsere neuartige Assay bietet einfache und effektive Erkennung von Phagozytose durch live-Imaging. Darüber hinaus kann dieser in-vitro- Phagozytose Assay als Screening-Plattform verwendet werden, um zu identifizieren, Chemikalien und Substanzen, die zu verbessern oder hemmen die phagocytic Kapazität der Astrozyten. Wie synaptic Pruning Fehlfunktion und Pathogene Protein Akkumulation gezeigt wurden, psychischen Störungen oder neurodegenerativen Erkrankungen verursachen, sollte Chemikalien und Substanzen, die die phagocytic Kapazität von Gliazellen modulieren hilfreich bei der Behandlung von verschiedenen neurologische Erkrankungen.

In dieser in Vitro Phagozytose Assay mit langfristigen live-Imaging verwendeten wir Synaptosomes von Erwachsenen Maus Gehirn Homogenates, die in der gradient Lösung zwischen 23 % Steigung und 10 % Steigung Lösung, durch Ultrazentrifugation getrennt waren ( ( Abbildung 3). Nach der Zubereitung ausgesetzt Synaptosomes PS in der äußeren Membran (Abbildung 4), was darauf hindeutet, dass sie ihre Funktion verloren und dur...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes at JoVE.com

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

Dieses Protokoll stellt einen in-vitro- live-Imaging Phagozytose Assay phagocytic Kapazität von Astrozyten zu messen. Gereinigte Ratte Astrozyten und Mikroglia sind zusammen mit pH-Indikator-konjugiert Synaptosomes verwendet. Diese Methode kann in Echtzeit Engulfment und Abbau Kinetik erkennen und bietet eine geeignete Screening-Plattform für Astrozyten Phagozytose modulierende Faktoren zu identifizieren.

Ein neuartiges In vitro- Live-Imaging Assay Astrozyten vermittelt Phagozytose mittels pH Indikator konjugiert Synaptosomes

Astrocytes are the major cell type in the brain and directly contact synapses and blood vessels. Although microglial cells have been considered the major ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

12.0K Aufrufe.  Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology. Dieses Protokoll stellt einen in-vitro- live-Imaging Phagozytose Assay phagocytic Kapazität von Astrozyten zu messen. Gereinigte Ratte Astrozyten und Mikroglia sind zusammen mit pH-Indikator-konjugiert Synaptosomes verwendet. Diese Methode kann in Echtzeit Engulfment und Abbau Kinetik erkennen und bietet eine geeignete Screening-Plattform für Astrozyten Phagozytose modulierende Faktoren zu identifizieren.

Serie: A Novel In Vitro Live-imaging Assay of Astrocyte-mediated Phagocytosis Using pH Indicator-conjugated Synaptosomes

Live-imaging of PKC Translocation in Sf9 Cells and in Aplysia Sensory Neurons

Protein kinase Cs (PKCs) are serine threonine kinases that play a central role in regulating a wide variety of cellular processes such as cell growth and learning and memory. There are four known families of PKC isoforms in vertebrates: classical PKCs (&alpha;, &beta;I, &beta;II and &gamma;), novel type I PKCs (&#949; and &eta;), novel type II PKCs (&delta; and &theta;), and atypical PKCs (&zeta; and &iota;). The classical PKCs are activated by Ca2+ and diacylclycerol (DAG), while the novel PKCs are activated by DAG, but are Ca2+-independent. The atypical PKCs are activated by neither Ca2+ nor DAG. In Aplysia californica, our model system to study memory formation, there are three nervous system specific PKC isoforms one from each major class, namely the conventional PKC Apl I, the novel type I PKC Apl II and the atypical PKC Apl III. PKCs are lipid-activated kinases and thus activation of classical and novel PKCs in response to extracellular signals has been frequently correlated with PKC translocation from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane. Therefore, visualizing PKC translocation in real time in live cells has become an invaluable tool for elucidating the signal transduction pathways that lead to PKC activation. For instance, this technique has allowed for us to establish that different isoforms of PKC translocate under different conditions to mediate distinct types of synaptic plasticity and that serotonin (5HT) activation of PKC Apl II requires production of both DAG and phosphatidic acid (PA) for translocation 1-2. Importantly, the ability to visualize the same neuron repeatedly has allowed us, for example, to measure desensitization of the PKC response in exquisite detail 3. In this video, we demonstrate each step of preparing Sf9 cell cultures, cultures of Aplysia sensory neurons have been described in another video article 4, expressing fluorescently tagged PKCs in Sf9 cells and in Aplysia sensory neurons and live-imaging of PKC translocation in response to different activators using laser-scanning microscopy.

In this video, we demonstrate visualization of PKC translocation in living cells using fluorescently tagged PKCs.

Live-Darstellung von PKC-Translokation in Sf9-Zellen und in Aplysia sensorischen Neuronen

Protein kinase Cs (PKCs) are serine threonine kinases that play a central role in regulating a wide variety of cellular processes such as cell growth and ...

Forschung

Neurowissenschaften

Time-lapse Live Imaging of Clonally Related Neural Progenitor Cells in the Developing Zebrafish Forebrain

Precise patterns of division, migration and differentiation of neural progenitor cells are crucial for proper brain development and function1,2. To understand the behavior of neural progenitor cells in the complex in vivo environment, time-lapse live imaging of neural progenitor cells in an intact brain is critically required. In this video, we exploit the unique features of zebrafish embryos to visualize the development of forebrain neural progenitor cells in vivo. We use electroporation to genetically and sparsely label individual neural progenitor cells. Briefly, DNA constructs coding for fluorescent markers were injected into the forebrain ventricle of 22 hours post fertilization (hpf) zebrafish embryos and electric pulses were delivered immediately. Six hours later, the electroporated zebrafish embryos were mounted with low melting point agarose in glass bottom culture dishes. Fluorescently labeled neural progenitor cells were then imaged for 36hours with fixed intervals under a confocal microscope using water dipping objective lens. The present method provides a way to gain insights into the in vivo development of forebrain neural progenitor cells and can be applied to other parts of the central nervous system of the zebrafish embryo.

The present video demonstrates a method which takes advantage of the combination of electroporation and confocal microscopy to perform live imaging on individual neural progenitor cells in the developing zebrafish forebrain. In vivo analysis of the development of forebrain neural progenitor cells at a clonal level can be achieved in this way.

Zeitraffer-Live-Imaging von klonal verbundenen neuronalen Vorläuferzellen in der Entwicklung von Zebrafisch Vorderhirnneuronen

Precise patterns of division, migration and differentiation of neural progenitor cells are crucial for proper brain development and function1,2. To ...

Live Imaging of Dorsal Root Axons after Rhizotomy

The primary sensory axons injured by spinal root injuries fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. Regeneration of dorsal root (DR) axons into spinal cord is prevented at the dorsal root entry zone (DREZ), the interface between the CNS and PNS. Our understanding of the molecular and cellular events that prevent regeneration at DREZ is incomplete, in part because complex changes associated with nerve injury have been deduced from postmortem analyses. Dynamic cellular processes, such as axon regeneration, are best studied with techniques that capture real-time events with multiple observations of each living animal. Our ability to monitor neurons serially in vivo has increased dramatically owing to revolutionary innovations in optics and mouse transgenics. Several lines of thy1-GFP transgenic mice, in which subsets of neurons are genetically labeled in distinct fluorescent colors, permit individual neurons to be imaged in vivo1. These mice have been used extensively for in vivo imaging of muscle2-4 and brain5-7, and have provided novel insights into physiological mechanisms that static analyses could not have resolved. Imaging studies of neurons in living spinal cord have only recently begun. Lichtman and his colleagues first demonstrated their feasibility by tracking injured dorsal column (DC) axons with wide-field microscopy8,9. Multi-photon in vivo imaging of deeply positioned DC axons, microglia and blood vessels has also been accomplished10. Over the last few years, we have pioneered in applying in vivo imaging to monitor regeneration of DR axons using wide-field microscopy and H line of thy1-YFP mice. These studies have led us to a novel hypothesis about why DR axons are prevented from regenerating within the spinal cord11.
In H line of thy1-YFP mice, distinct YFP+ axons are superficially positioned, which allows several axons to be monitored simultaneously. We have learned that DR axons arriving at DREZ are better imaged in lumbar than in cervical spinal cord. In the present report we describe several strategies that we have found useful to assure successful long-term and repeated imaging of regenerating DR axons. These include methods that eliminate repeated intubation and respiratory interruption, minimize surgery-associated stress and scar formation, and acquire stable images at high resolution without phototoxicity.

An in vivo imaging protocol to monitor primary sensory axons following dorsal root crush is described. The procedures utilize wide-field fluorescence microscopy and thy1-YFP transgenic mice, and permit repeated imaging of axon regeneration over 4 cm in the PNS and axon interactions with the interface of the CNS.

Live-Imaging von Spinalganglien Axone nach Rhizotomie

The primary sensory axons injured by spinal root injuries fail to regenerate into the spinal cord, leading to chronic pain and permanent sensory loss. ...

Ex vivo Live Imaging of Single Cell Divisions in Mouse Neuroepithelium

We developed a system that integrates live imaging of fluorescent markers and culturing slices of embryonic mouse neuroepithelium. We took advantage of existing mouse lines for genetic cell lineage tracing: a tamoxifen-inducible Cre line and a Cre reporter line expressing dsRed upon Cre-mediated recombination. By using a relatively low level of tamoxifen, we were able to induce recombination in a small number of cells, permitting us to follow individual cell divisions. Additionally, we observed the transcriptional response to Sonic Hedgehog (Shh) signaling using an Olig2-eGFP transgenic line 1-3 and we monitored formation of cilia by infecting the cultured slice with virus expressing the cilia marker, Sstr3-GFP 4. In order to image the neuroepithelium, we harvested embryos at E8.5, isolated the neural tube, mounted the neural slice in proper culturing conditions into the imaging chamber and performed time-lapse confocal imaging. Our ex vivo live imaging method enables us to trace single cell divisions to assess the relative timing of primary cilia formation and Shh response in a physiologically relevant manner. This method can be easily adapted using distinct fluorescent markers and provides the field the tools with which to monitor cell behavior in situ and in real time.

Ex vivo Live Imaging of Single Cell Divisions in Mouse Neuroepithelium

Here we develop the tools necessary for ex vivo live imaging to trace single cell divisions in the mouse E8.5 neuroepithelium

Ex vivo Live-Imaging von Single Cell Divisionen in Maus Neuroepithel

We developed a system that integrates live imaging of fluorescent markers and culturing slices of embryonic mouse neuroepithelium. We took advantage of ...

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given their relevance to development and disease, understanding the mechanisms that govern asymmetric stem cell division has been a robust area of study. Because they are genetically tractable and undergo successive rounds of cell division about once every hour, the stem cells of the Drosophila central nervous system, or neuroblasts, are indispensable models for the study of stem cell division. About 100 neural stem cells are located near the surface of each of the two larval brain lobes, making this model system particularly useful for live imaging microscopy studies. In this work, we review several approaches widely used to visualize stem cell divisions, and we address the relative advantages and disadvantages of those techniques that employ dissociated versus intact brain tissues. We also detail our simplified protocol used to explant whole brains from third instar larvae for live cell imaging and fixed analysis applications.

Live Imaging of Drosophila Larval Neuroblasts

This protocol details a streamlined method used to conduct live cell imaging in the context of an intact larval brain. Live cell imaging approaches are invaluable for the study of asymmetric neural stem cell divisions as well as other neurogenic and developmental processes, consistently uncovering mechanisms that were previously overlooked.

Live-Imaging von<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larven Neuroblasten

Stem cells divide asymmetrically to generate two progeny cells with unequal fate potential: a self-renewing stem cell and a differentiating cell. Given ...

Live Imaging of the Ependymal Cilia in the Lateral Ventricles of the Mouse Brain

Multiciliated ependymal cells line the ventricles in the adult brain. Abnormal function or structure of ependymal cilia is associated with various neurological deficits. The current ex vivo live imaging of motile ependymal cilia technique allows for a detailed study of ciliary dynamics following several steps. These steps include: mice euthanasia with carbon dioxide according to protocols of The University of Toledo&#8217;s Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC); craniectomy followed by brain removal and sagittal brain dissection with a vibratome or sharp blade to obtain very thin sections through the brain lateral ventricles, where the ependymal cilia can be visualized. Incubation of the brain&#8217;s slices in a customized glass-bottom plate containing Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle&#8217;s Medium (DMEM)/High-Glucose at 37 &#176;C in the presence of 95%/5% O2/CO2 mixture is essential to keep the tissue alive during the experiment. A video of the cilia beating is then recorded using a high-resolution differential interference contrast microscope. The video is then analyzed frame by frame to calculate the ciliary beating frequency. This allows distinct classification of the ependymal cells into three categories or types based on their ciliary beating frequency and angle. Furthermore, this technique allows the use of high-speed fluorescence imaging analysis to characterize the unique intracellular calcium oscillation properties of ependymal cells as well as the effect of pharmacological agents on the calcium oscillations and the ciliary beating frequency. In addition, this technique is suitable for immunofluorescence imaging for ciliary structure and ciliary protein localization studies. This is particularly important in disease diagnosis and phenotype studies. The main limitation of the technique is attributed to the decrease in live motile cilia movement as the brain tissue starts to die.

Using high-resolution differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy, an ex vivo observation of the beating of motile ependymal cilia located within the mouse brain ventricles is demonstrated by live-imaging. The technique allows a recording of the unique ciliary beating frequency and beating angle as well as their intracellular calcium oscillation pacing properties.

Live-Imaging des Ependymale Cilia in der Seitenventrikel des Maus-Gehirn-

Multiciliated ependymal cells line the ventricles in the adult brain. Abnormal function or structure of ependymal cilia is associated with various ...

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

How organisms sense and respond to noxious temperatures is still poorly understood. Further, the mechanisms underlying sensitization of the sensory machinery, such as in patients experiencing peripheral neuropathy or injury-induced sensitization, are not well characterized. The genetically tractable Drosophila model has been used to study the cells and genes required for noxious heat detection, which has yielded multiple conserved genes of interest. Little is known however about the cells and receptors important for noxious cold sensing. Although, Drosophila does not survive prolonged exposure to cold temperatures (&#8804;10 &#186;C), and will avoid cool, preferring warmer temperatures in behavioral preference assays, how they sense and possibly avoid noxious cold stimuli has only recently been investigated.
Here we describe and characterize the first noxious cold (&#8804;10 &#186;C) behavioral assay in Drosophila. Using this tool and assay, we show an investigator how to qualitatively and quantitatively assess cold nociceptive behaviors. This can be done under normal/healthy culture conditions, or presumably in the context of disease, injury or sensitization. Further, this assay can be applied to larvae selected for desired genotypes, which might impact thermosensation, pain, or nociceptive sensitization. Given that pain is a highly conserved process, using this assay to further study&#160;thermal nociception will likely glean important understanding of pain processes in other species, including vertebrates.

Novel Assay for Cold Nociception in Drosophila Larvae

Here we demonstrate a novel assay to study cold nociception in Drosophila larvae. This assay utilizes a custom-built Peltier probe capable of applying a focal noxious cold stimulus and results in quantifiable cold-specific behaviors. This technique will allow further cellular and molecular dissection of cold nociception.

Neuartige Assay für kalte Nozizeption in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larvae

How organisms sense and respond to noxious temperatures is still poorly understood. Further, the mechanisms underlying sensitization of the sensory ...

Live Imaging of Primary Cerebral Cortex Cells Using a 2D Culture System

During cerebral cortex development, progenitor cells undergo several rounds of symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions to generate new progenitors or postmitotic neurons. Later, some progenitors switch to a gliogenic fate, adding to the astrocyte and oligodendrocyte populations. Using time-lapse video-microscopy of primary cerebral cortex cell cultures, it is possible to study the cellular and molecular mechanisms controlling the mode of cell division and cell cycle parameters of progenitor cells. Similarly, the fate of postmitotic cells can be examined using cell-specific fluorescent reporter proteins or post-imaging immunocytochemistry. More importantly, all these features can be analyzed at the single-cell level, allowing the identification of progenitors committed to the generation of specific cell types. Manipulation of gene expression can also be performed using viral-mediated transfection, allowing the study of cell-autonomous and non-cell-autonomous phenomena. Finally, the use of fusion fluorescent proteins allows the study of symmetric and asymmetric distribution of selected proteins during division and the correlation with daughter cells fate. Here, we describe the time-lapse video-microscopy method to image primary cerebral cortex murine cells for up to several days and analyze the mode of cell division, cell cycle length and fate of newly generated cells. We also describe a simple method to transfect progenitor cells, which can be applied to manipulate genes of interest or simply label cells with reporter proteins.

Live imaging is a powerful tool to study cellular behaviors in real time. Here, we describe a protocol for time-lapse video-microscopy of primary cerebral cortex cells that allows a detailed examination of the phases enacted during the lineage progression from primary neural stem cells to differentiated neurons and glia.

Bildgebung des primären Hirnrinde Zellen unter Verwendung einer 2D Kultursystem zu leben

During cerebral cortex development, progenitor cells undergo several rounds of symmetric and asymmetric cell divisions to generate new progenitors or ...

In Vitro Phagocytosis of Myelin Debris by Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages

Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) are mature leukocytes that serve a critical physiological role as professional phagocytes capable of clearing a variety of particles. Normally, BMDMs are restricted from the central nervous system (CNS), but following an injury, they can readily infiltrate. Once within the injured CNS tissue, BMDMs are the primary cell type responsible for the clearance of injury-derived cellular debris, including large quantities of lipid rich myelin debris. The neuropathological ramifications of BMDM infiltration and myelin debris phagocytosis within the CNS are complex and not well understood. The protocols described here, allow for the direct in vitro study of BMDMs in the context of CNS injury. We cover murine BMDM isolation and culture, myelin debris preparation, and assays to assess BMDM myelin debris phagocytosis. These techniques produce robust quantifiable results without the need for significant specialized equipment or materials, yet can be easily customized to meet the needs of researchers.

In Vitro Phagocytosis of Myelin Debris by Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages

We present methods to assess the phagocytic capacity of primary murine bone marrow-derived macrophages using fluorescently labeled myelin debris and intracellular lipid droplet staining.

In-vitro- Phagozytose von Myelin Schutt durch Knochenmark stammenden Makrophagen

Bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs) are mature leukocytes that serve a critical physiological role as professional phagocytes capable of clearing a ...

Assay Development for High Content Quantification of Sod1 Mutant Protein Aggregate Formation in Living Cells

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that can be caused by inherited mutations in the gene encoding copper-zinc superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1). The structural instability of SOD1 and the detection of SOD1-positive inclusions in familial-ALS patients supports a potential causal role for misfolded and/or aggregated SOD1 in ALS pathology. In this study, we describe the development of a cell-based assay designed to quantify the dynamics of SOD1 aggregation in living cells by high content screening approaches. Using lentiviral vectors, we generated stable cell lines expressing wild-type and mutant A4V SOD1 tagged with yellow fluorescent protein and found that both proteins were expressed in the cytosol without any sign of aggregation. Interestingly, only SOD1 A4V stably expressed in HEK-293, but not in U2OS or SH-SY5Y cell lines, formed aggregates upon proteasome inhibitor treatment. We show that it is possible to quantify aggregation based on dose-response analysis of various proteasome inhibitors, and to track aggregate-formation kinetics by time-lapse microscopy. Our approach introduces the possibility of quantifying the effect of ALS mutations on the role of SOD1 in aggregate formation as well as screening for small molecules that prevent SOD1 A4V aggregation.

We describe a method to quantify the aggregation of misfolded proteins. Our protocol details lentiviral induced stable cell line generation, automated confocal imaging, and image analysis of protein aggregates. As an illustrative application, we studied the effect of small molecules in promoting SOD1 aggregation in a time- and dose-dependent manner.

Assay-Entwicklung für hohe Content Quantifizierung der Sod1 mutierten Proteins Aggregatbildung in lebenden Zellen

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that can be caused by inherited mutations in the gene encoding copper-zinc ...

Ein neuartiges In vitro- Live-Imaging Assay Astrozyten vermittelt Phagozytose mittels pH Indikator konjugiert Synaptosomes

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