Name: rapid viscoelastic characterization of airway mucus using a benchtop rheometer
Uploaded: 2022-04-21T14:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Rapid Viscoelastic Characterization of Airway Mucus Using a Benchtop Rheometer at JoVE.com

This paper is supported by grants from Vertex Pharmaceuticals (Ehre RIA Award) and CFF-supported Research EHRE20XX0.

In the present study, samples were collected during a clinically indicated bronchoscopy after obtaining informed consent under a protocol approved by the UNC Institutional Review Board.
1. Sputum/mucus collection and storage
<ol>
	<li>Collect airway mucus via sputum collection or bronchoscopy aspiration.
	<ol>
		<li>Collect sputum either via spontaneous expectoration or induce sputum by 3% hypertonic saline inhalation. Alternatively, directly aspirate mucus...

<ol>
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K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cystic+fibrosis+sputum+rheology+correlates+with+both+acute+and+longitudinal+changes+in+lung+function.">Cystic fibrosis sputum rheology correlates with both acute and longitudinal changes in lung function.</a> Chest. 154 (2), 370-377 (2018).</li><li>Donaldson, S. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mucus+clearance+and+lung+function+in+cystic+fibrosis+with+hypertonic+saline.">Mucus clearance and lung function in cystic fibrosis with hypertonic saline.</a> The New England Journal of Medicine. 354 (3), 241-250 (2006).</li><li>Patarin, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rheological+analysis+of+sputum+from+patients+with+chronic+bronchial+diseases.">Rheological analysis of sputum from patients with chronic bronchial diseases.</a> Scientific Reports. 10 (1), 15685 (2020).</li><li>Markovetz, M. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Endotracheal+tube+mucus+as+a+source+of+airway+mucus+for+rheological+study.">Endotracheal tube mucus as a source of airway mucus for rheological study.</a> American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology. 317 (4), 498-509 (2019).</li><li>Ramsey, K. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Airway+mucus+hyperconcentration+in+non-cystic+fibrosis+bronchiectasis.">Airway mucus hyperconcentration in non-cystic fibrosis bronchiectasis.</a> American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 201 (6), 661-670 (2020).</li><li>Dunican, E. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mucus+plugs+in+patients+with+asthma+linked+to+eosinophilia+and+airflow+obstruction.">Mucus plugs in patients with asthma linked to eosinophilia and airflow obstruction.</a> The Journal of Clinical Investigation. 128 (3), 997-1009 (2018).</li><li>Ehre, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+improved+inhaled+mucolytic+to+treat+airway+muco-obstructive+diseases.">An improved inhaled mucolytic to treat airway muco-obstructive diseases.</a> American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 199 (2), 171-180 (2019).</li><li>Morrison, C. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Treatment+of+cystic+fibrosis+airway+cells+with+CFTR+modulators+reverses+aberrant+mucus+properties+via+hydration.">Treatment of cystic fibrosis airway cells with CFTR modulators reverses aberrant mucus properties via hydration.</a> The European Respiratory Journal. 59 (2), 2100185 (2021).</li><li>Puchelle, E., Jacquot, J., Beck, G., Zahm, J. M., Galabert, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rheological+and+transport+properties+of+airway+secretions+in+cystic+fibrosis-relationships+with+the+degree+of+infection+and+severity+of+the+disease.">Rheological and transport properties of airway secretions in cystic fibrosis-relationships with the degree of infection and severity of the disease.</a> European Journal of Clinical Investigation. 15 (6), 389-394 (1985).</li><li>Puchelle, E., Zahm, J. M., Quemada, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rheological+properties+controlling+mucociliary+frequency+and+respiratory+mucus+transport.">Rheological properties controlling mucociliary frequency and respiratory mucus transport.</a> Biorheology. 24 (6), 557-563 (1987).</li><li>Cardinaels, R., Reddy, N. K., Clasen, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantifying+the+errors+due+to+overfilling+for+Newtonian+fluids+in+rotational+rheometry.">Quantifying the errors due to overfilling for Newtonian fluids in rotational rheometry.</a> Rheologica Acta. 58 (8), 525-538 (2019).</li><li>Hancock, L. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Muc5b+overexpression+causes+mucociliary+dysfunction+and+enhances+lung+fibrosis+in+mice.">Muc5b overexpression causes mucociliary dysfunction and enhances lung fibrosis in mice.</a> Nature Communications. 9 (1), 5363 (2018).</li><li>Adewale, A. 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The unique viscoelastic properties of mucus are essential in maintaining healthy airways. Internal and external factors can alter airway mucus biophysical properties, causing clinical complications characteristic of muco-obstructive diseases. Hence, monitoring changes in mucus viscoelasticity might be considered during assessments of disease status and exploration of therapies that reduce mucus viscoelasticity. Empirical studies from the 1980s demonstrated a strong correlation between mucus rheology and airway clearance ...

Muco-obstructive airway diseases, including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cystic fibrosis (CF), and other respiratory conditions, such as viral and bacterial pneumonia, are prevalent health concerns worldwide. While the pathophysiology varies greatly between each condition, a common key feature is abnormal mucociliary clearance. In healthy lungs, mucus lines the airway epithelium to trap inhaled particles and provide a physical barrier against pathogens. Once secreted, airway mucus, composed of ~97.5% water, 0.9% salt, ~1.1% globular proteins, and ~0.5% mucins, is gradually transported toward the glottis by the coordinated beating of cilia1,2. Mucins are large O-linked glycoproteins that interact via non-covalent and covalent bonds to provide the distinct viscoelastic properties of mucus, which is required for efficient transport3. Changes in the ultrastructure of the mucin network caused by altered ion transport, mucin unfolding, electrostatic interactions, cross-linking, or changes in composition can significantly affect mucus viscoelasticity and impair mucociliary clearance4,5. Hence, identifying changes in the biophysical properties of airway mucus is essential to understanding disease pathogenesis and testing novel mucoactive compounds6.
Various factors can lead to the production of aberrant mucus in the lungs. In COPD, chronic inhalation of cigarette smoke triggers mucus hypersecretion as a result of goblet cell metaplasia, as well as airway dehydration via the downregulation of the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator (CFTR) channel, causing mucus hyperconcentration and small airway obstruction7,8. Similarly, CF, a genetic disorder associated with mutations in the CFTR gene, is characterized by the production of viscous, adherent mucus that is inadequate for transport8,9. In brief, CFTR dysfunction induces airway surface liquid depletion, polymeric mucin entanglement, and increased biochemical interactions, which result in chronic inflammation and bacterial infections. In addition, inflammatory cells trapped in static mucus further exacerbate the viscoelasticity of mucus by adding another large molecule, DNA, into the gel matrix, worsening airway obstruction5. One of the best examples of the importance of mucus rheology on the overall health of the lungs is provided by the example of recombinant human DNFase (rhDNase) in the treatment of cystic fibrosis patients. The effects of rhDNase were first demonstrated ex vivo on expectorated sputum, which showed a transition from viscous mucus to a flowing liquid within minutes10,11. Clinical trials in CF patients demonstrated that reducing airway mucus viscoelasticity with rhDNase inhalation decreased the rate of pulmonary exacerbations, and improved lung function and overall patient well-being12,13,14. As a result, rhDNase inhalation aimed to facilitate clearance became the standard of care for CF patients for more than two decades. Similar clinical benefits were observed with the use of inhaled hypertonic saline for mucus hydration in CF, which correlated with changes in rheological properties and resulted in mucociliary clearance acceleration and improved lung function15,16. Hence, a rapid and reliable protocol to measure mucus viscoelastic properties in clinical settings is important to optimize therapeutic approaches.
The benchtop rheometer tested herein offers a fast and convenient alternative for performing comprehensive viscoelastic measurements of mucus/sputum samples. Using dynamic oscillations with controlled angular displacement, the instrument provides deformation via a pair of adjustable parallel plates (e.g., rough or smooth geometries) to measure the torque and displacement with resolutions of 15 nN.m and 150 nm, respectively17. A default standardized calibration combined with user guidelines adapted for non-rheology specialists allows for straightforward measurements and reduces the risk of operator errors. The device produces a strain sweep curve that is processed and analyzed in real-time (within ~5 min) and automatically provides both linear viscoelastic (G&#39;, G&#34;, G*, and tan &#948;) and gel point (&#947;c, and &#963;c) characteristics (see Table 1).The elastic or storage modulus (G&#39;) describes how a sample responds to stress (i.e., the ability to return to its original shape), while the viscous or loss modulus (G&#34;) describes the energy dissipated per cycle of sinusoidal deformation (i.e., the energy lost due to the friction of molecules). The complex or dynamic modulus (G*) is the ratio of stress to strain, which describes the amount of internal force buildup in response to a shearing displacement (i.e., the overall viscoelastic properties). The damping factor (tan &#948;) is the ratio of the viscous modulus to the elastic modulus, which indicates the ability of a sample to dissipate energy (i.e., a low tan &#948; indicates an elastic-dominant/solid-like behavior, while a high tan &#948; indicates a viscous-dominant/liquid-like behavior). For gel point characteristics, the crossover strain (&#947;c) is the measure of the shear strain, calculated by the ratio of the deflection path to the shear gap height, at which the sample transitions from a solid-like to a liquid-like behavior and occurs, by definition, at oscillation strain where G&#39; = G&#34; or tan &#948; = 1. The crossover yield stress (&#963;c) is a measure of the amount of stress applied by the device at which the elastic and viscous moduli cross. In healthy sputa, elasticity dominates the mechanical response to strain (G&#39; &#62; G&#34;). In muco-obstructive diseases, both G&#39; and G&#34; increase as a result of pathological mucus changes17,18,19. The operational simplicity of the device facilitates onsite measurements and circumvents the need for sample storage/transportation/shipment to an offsite facility for analysis thus avoiding the time and freeze-thaw effects on the properties of these biological samples.
In this study, 8 MDa polyethylene oxide (PEO) solutions of different concentrations (1%-3%) were used to validate the measuring range of a commercial benchtop rheometer (Table of Materials) and the obtained concentration-dependent curve was directly compared to measurements acquired with a traditional bulk rheometer (Table of Materials). The repeatability of rheological measurements was then assessed using bronchoscopically harvested mucus from an intubated patient suffering from status asthmaticus (SA), an extreme form of asthma exacerbation characterized by bronchospasm, eosinophilic inflammation, and mucus hyperproduction in response to an environmental or infectious agent8,20. In this case, the SA patient had been intubated for severe respiratory failure and required ECMO (extracorporeal membrane oxygenation) due to the inability to support the patient effectively and safely with mechanical ventilation alone, despite aggressive standard asthma therapies. During a clinically-indicated bronchoscopy for lobar collapse, thick, clear, tenacious secretions were noted to be obstructing lobar bronchi and were aspirated using saline washings. Immediately following collection, excess saline was removed from the aspirate and the viscoelastic properties of the remaining SA sample were analyzed using the benchtop device. Additional sample aliquots were treated with a reducing agent, tris (2-carboxylethyl) phosphine hydrochloride (TCEP), to determine whether this protocol might be used to characterize therapeutic compound efficacy ex vivo.
The results showed that this protocol and the benchtop device can be used effectively in a clinical setting. The rheological properties determined from PEO concentration-dependent curves (Figure 1A)&#160;were indistinguishable between the tested benchtop device and a traditional parallel plate rheometer (Figure 1B). Triplicate measurements of the SA mucus were repeatable, with a 10% coefficient of variation for G*, G&#39;, and G&#34; endpoints and reflected the substantial abnormalities in mucus viscoelasticity that were clinically apparent in this patient&#39;s case (Figure 1D). Finally, ex vivo treatment with TCEP resulted in a significant reduction in G&#39; and G&#34;, and an increase in tan &#948;, demonstrating responsiveness to the treatment by alterations in the mucin network (Figure 2). In conclusion, this protocol using a benchtop rheometer provides a simple and effective approach to assess viscoelastic properties of mucus samples obtained from the clinic. This capability may be used to facilitate precision medicine approaches to care, as clinicians can test the efficacy of approved mucoactive drugs onsite, which can help identify alternative treatment options. In addition, this approach can be used in clinical trials to examine the effects of investigational drugs.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Capillary Pistons Tips</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>CP1000</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Discovery Hybrid Rheometer-3</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>DHR-3 Bulk Rheometer manufactured 
			by TA Instruments in New Castle, DE: Used to preform rheological tests.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graphing Software</td>
			<td>GraphPad Prism</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>GraphPad Software (San Diego, CA) used for data analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microcentrifuge Tube</td>
			<td>Costar</td>
			<td>3621</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peltier plate</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Temperature control system manufactured 
			by TA Instruments in New Castle, DE</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polyethylene oxide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>372838</td>
			<td>8 MDa polymer used as mucus simulant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Positive Displacement Pipette</td>
			<td>Gilson</td>
			<td>M1000</td>
			<td>Pipette used for handling viscous solutions</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rheomuco</td>
			<td>Rheonova</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>Benchtop Rheometer manufactured by Rheonova in France: Used to preform rheological tests.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rough Lower Geometries</td>
			<td>Rheonova</td>
			<td>D-1811-007</td>
			<td>25mm Diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rough Upper Geometries</td>
			<td>Rheonova</td>
			<td>U-1811-007</td>
			<td>25mm Diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Smooth Upper Parallel Plate</td>
			<td>TA Instruments</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>20mm Diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>tris(2-carboxyethyl)phosphine</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>646547-10X1ML</td>
			<td>TCEP: Potent reducing agent.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

rapid viscoelastic characterization of airway mucus using a benchtop rheometer

In muco-obstructive lung diseases (e.g., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis) and other respiratory conditions (e.g., viral/bacterial infections), mucus biophysical properties are altered by goblet cell hypersecretion, airway dehydration, oxidative stress, and the presence of extracellular DNA. Previous studies showed that sputum viscoelasticity correlated with pulmonary function and that treatments affecting sputum rheology (e.g., mucolytics) can result in remarkable clinical benefits. In general, rheological measurements of non-Newtonian fluids employ elaborate, time-consuming approaches (e.g., parallel/cone-plate rheometers and/or microbead particle tracking) that require extensive training to perform the assay and interpret the data. This study tested the reliability, reproducibility, and sensitivity of Rheomuco, a user-friendly benchtop device that is designed to perform rapid measurements using dynamic oscillation with a shear-strain sweep to provide linear viscoelastic moduli (G&#39;, G&#34;, G*, and tan &#948;) and gel point characteristics (&#947;c&#160;and &#963;c) for clinical samples within 5 min. Device performance was validated using different concentrations of a mucus simulant, 8 MDa polyethylene oxide (PEO), and against traditional bulk rheology measurements. A clinical isolate harvested from an intubated patient with status asthmaticus (SA) was then assessed in triplicate measurements and the coefficient of variation between measurements is &#60;10%. Ex vivo use of a potent mucus reducing agent, TCEP, on SA mucus resulted in a five-fold decrease in elastic modulus and a change toward a more &#34;liquid-like&#34; behavior overall (e.g., higher tan &#948;). Together, these results demonstrate that the tested benchtop rheometer can make reliable measures of mucus viscoelasticity in clinical and research settings. In summary, the described protocol could be used to explore the effects of mucoactive drugs (e.g., rhDNase, N-acetyl cysteine) onsite to adapt treatment on a case-by-case basis, or in preclinical studies of novel compounds.

Figure 1 shows the accuracy and repeatability of rheological measurements using concentration-dependent curves of viscoelastic control, i.e., polyethylene oxide (PEO) solution, and status asthmaticus (SA) mucus. Measurements of viscoelastic characteristics of 8 MDa PEO at five different concentrations (1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, and 3%) were directly compared between the evaluated benchtop rheometer and a traditional bulk rheometer (Table of Materials). In contrast with SA mucus, P...

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Rapid Viscoelastic Characterization of Airway Mucus Using a Benchtop Rheometer

The viscoelastic properties of mucus play a critical role in mucociliary clearance. However, traditional mucus rheological techniques require complex and time-consuming approaches. This study provides a detailed protocol for the use of a benchtop rheometer that can rapidly and reliably perform viscoelastic measurements.

In muco-obstructive lung diseases (e.g., asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, cystic fibrosis) and other respiratory conditions (e.g., ...

Muco-obstructive diseases are characterized by abnormal viscosity of the airway mucus. The protocol shows how to use rheology to quantify mucus viscosity and analyze data to test mucus-targeting treatments. Mucus rheology provides specific quantitative biomarkers.Using a benchtop device greatly simplifies the logistics of measuring these biomarkers in clinical specimens like human sputum samples. Using mucus rheology as a diagnosis tool for obstructive diseases is still challenge. An increasing body of evidence shows a strong correlation between rheology properties, inflammation, and bacterial infection.Mucus is always present at the body interface where it lubricates and plays a protective role. Mucus rheology can be applied to other systems like the gastrointestinal and genital tracks. To acquire accurate measurements, correct handling and placement of the sample is critical.A visual demonstration can enhance the precision of this assay. Demonstrating this procedure will be Kendall Shaffer, a research technician from the air laboratory. Begin by sorting the collected airway sputum or mucus in sterile specimen cups.In the case of sputum, remove excess saliva from the sample immediately upon collection. Place the samples on ice for transport. Limit the transport time to less than four hours.Analyze the samples at the time of collection. Homogenize the mucus by gently pipetting up and down three to five times with a positive displacement pipette. Or pipette directly into the microcentrifuge tubes.Store the samples at 80 degrees Celsius until processed. Aliquot the samples for storage in volumes greater than or equal to 500 microliters to ensure sufficient volume for experiments. Before aliquoting, pipette fresh and frozen sputum or mucus directly or homogenize specimens.Repair the required aliquots for repeat measurements and treatments. Incubate the aliquots to be tested at 37 degrees Celsius for at least five minutes prior to measurement. For testing pharmacological agents, use high concentrations of stock solutions to prevent sample dilution.Add between 1%to 10%volume of the desired reagent directly onto the sample. Make sure no drop of the compound stays on the side of the tube. Incubate the samples at 37 degrees Celsius for the required length of time, to allow a chemical reaction.Mix the mucus sample and reagent by flicking the bottom of the microcentrifuge tube every two minutes to allow progressive penetration of the reagent into the mucus sample without compromising the mucin network. When comparing multiple drug reagents, ensure that the incubation time is similar. Turn on the machine and initialize the software.Select new measurement. Enter the sample identification number under Measure ID and the name of the operator under Operator to continue. Enter additional information or comments under Comments.Select a geometry set and inspect large and small plates carefully, to ensure that plates are clean and in perfect condition. Insert the large plate firmly on the bottom pulpit. Insert the small plate gently on the upper pulpit and lock the plate by slightly rotating until hearing a click, which indicates that the plate is properly clamped.Note that free oscillation of the upper plate is normal. Wait until the temperature reaches 37 degrees Celsius target value. Then initiate automatic calibration, as prompted by the software.Using a positive displacement pipette, slowly pipette between 250 and 500 microliters of the sample on the center of the large bottom plate. Once deposited on the plate, viscous samples will adopt a dome shape, whereas, highly elastic samples may require physical severing. Lower the measuring head carrying the small plate via the software and observe the sample.If properly loaded on the bottom plate the sample will make contact and be centered between the two plates. To ensure that the sample fills the gap, use the reduced gap function until the sample is no longer in the biconcave shape or aligned with the plate's edge. The reduced gap function lowers the measuring edge in 0.1 millimeter increments and is limited to 7 increments.If a gap remains after the 7 increments, click on Redo Installation to return to the initial position and adjust the sample's position and volume. If the gap is exceedingly reduced, remove the excess sample with a spatula by a circular motion along the edge of the upper plate. Trim the excess sample gently to avoid shear stress.Lower the protective cover to avoid any accidental projection of contaminated fluids during oscillation. To initiate measurement, click on Start Analysis. An entire cycle will take four to seven minutes.Avoid talking loudly and touching the device or the bench during the entire length of the cycle. A quiet environment is crucial for the first two minutes. Once the cycle is complete, click next to raise the measuring head and generate the sample analysis report.Once the measuring head is fully retracted, raise the protective cover. Discard the sample and carefully remove the plates. Clean and disinfect the plates using warm water and soap.The viscoelastic characteristics of eight megadalton PEO were measured at five concentrations and directly compared between the evaluated benchtop rheometer and a traditional bulk rheometer. In contrast with PEO solutions, status asthmaticus mucus represents a solid-like elastic dominated behavior at low strain and features a crossover at high strain. In addition, triplicate measurements performed in 1.5%PEO solution and clinical assay mucus sample, confirmed that linear viscoelastic characteristics were highly repeatable for the values obtained from the biological sample.Changes were measured in the viscoelastic properties of mucus following treatment with a mucolytic agent. TCEP effects on assay mucus viscoelasticity were tested in a clinical setting using the benchtop rheometer. Mucolytic treatment resulted in a more fluid-like sample with a decrease in the complex modulus by 4.6 fold, elastic modulus by 5.1 fold, viscous modulus by 1.9 fold, crossover strain by 3.3 fold, and crossover yield stress by 5.7 fold, and an increase in the damping ratio by 2.8 fold.Measuring airway mucus viscoelasticity in a fast paced clinical setting can help tailor patients'treatment on a case-by-case basis, as well as provide a standardized protocol for testing novel pharmacological compounds. This technique is currently used to examine the effects of highly effective CFTR modulators on cystic fibrosis sputum and to test the potency of various drugs aimed at altering mucus properties.

rapid-viscoelastic-characterization-airway-mucus-using-benchtop

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Rapid Point-of-Care Assay of Enoxaparin Anticoagulant Efficacy in Whole Blood

There is the need for a clinical assay to determine the extent to which a patient's blood is effectively anticoagulated by the low-molecular-weight-heparin (LMWH), enoxaparin. There are also urgent clinical situations where it would be important if this could be determined rapidly. The present assay is designed to accomplish this. We only assayed human blood samples that were spiked with known concentrations of enoxaparin. The essential feature of the present assay is the quantification of the efficacy of enoxaparin in a patient's blood sample by degrading it to complete inactivity with heparinase. Two blood samples were drawn into Vacutainer tubes (Becton-Dickenson; Franklin Lakes, NJ) that were spiked with enoxaparin; one sample was digested with heparinase for 5 min at 37 &deg;C, the other sample represented the patient's baseline anticoagulated status. The percent shortening of clotting time in the heparinase-treated sample, as compared to the baseline state, yielded the anticoagulant contribution of enoxaparin. We used the portable, battery operated Hemochron 801 apparatus for measurements of clotting times (International Technidyne Corp., Edison, NJ). The apparatus has 2 thermostatically controlled (37 &deg;C) assay tube wells. We conducted the assays in two types of assay cartridges that are available from the manufacturer of the instrument. One cartridge was modified to increase its sensitivity. We removed the kaolin from the FTK-ACT cartridge by extensive rinsing with distilled water, leaving only the glass surface of the tube, and perhaps the detection magnet, as activators. We called this our minimally activated assay (MAA). The use of a minimally activated assay has been studied by us and others. 2-4 The second cartridge that was studied was an activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT) assay (A104). This was used as supplied from the manufacturer. The thermostated wells of the instrument were used for both the heparinase digestion and coagulation assays. The assay can be completed within 10 min. The MAA assay showed robust changes in clotting time after heparinase digestion of enoxaparin over a typical clinical concentration range. At 0.2 anti-Xa I.U. of enoxaparin per ml of blood sample, heparinase digestion caused an average decrease of 9.8% (20.4 sec) in clotting time; at 1.0 I.U. per ml of enoxaparin there was a 41.4% decrease (148.8 sec). This report only presents the experimental application of the assay; its value in a clinical setting must still be established.

Demonstration of a rapid quantitative assay of the inhibition of blood coagulation by the low-molecular-weight-heparin, enoxaparin. The contribution of enoxaparin is assessed by removing its influence through digestion with heparinase. A fuller description of the assay is detailed in our published paper.1 The assay still requires clinical confirmation.

There is the need for a clinical assay to determine the extent to which a patient's blood is effectively anticoagulated by the ...

The &alpha;-test: Rapid Cell-free CD4 Enumeration Using Whole Saliva

There is an urgent need for affordable CD4 enumeration to monitor HIV disease. CD4 enumeration is out of reach in resource-limited regions due to the time and temperature restrictions, technical sophistication, and cost of reagents, in particular monoclonal antibodies to measure CD4 on blood cells, the only currently acceptable method. A commonly used cost-saving and time-saving laboratory strategy is to calculate, rather than measure certain blood values. For example, LDL levels are calculated using the measured levels of total cholesterol, HDL, and triglycerides1. Thus, identification of cell-free correlates that directly regulate the number of CD4+ T cells could provide an accurate method for calculating CD4 counts due to the physiological relevance of the correlates.
The number of stem cells that enter blood and are destined to become circulating CD4+ T cells is determined by the chemokine CXCL12 and its receptor CXCR4 due to their influence on locomotion2. The process of stem cell locomotion into blood is additionally regulated by cell surface human leukocyte elastase (HLECS) and the HLECS-reactive active &alpha;1proteinase inhibitor (&alpha;1PI, &alpha;1antitrypsin, SerpinA1)3. In HIV-1 disease, &alpha;1PI is inactivated due to disease processes 4. In the early asymptomatic categories of HIV-1 disease, active &alpha;1PI was found to be below normal in 100% of untreated HIV-1 patients (median=12 &mu;M, and to achieve normal levels during the symptomatic categories4, 5. This pattern has been attributed to immune inactivation, not to insufficient synthesis, proteolytic inactivation, or oxygenation. We observed that in HIV-1 subjects with &gt;220 CD4 cells/&mu;l, CD4 counts were correlated with serum levels of active &alpha;1PI (r2=0.93, p&lt;0.0001, n=26) and inactive &alpha;1PI (r2=0.91, p&lt;0.0001, n=26) 5. Administration of &alpha;1PI to HIV-1 infected and uninfected subjects resulted in dramatic increases in CD4 counts suggesting &alpha;1PI participates in regulating the number of CD4+ T cells in blood 3.
With stimulation, whole saliva contains sufficient serous exudate (plasma containing proteinaceous material that passes through blood vessel walls into saliva) to allow measurement of active &alpha;1PI and the correlation of this measurement is evidence that it is an accurate method for calculating CD4 counts. Briefly, sialogogues such as chewing gum or citric acid stimulate the exudation of serum into whole mouth saliva. After stimulating serum exudation, the activity of serum &alpha;1PI in saliva is measured by its capacity to inhibit elastase activity. Porcine pancreatic elastase (PPE) is a readily available inexpensive source of elastase. PPE binds to &alpha;1PI forming a one-to-one complex that prevents PPE from cleaving its specific substrates, one of which is the colorimetric peptide, succinyl-L-Ala-L-Ala-L-Ala-p-nitroanilide (SA3NA). Incubating saliva with a saturating concentration of PPE for 10 min at room temperature allows the binding of PPE to all the active &alpha;1PI in saliva. The resulting inhibition of PPE by active &alpha;1PI can be measured by adding the PPE substrate SA3NA. (Figure 1). Although CD4 counts are measured in terms of blood volume (CD4 cells/&mu;l), the concentration of &alpha;1PI in saliva is related to the concentration of serum in saliva, not to volume of saliva since volume can vary considerably during the day and person to person6. However, virtually all the protein in saliva is due to serum content, and the protein content of saliva is measurable7. Thus, active &alpha;1PI in saliva is calculated as a ratio to saliva protein content and is termed the &alpha;1PI Index. Results presented herein demonstrate that the &alpha;1PI Index provides an accurate and precise physiologic method for calculating CD4 counts.

The &amp;#945;-test: Rapid Cell-free CD4 Enumeration Using Whole Saliva

A CD4 enumeration method, the &#x03B1;-test, is described which uses whole saliva to provide rapid and accurate CD4 counts. The &alpha;-test costs pennies and eliminates the need for technical training, costly reagents such as monoclonal antibodies, instrumentation, refrigeration, transport of samples, as well as collection and handling of blood.

There is an urgent need for affordable CD4 enumeration to monitor HIV disease. CD4 enumeration is out of reach in resource-limited regions due to the time ...

Automated Measurement of Pulmonary Emphysema and Small Airway Remodeling in Cigarette Smoke-exposed Mice

COPD is projected to be the third most common cause of mortality world-wide by 2020(1). Animal models of COPD are used to identify molecules that contribute to the disease process and to test the efficacy of novel therapies for COPD. Researchers use a number of models of COPD employing different species including rodents, guinea-pigs, rabbits, and dogs(2). However, the most widely-used model is that in which mice are exposed to cigarette smoke. Mice are an especially useful species in which to model COPD because their genome can readily be manipulated to generate animals that are either deficient in, or over-express individual proteins. Studies of gene-targeted mice that have been exposed to cigarette smoke have provided valuable information about the contributions of individual molecules to different lung pathologies in COPD(3-5). Most studies have focused on pathways involved in emphysema development which contributes to the airflow obstruction that is characteristic of COPD. However, small airway fibrosis also contributes significantly to airflow obstruction in human COPD patients(6), but much less is known about the pathogenesis of this lesion in smoke-exposed animals. To address this knowledge gap, this protocol quantifies both emphysema development and small airway fibrosis in smoke-exposed mice. This protocol exposes mice to CS using a whole-body exposure technique, then measures respiratory mechanics in the mice, inflates the lungs of mice to a standard pressure, and fixes the lungs in formalin. The researcher then stains the lung sections with either Gill&#8217;s stain to measure the mean alveolar chord length (as a readout of emphysema severity) or Masson&#8217;s trichrome stain to measure deposition of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins around small airways (as a readout of small airway fibrosis). Studies of the effects of molecular pathways on both of these lung pathologies will lead to a better understanding of the pathogenesis of COPD.

The goal of this protocol is to provide automated methods to quantify chronic lung pathologies in a murine model of COPD. The protocol includes exposing mice to cigarette smoke (CS), measuring pulmonary function, inflating the lungs, and using morphometry methods to measure emphysema and small airway remodeling in mice.

COPD is projected to be the third most common cause of mortality world-wide by 2020(1).  Animal models of COPD are used to identify molecules that ...

Topical Airway Anesthesia for Awake-endoscopic Intubation Using the Spray-as-you-go Technique with High Oxygen Flow

A patient&#39;s willingness to cooperate is an absolute precondition for successful awake intubation of the trachea. Whilst drug-sedation of patients can jeopardize their spontaneous breathing, topical anesthesia of the airway is a popular technique. The spray-as-you-go technique represents one of the simplest opportunities to anesthetize the airway mucosa. The application of local anesthetic through the working channel of the flexible endoscope is a widespread practice for anesthetists as well as pulmonologists. There is neither need for additional devices nor special training as a pre-requisite to perform this technique. However, a known clinical problem is the coughing and gagging reflex that may occur when the liquid anesthetic strikes the airway mucosa and other sensitive structures like the vocal cords. This can be avoided by the use of oxygen applied through the working channel with the aim of fogging the local anesthetic into finer particles. Furthermore, the oxygen flow provides a higher oxygen supply and contributes to a better view, dispersing mucus secretions and blood away from the lens. Using an atomizer with a high oxygen flow of 10 L/min we maximized these benefits, caused less coughing and had more satisfied and therefore cooperative patients. Possible, but very rare complications of using oxygen flow including gastric insufflation, organ rupture or barotrauma did not arise. We attribute the complication-free use of high oxygen flow to the design of the set, which permits flow and pressure release.

The topical anesthetic lidocaine was atomized using a high oxygen flow through the working channel of a flexible intubating endoscope to achieve topical airway anesthesia for awake endotracheal intubation. We prefer this modified spray-as-you-go technique for endoscopic intubation to classical bolus application because of higher patient satisfaction and better compliance.

A patient&#39;s willingness to cooperate is an absolute precondition for successful awake intubation of the trachea. Whilst drug-sedation of patients can ...

In Vivo Evaluation of the Mechanical and Viscoelastic Properties of the Rat Tongue

The tongue is a highly innervated and vascularized muscle hydrostat on the floor of the mouth of most vertebrates. Its primary functions include supporting mastication and deglutition, as well as taste-sensing and phonetics. Accordingly, the strength and volume of the tongue can impact the ability of vertebrates to accomplish basic activities such as feeding, communicating, and breathing. Human patients with sleep apnea have enlarged tongues, characterized by reduced muscle tone and increased intramuscular fat that can be visualized and quantified by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The abilities to measure force generation and viscoelastic properties of the tongue constitute important tools for obtaining functional information to correlate with imaging data. Here, we present techniques for measuring tongue force production in anesthetized Zucker rats via electrical stimulation of the hypoglossal nerves and for determining the viscoelastic properties of the tongue by applying passive Lissajous force/deformation curves.

In Vivo Evaluation of the Mechanical and Viscoelastic Properties of the Rat Tongue

We describe a surgical procedure in an anesthetized rat model for determining the muscle tone and viscoelastic properties of the tongue. The procedure involves specific stimulation of the hypoglossal nerves and application of passive Lissajous force/deformation curves to the muscle.

The tongue is a highly innervated and vascularized muscle hydrostat on the floor of the mouth of most vertebrates. Its primary functions include ...

Rapid Evaluation of Toxicity of Chemical Compounds Using Zebrafish Embryos

The zebrafish is a widely used vertebrate model organism for the disease and phenotype-based drug discovery. The zebrafish generates many offspring, has transparent embryos and rapid external development. Zebrafish embryos can, therefore, also be used for the rapid evaluation of toxicity of the drugs that are precious and available in small quantities. In the present article, a method for the efficient screening of the toxicity of chemical compounds using 1-5-day post fertilization embryos is described. The embryos are monitored by stereomicroscope to investigate the phenotypic defects caused by the exposure to different concentrations of compounds. Half-maximal lethal concentrations (LC50) of the compounds are also determined. The present study required 3-6 mg of an inhibitor compound, and the whole experiment takes about 8-10 h to be completed by an individual in a laboratory having basic facilities. The current protocol is suitable for testing any compound to identify intolerable toxic or off-target effects of the compound in the early phase of drug discovery and to detect subtle toxic effects that may be missed in the cell culture or other animal models. The method reduces procedural delays and costs of drug development.

Zebrafish embryos are used for evaluating the toxicity of chemical compounds. They develop externally and are sensitive to chemicals, allowing detection of subtle phenotypic changes. The experiment only requires a small amount of compound, which is directly added to the plate containing embryos, making the testing system efficient and cost-effective.

The zebrafish is a widely used vertebrate model organism for the disease and phenotype-based drug discovery. The zebrafish generates many offspring, has ...

Characterization of Sickling During Controlled Automated Deoxygenation with Oxygen Gradient Ektacytometry

In sickle cell disease (SCD), a single point mutation in the gene coding for beta-globin causes the production of abnormal hemoglobin S (HbS). When deoxygenated, HbS can polymerize, forming rigid rods of hemoglobin, resulting in the sickling of red blood cells (RBCs). These sickled RBCs have significantly reduced deformability, causing vaso-occlusion, which leads to numerous SCD-related clinical complications, including pain, stroke, and organ damage. RBC deformability is also reduced by RBC dehydration, resulting in dense red blood cells that are more likely to sickle. To date, there is not a single widely available, rapid, and reproducible laboratory assay capable of predicting the disease severity or directly monitoring the treatment effects for novel, non-fetal hemoglobin inducing therapies. In this study, we describe a protocol to measure RBC deformability as a function of pO2 that allows for the quantitation of sickling behavior in SCD patients. Oxygen gradient ektacytometry measures RBC deformability, expressed as the elongation index (EI), as a function of pO2. RBCs are exposed to a fixed shear stress of 30 Pa during one round of deoxygenation and reoxygenation. Six readout parameters are produced. Of these, the point of sickling (PoS), defined as the pO2 at which maximum EI (EImax) shows a 5% decrease, and minimum EI during deoxygenation (EImin) are the most informative, reflecting an individual patient&#8217;s pO2 at which sickling starts and the minimal deformability of a patient&#8217;s red blood cells, respectively. PoS is associated with an individual patient&#8217;s hemoglobin affinity for oxygen, whereas EImin shows a strong correlation with fetal hemoglobin levels. We conclude that oxygen gradient ektacytometry is a promising technique to monitor the treatment of patients with SCD, as a biomarker for anti-sickling agents in clinical and preclinical trials, and an important tool to study sickling behavior of RBCs from individuals with SCD and sickle cell traits.

Here, we present oxygen gradient ektacytometry, a rapid and reproducible method to measure red blood cell deformability in samples from patients with sickle cell disease under controlled deoxygenation and reoxygenation. This technique provides a way to study red blood cell sickling and to monitor sickle cell disease treatment efficacy.

In sickle cell disease (SCD), a single point mutation in the gene coding for beta-globin causes the production of abnormal hemoglobin S (HbS). When ...

Characterization of a Novel Human Organotypic Retinal Culture Technique

Previous human organotypic retinal culture (HORC) models have utilized detached retinas; however, without the structural support conferred by retinal pigment epithelium-choroid (RPE-choroid) and sclera, the integrity of the fragile retina can easily be compromised. The aim of this study was to develop a novel HORC model that contains the retina, RPE-choroid and sclera to maintain retinal integrity when culturing retinal explants.
After cutting circumferentially along the limbus to remove iris and lens, four deep incisions were made to flatten the eyecup. In contrast to previous HORC protocols, a trephine was used to cut through not only the retina but also the RPE-choroid and sclera. The resultant triple-layered explants were cultured for 72 h. Hematoxylin and Eosin staining (H&#38;E) was used to assess anatomical structures and retinal explants were further characterized by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for apoptosis, M&#252;ller cell integrity and retinal inflammation. To confirm the possibility of disease induction, explants were exposed to high glucose (HG) and pro-inflammatory cytokines (Cyt), to mimic diabetic retinopathy (DR). The Luminex magnetic bead assay was used to measure DR-related cytokines released into the culture medium.
H&#38;E staining revealed distinct retinal lamellae and compact nuclei in retinal explants with the underlying RPE-choroid and sclera, while retinas without the underlying structures exhibited reduced thickness and severe nuclei loss. IHC results indicated absence of apoptosis and retinal inflammation as well as preserved M&#252;ller cell integrity. The Luminex&#160;assays showed significantly increased secretion of DR-associated pro-inflammatory cytokines in retinal explants exposed to HG + Cyt relative to baseline levels at 24 h.
We successfully developed and characterized a novel HORC protocol in which retinal integrity was preserved without apoptosis or retinal inflammation. Moreover, the induced secretion of DR-associated pro-inflammatory biomarkers when exposing retinal explants to HG + Cyt suggests that this model could be used for clinically translatable retinal disease studies.

This study aims to develop a novel human organotypic retinal culture (HORC) model that prevents compromising retinal integrity during explant handling. This is achieved by culturing the retina with the overlying vitreous and the underlying retinal pigment&#160;epithelium-choroid (RPE-choroid) and sclera.

Previous human organotypic retinal culture (HORC) models have utilized detached retinas; however, without the structural support conferred by retinal ...

Design and Development of a Model to Study the Effect of Supplemental Oxygen on the Cystic Fibrosis Airway Microbiome

Airway microbial communities are thought to play an important role in the progression of cystic fibrosis (CF) and other chronic pulmonary diseases. Microbes have traditionally been classified based on their ability to use or tolerate oxygen. Supplemental oxygen is a common medical therapy administered to people with cystic fibrosis (pwCF); however, existing studies on oxygen and the airway microbiome have focused on how hypoxia (low oxygen) rather than hyperoxia (high oxygen) affects the predominantly aerobic and facultative anaerobic lung microbial communities. To address this critical knowledge gap, this protocol was developed using an artificial sputum medium that mimics the composition of sputum from pwCF. The use of filter sterilization, which yields a transparent medium, allows optical methods to follow the growth of single-celled microbes in suspension cultures. To create hyperoxic conditions, this model system takes advantage of established anaerobic culturing techniques to study hyperoxic conditions; instead of removing oxygen, oxygen is added to cultures by daily sparging of serum bottles with a mixture of compressed oxygen and air. Sputum from 50 pwCF underwent daily sparging for a 72-h period to verify the ability of this model to maintain differential oxygen conditions. Shotgun metagenomic sequencing was performed on cultured and uncultured sputum samples from 11 pwCF to verify the ability of this medium to support the growth of commensal and pathogenic microbes commonly found in cystic fibrosis sputum. Growth curves were obtained from 112 isolates obtained from pwCF to verify the ability of this artificial sputum medium to support the growth of common cystic fibrosis pathogens. We find that this model can culture a wide variety of pathogens and commensals in CF sputum, recovers a community highly similar to uncultured sputum under normoxic conditions, and creates different culture phenotypes under varying oxygen conditions. This new approach might lead to a better understanding of unanticipated effects induced by the use of oxygen in pwCF on airway microbial communities and common respiratory pathogens.

The goal of this protocol is to develop a model system for the effect of hyperoxia on cystic fibrosis airway microbial communities. Artificial sputum medium emulates the composition of sputum, and hyperoxic culture conditions model the effects of supplemental oxygen on lung microbial communities.

Airway microbial communities are thought to play an important role in the progression of cystic fibrosis (CF) and other chronic pulmonary diseases. ...

Biological Preparation and Mechanical Technique for Determining Viscoelastic Properties of Zonular Fibers

Elasticity is essential to the function of tissues such as blood vessels, muscles, and lungs. This property is derived mostly from the extracellular matrix (ECM), the protein meshwork that binds cells and tissues together. How the elastic properties of an ECM network relate to its composition, and whether the relaxation properties of the ECM play a physiological role, are questions that have yet to be fully addressed. Part of the challenge lies in the complex architecture of most ECM systems and the difficulty in isolating ECM components without compromising their structure. One exception is the zonule, an ECM system found in the eye of vertebrates. The zonule comprises fibers hundreds to thousands of micrometers in length that span the cell-free space between the lens and the eyewall. In this report, we describe a mechanical technique that takes advantage of the highly organized structure of the zonule to quantify its viscoelastic properties and to determine the contribution of individual protein components. The method involves dissection of a fixed eye to expose the lens and the zonule and employs a pull-up technique that stretches the zonular fibers equally while their tension is monitored. The technique is relatively inexpensive yet sensitive enough to detect alterations in viscoelastic properties of zonular fibers in mice lacking specific zonular proteins or with aging. Although the method presented here is designed primarily for studying ocular development and disease, it could also serve as an experimental model for exploring broader questions regarding the viscoelastic properties of elastic ECM&#39;s and the role of external factors such as ionic concentration, temperature, and interactions with signaling molecules.

The protocol describes a method for the study of extracellular matrix viscoelasticity and its dependence on protein composition or environmental factors. The matrix system targeted is the mouse zonule. The performance of the method is demonstrated by comparing the viscoelastic behavior of wild-type zonular fibers with those lacking microfibril-associated glycoprotein-1.

Elasticity is essential to the function of tissues such as blood vessels, muscles, and lungs. This property is derived mostly from the extracellular ...