Este trabajo fue apoyado por becas del NIH AI56168, AI71142, AI87541 y AI100631 de MDP. Maurizio Del Poeta es Burroughs Wellcome Investigador en Enfermedades Infecciosas.

1. El colesterol agotamiento de las células J774A.1 con MβCD <ol><li> En una cabina de bioseguridad estéril, de semillas 10 5 J774A.1 células de tipo macrófago por pocillo en una placa de cultivo celular de 96 pocillos en 200 l de medio Eagle modificado por Dulbecco (DMEM) suplementado con 10% de suero bovino fetal (FBS) y 1% penicilina / estreptomicina (P / S). Se incuba a 37 ° C y 5% de CO 2 O / N. </li><li> Retire el medio de la monocapa de células y se lavan las células dos veces con fosfato 1x solución salina tamponada (PBS) que ha sido filtrada o tratada en autoclave. </li><li> Añadir 200 l de solución de MβCD a la concentración deseada (10 mM o 30 mM en PBS) o 1x PBS como control y se incuba durante 30 min a 37 ° C con agitación. Eliminar el sobrenadante y reserva a RT para el análisis cuantitativo con el kit comercialmente disponible inmediatamente después del procedimiento. </li><li> Lavar las células dos o tres veces con PBS 1x o DMEM sin suero y continuar con infección o lisar células por pipetting de dos a tres veces con H2O desionizada para el análisis con cromatografía de capa fina o con un kit. NOTA: Tras el agotamiento de colesterol un kit de cuantificación de colesterol disponible comercialmente se puede utilizar. Vea la sección de materiales para los detalles. Siga las instrucciones del fabricante como está escrito. </li></ol> 2. Observación de colesterol contenido cromatografía en capa fina (TLC) <ol><li> Lavar un tanque de TLC dos veces con acetona y una vez con una solución de éter de petróleo: éter dietílico: ácido acético (65: 30: 1 en volumen). Saturar el tanque con el éter de petróleo: éter dietílico: ácido acético (65: 30: 1 en volumen) solución y dejar O / N. NOTA: Orgánica disolventes siempre se deben utilizar bajo una campana de humos para evitar la inhalación de los vapores. Guantes y bata de laboratorio deben ser usados ​​en todo momento. El ácido acético es un ácido fuerte y se debe utilizar con precaución. </li><li> En un gabinete de bioseguridad estéril, semillas 10 6 J774A.1 como los macrófagos-células por pocillo en un ce 6 pocillosll placa de cultivo en un volumen de 5 ml de DMEM caliente suplementado con 10% de FBS y 1% P / S. Se incuba a 37 ° C, 5% de CO 2 O / N. </li><li> Agotan los macrófagos de colesterol siguiendo los pasos 1.2 a 1.4, sustituyendo 1 ml para 200 l en su caso para tener en cuenta el tamaño bien grande. </li><li> Añadir 500 l de Tripsina-EDTA a cada pocillo, se incuba durante 3 min a 37 ° C, y raspar suavemente las células con un raspador de células. </li><li> Transferir a un tubo de microcentrífuga y añadir un adicional de 500 l de DMEM caliente suplementado con 10% de FBS y 1% P / S. </li><li> Girar las células durante 5 min a 300 xg y eliminar el sobrenadante. </li><li> Añadir un adicional de 500 l de DMEM caliente suplementado con 10% de FBS y 1% P / S al sedimento celular y resuspender cuidadosamente por pipeteando arriba y abajo. </li><li> Retire 10 l de células y contar las células en un hemocitómetro. Normalizar las concentraciones de células de cada muestra y añadir un número igual de células a tubos de vidrio. NOTA: En este paso, se puedeelegir combinar las células de los mismos grupos de tratamiento para obtener un extracto final de lípidos más concentrada. </li><li> Centrifugar las células a 300 xg durante 5 minutos a temperatura ambiente y eliminar los medios de comunicación. </li><li> Añadir 2 ml de metanol y vórtice. A continuación, añadir 1 ml de cloroformo y agitar. Compruebe el estado de fase para asegurarse de que la solución en monofásico. NOTA: Los tubos se puede almacenar a 4 ° CO / N. </li><li> Centrifugar a 1700 xg durante 10 min a TA y transferir el sobrenadante a un tubo nuevo </li><li> Añadir un adicional de 1 ml de cloroformo, seguido de 1 ml de dH 2 O. Vortex dos veces durante 30 segundos. Centrifugar a 1700 xg durante 5 min a TA. </li><li> Pesar un tubo de vidrio en un equilibrio sensible y utilizar una pipeta Pasteur de vidrio para transferir la fase inferior en el tubo de vidrio de peso conocido. </li><li> Seque los lípidos en un evaporador centrífugo hasta que se seque (aproximadamente 2 horas). Pesar tubo con lípidos secos y calcular el peso de lípido seco. NOTA: los lípidos secos se puede almacenar en -20 ° C hasta que esté listo para realizar TLC. </li><li> Diluir lípidos secos en suficiente cloroformo para normalizar la concentración de lípido (normalmente 20 - 50 l) y la carga de 20 l de la lípido diluido en una placa de TLC de sílice. Cargar 20 g de colesterol diluido en 20 l de cloroformo como un estándar. </li><li> Añadir placa de TLC se secó al tanque de TLC saturado y permitir disolvente para migrar hasta 1 cm antes de borde de la placa. Retire la placa de TLC en el tanque y deje que se seque unos 5 min. </li><li> Visualice los lípidos mediante la colocación de un tanque de vapor de yodo para comprobar la migración. Retirar y permiten manchas a desaparecer durante unos 10-15 min bajo el capó. NOTA: El yodo es un riesgo de inhalación. Utilice siempre bajo una campana de humos. </li><li> Preparar una solución para la tinción de lípidos neutros mediante la combinación de 60 ml de metanol con 60 ml de H2O desionizada, 4 ml de ácido sulfúrico, y 630 mg de cloruro de manganeso. </li><li> Con cuidado y lentamente sumergir la placa de TLC en la solución de tinción de lípidos neutros en una bandeja y quitar sin desprendimiento de la l de síliceayer. NOTA: La solución de tinción lípido neutro puede ser reutilizado varias veces y por lo que puede ser recuperada de la bandeja y se coloca de nuevo en una botella para su uso posterior. </li><li> Deje que la placa se seque bajo el capó a TA hasta que todas las burbujas ha desaparecido. Calentar la placa de TLC en un conjunto de bloque de calor a 160 ° C y Char al color deseado. NOTA: Un programa de densitometría como Vision Works LS puede utilizarse para cuantificar las bandas carbonizados para comparar muestras de lípidos. </li></ol> 3. La infección de macrófagos con C. neoformans (H99) <ol><li> En una cabina de bioseguridad estéril, semilla de 10 células 5 macrófagos como por pocillo en una placa de cultivo celular de 96 pocillos en 200 l de DMEM suplementado con 10% de FBS y 1% P / S. Se incuba a 37 ° C, 5% de CO 2, 5% de CO 2 O / N. NOTA: La infección también se puede hacer de fondo de cristal platos confocal para formación de imágenes más fácil; todas las cantidades siguen siendo los mismos. </li><li> Cultivar una cultura de C. neoformans (H99)mediante la inoculación de 10 ml de YNB con una colonia obtenida a partir de una placa golpeado e incubando que O / N a 30 ° C con agitación. </li><li> Lave y contar C. neoformans células (H99). <ol><li> Centrífuga C. cultura neoformans O / N a 1700 xg durante 10 min a 4 ° C. </li><li> Retire el medio y desechar. Lavar las células con 5 ml de PBS 1x. Centrifugar a 1700 xg durante 10 min a 4 ° C. </li><li> Retirar PBS y se lava con 5 ml de PBS 1x filtrada. Centrifugar a 1700 xg durante 10 min a 4 ° C. Repita este paso 2 veces más. </li><li> Retirar PBS y resuspender en 5 ml de PBS 1x. </li><li> Hacer una dilución en serie en PBS para obtener una dilución 1: 500 de la cultura lavado. <ol><li> Añadir 100 l de la muestra original para 900 l de 1x PBS para obtener una dilución 1:10. </li><li> Añadir 100 l de muestra diluida 1:10 a 900 l de 1x PBS para obtener una dilución 1: 100. </li><li> Añadir 200 l de la 1: 100 muestra diluida a 800 l de PBS 1x para obtener un 1: diluti 500en </li></ol></li><li> Tomar 10 l de 1: 500 dilución y contar con hemocitómetro para calcular el número de células. </li></ol></li><li> Preparar la solución de trabajo para la activación de los macrófagos y opsonizantes C. neoformans. <ol><li> Diluir LPS y IFN 100x de soluciones madre añadiendo 10 l hasta 990 l. NOTA: LPS y IFN se utilizan para mejorar la absorción fagocítica pero no son necesarios para la fagocitosis. Si hay un interés en la actividad fungicida de los macrófagos, realizar la activación O / N a 37 ° C con agitación antes de la infección. </li><li> Por muestra combinar 7,5 l de LPS diluidos, 1,25 l de IFN diluido, 1,25 l de anticuerpo GXM y el volumen de la C. cultura neoformans que da 1,25 x 10 5 células. Llevar el volumen hasta 250 l multiplicado por el número de muestras con DMEM suplementado con 10% de FBS y 1% P / S. </li><li> Vortex e incubar la solución durante 20 min a 37 ° C con agitación. NOTA:Agotamiento de colesterol (pasos 1.2 hasta 1.4) se puede hacer simultáneamente con la etapa de opsonización. Asegúrese de tratar los macrófagos antes de la combinación de la solución de trabajo, ya que las células opsonizadas óptimamente se deben utilizar no más de 20 minutos después de la incubación paso 3.4.3. </li></ol></li><li> Infectar a los macrófagos <ol><li> Macrófagos Lavar dos veces con DMEM libre de suero y añadir 200 l de opsonizado C. neoformans solución de trabajo a cada pocillo. </li><li> Incubar durante 2 horas a 37 ° C. </li></ol></li><li> Fijar y teñir las células <ol><li> Retire el medio y lavar las células 2 veces con DMEM. </li><li> Aire seco en la monocapa de células durante 10 min y añadir 200 l de metanol enfriado con hielo para fijar las células. </li><li> Incubar durante 15 min a TA y eliminar cualquier metanol restante. </li><li> Añadir 200 l de 10x Giemsa y se incuba durante 5 min a TA. </li><li> Lave 2 - 3 veces con agua desionizada y se seca O / N con la gorra. NOTA: Imaging se puede hacer al día siguiente o hasta una semana followitinción ng. </li></ol></li><li> Visualizar y Conde <ol><li> Usando un microscopio, contar 300 células por punto de datos (si hay 2 de el mismo trato contar 150 por pocillo) y anote el número de macrófagos infectados y el número de células Cryptococcus envueltos. NOTA: Para garantizar incluso el muestreo por uso punto de datos 2 placas por condición, elija 3 áreas que no se solapan por placa y recuento de 50 células por área. </li><li> Calcular el índice fagocítico multiplicando el porcentaje de macrófagos infectados por el número medio de C. neoformans por macrófago. Normalizar índice fagocítico expresando los valores como porcentaje de la PBS 1x tratada control. Después de varios ensayos calcular el valor medio y la desviación estándar de la media para determinar las tendencias en el índice de fagocitosis. Utilice estudiante t-test para determinar la significación. </li><li> Tome micrografías de células en 1.000X o ampliación de 400X. </li></ol></li></ol> 4. Ensayo de azul de tripano <ol><li> En una cabina de bioseguridad estéril, las semillas 10 6 células de tipo macrófago por pocillo en una placa de cultivo celular de 6 pocillos en un volumen de 5 ml de medio esencial mínimo de Dulbecco (DMEM) suplementado con suero bovino fetal al 10% y 1% de penicilina / estreptomicina . Se incuba a 37 ° C, 5% de CO 2 O / N. </li><li> Agotan los macrófagos de colesterol siguiendo los pasos 1.2 a 1.4 sustituyendo 2 ml para 200 l en su caso para tener en cuenta el tamaño bien grande. NOTA: Asegúrese de incluir un control tratado con 1x PBS, así como un control que se raspa antes de cualquier tratamiento. </li><li> Añadir 500 l de 1x PBS a cada pocillo y raspar suavemente las células con un raspador de células. Traslado en un tubo de microcentrífuga y suspender las células pipeteando suavemente hacia arriba y hacia abajo. </li><li> Retire 10 l de células y tinción con 1 l de 4% de azul de tripano. </li><li> Contar las células en un hemocitómetro y la viabilidad calcular utilizando la siguiente ecuación:% de viabilidad = [1 - (células azules / células totales)]x 100. Normalizar los valores al control que no fue tratada. Después de varios ensayos calcular el valor medio y la desviación estándar para determinar las tendencias en la viabilidad. Utilice estudiante t-test para determinar la significación. </li></ol>

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

En el trabajo con este protocolo es importante para obtener recuentos de células precisos cuando chapado en células de mamíferos y opsonizantes C. células neoformans. Esto minimiza la variación entre los ensayos y asegura una precisa 1: 1 de destino para la proporción de efector durante todo el estudio. También es fundamental para coordinar la temporización de la depleción de colesterol y para prevenir la infección las células de levadura o células opsonizadas macrófagos tratados de reposo...

La fagocitosis es un proceso por el cual las entidades extracelulares son internalizados por las células huésped. Es un arma clave en el arsenal del sistema inmune para defenderse contra agentes patógenos, pero el proceso a menudo puede ser subvertido por patógenos para permitir la internalización y la difusión a través del cuerpo 1. La fagocitosis está mediada por varios eventos de señalización que resultan en la unión y la inmersión a través de reordenamientos de citoesqueleto de la célula huésped. Fagocitos &quot;profesional&quot; son capaces de reconocer y unirse a opsoninas en la superficie del patógeno invasor a la señal para la unión y la formación de lamelipodios, que sobresalgan del patógeno y formar un fagosoma 2. Entre los llamados fagocitos &quot;profesionales&quot; son los macrófagos. Los macrófagos son células altamente especializadas que realizan funciones de protección que incluyen la búsqueda y eliminación de agentes causantes de enfermedades, la reparación de los tejidos dañados, y la mediación de la inflamación, la mayoría deéstos a través del proceso de la fagocitosis 1,2. Cryptococcus neoformans es una especie de levadura patógena que causa una enfermedad grave conocida como criptococosis. Cryptococcus esporas son inhaladas por el anfitrión y dan lugar a una infección pulmonar que suele ser asintomática. Se cree que la exposición es muy frecuente; una muestra de 61 niños de las Enfermedades Infecciosas Pediátricas Clínica en el Hospital Centro de Bronx-Lebanon encontró que todos los encuestados tenían anticuerpos contra el polisacárido glucuronoxylomanan criptocócica y otros estudios han demostrado la prevalencia tanto en el virus de inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) no infectado y adultos infectados 3, 4. Los macrófagos alveolares son la primera línea de la respuesta a la infección pulmonar y en la mayoría de los casos con éxito claro el patógeno. Sin embargo, en individuos inmunodeprimidos (pacientes por ejemplo, VIH y SIDA), la levadura es capaz de sobrevivir dentro de los macrófagos. En estosde los casos, los macrófagos pueden servir como un nicho para la replicación del patógeno y pueden facilitar su difusión en el sistema nervioso central (CNS), donde la enfermedad se vuelve mortal 5-8. Se cree que los macrófagos pueden incluso ofrecer la levadura directamente en las meninges, ayudando a la levadura para cruzar la barrera de sangre del cerebro a través del modelo &quot;caballo de Troya&quot; 3,9 - 11. Por lo tanto, es importante entender el proceso de fagocitosis y los factores que la afectan, especialmente en infecciones por criptococos. El trabajo previo en otros sistemas de patógenos apuntan a colesterol y lípidos balsas formadas por colesterol como teniendo un papel importante que desempeñar en la fagocitosis 12-15. El colesterol es la especie de lípidos más abundantes en las células de mamífero y comprende 25 - 50% de la membrana de células de mamíferos 16. Se ha encontrado a desempeñar un papel en la modulación de la BIOPpropiedades ÍSICA de membranas cambiando su rigidez 17. El colesterol y esfingolípidos juntos forman microdominios lipídicos dentro de la membrana conocida como balsas lipídicas. Se ha encontrado que las balsas de lípidos estar involucrado en la formación de caveolas, así como proporcionar un dominio aislado para ciertos tipos de señalización 16-18. Debido a su pequeño tamaño, es difícil de estudiar las balsas de lípidos in vivo. Una forma útil para estudiar el papel de las balsas lipídicas es alterar sus electores. Metil-β-ciclodextrina (MβCD) es un compuesto que se ha encontrado para agotar el colesterol de las membranas de mamíferos y se utiliza comúnmente para estudiar el papel de las balsas de lípidos 18. En este protocolo, se presenta un método para agotar el colesterol de las membranas de la célula huésped y cuantificar el efecto de la disminución en la capacidad de las células huésped para fagocitar C. neoformans in vitro. Este procedimiento hace uso de cultivo celular techniqUES en un macrófago como línea celular inmortalizada (J774A.1) como un modelo para la infección. Agotamiento de colesterol se llevó a cabo por la exposición a MβCD, que tiene un núcleo hidrófobo específico para el tamaño de los esteroles y es capaz de actuar como un sumidero para el colesterol para dibujar hacia fuera de la membrana 19. Agotamiento de colesterol se midió cuantitativamente usando un kit disponible comercialmente y cualitativamente utilizando una extracción de lípidos Bligh-Dyer modificada seguido por cromatografía en capa fina (TLC) 20. . La fagocitosis se midió mediante la infección de la línea celular con un cultivo de levadura opsonizado mezclado con un cóctel de interferón-γ y lipopolisacárido para la activación de los macrófagos Cryptococcus se opsonizó utilizando un glucuronoxylomanan (GXM) de anticuerpos 21-23. Tinción y experimentos de microscopía permitido para la visualización de las células y el cálculo del índice de fagocitosis para evaluar el grado de fagocitosis. En conjunto, este protocolo dEscribes un método básico que integra la alteración de la composición de lípidos con un proceso fisiológico.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="622">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Name of Reagent/ Equipment</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Company</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Catalog Number</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Comments/Description</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Class II type A2 Biosafety Cabinet</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Labconco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3460009</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">J774A.1 cell line</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">ATCC</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">TIB-67</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Arrives Frozen. See ATCC instructions for culturing.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Dulbecco&#8217;s Modified Eagle Medium</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">11995-065</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Store at 4 &#176;C and warm to 37 &#176;C prior to use</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">HI Fetal Bovine Serum Performance Plus</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">10082-147</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Keep frozen at -20 &#176;C and thaw before adding to DMEM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Penicillin-Streptomycin (10,000 U/mL)</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">15140-122</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to suplement DMEM</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Isotemp Cell culture incubator</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Model # 3530</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">96-Well culture dish</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Corning Inc. Costar</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3595</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">10x Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Fisher Scientific BioReagents</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">BP3994</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Dilute to 1x and filter or autoclave prior to use.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Methyl-&#946;-Cyclodextrin</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">C4555-10G</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Dissolve in 1x PBS to make solutions of 10mM and 30mM concentrations</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Orbital Shaker</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Labline</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;width:216px;">Amplex Red Cholesterol Assay Kit</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Life Technologies Molecular Probes</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">A12216</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">All reagents for Cholesterol Assay are contained within the kit. Follow Manufacturer instructions.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">96-Well Black Assay plate</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Corning Inc. Costar</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3603</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">FilterMax microplate reader</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Molecular Devices</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Model F5</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">TLC Chamber</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">Z126195-1EA</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Chloroform</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">650498-4L</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Methanol</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">34860-2L-R</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">TLC Paper</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Whatman</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3030917</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Cut down to size needed for TLC tank</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Fume Hood</td>
			<td style="width:120px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Any fume hood that complies with AIHA/ANSI Standards&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">6-Well Plate</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Corning Inc. Costar</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3506</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Trypsin-EDTA</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Gibco</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">25300-054</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Cell Scraper</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Corning Inc. Costar</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">3010</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Hemocytometer&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Hausser Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1490</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Centrifuge</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Beckman Coulter</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Model Alegra x-30R</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Votex Mixer</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">12-812</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Balance</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Mettler Toledo</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Model # MS104S Meaures down to .1 mg</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Glass Pasteur Pipette</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Fisherbrand</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">13-678-20A</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Cholesterol</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">700000</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">SpeedVac Concentrator</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Model # SPD2010&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Petroleum Ether</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">E139-1&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Diethyl Ether</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">309966&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Acetic Acid</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">320099</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">TLC Silica Gel 60 with concentrating zone</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Analytical Chromatograhy Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">1.11845.0001</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Iodine Chips</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">376558-50G</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Sulfuric Acid</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">320501&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Manganese Chloride</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">244589</td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">UVP EC3 Imaging System</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Ultra-Violet Products Ltd.</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Use the Vision Works LS software for densitometry analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Glass Bottom Confocal Dish</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">MatTek</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">P35G-1.5-10C</td>
			<td>www.glassbottomdishes.com</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Cryptococcus neoformans (H99)</td>
			<td style="width:120px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Obtained from Duke University Medical Center</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="105">
			<td height="105" style="height:105px;width:216px;">YNB</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">BD</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">239210</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">See manufacturer for preparation instructions. Use a Glucose concentration of 20 g/L.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Lipopolysaccharide</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">L4391-1MG</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Dissolve in 1x PBS to make 1mg/mL stock. Store at -20 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Interferon gamma</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Sigma</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">I4777</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Dissolve in 1x PBS to make .1 mg/mL stock solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Glucuronoxylomannan antibody (anti-GXM)</td>
			<td style="width:120px;"></td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Gift from Arturo Casadevall&#39;s Lab concentration is 1.98 mg/mL</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="168">
			<td height="168" style="height:168px;width:216px;">Giemsa</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">MP Biomedicals</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">194591</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Dissolve .8 g of Giemsa in 25 mL of Glycerol and heat to 60 &#176;C for 1 hour. Add 25 mL of methanol to the solution and allow to age at room temperature for at least 1 month.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="84">
			<td height="84" style="height:84px;width:216px;">Microscope</td>
			<td style="width:120px;">Zeiss</td>
			<td style="width:119px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Observer.D1 microscope with AxioCam MRm for taking images</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

macrophage cholesterol depletion and its effect on the phagocytosis of cryptococcus neoformans

La criptococosis es una infección potencialmente mortal causada por hongos patógenos del género Cryptococcus. La infección se produce después de la inhalación de las esporas, que son capaces de replicar en el pulmón profundo. La fagocitosis por los macrófagos de Cryptococcus es una de las formas en que la enfermedad es capaz de propagarse en el sistema nervioso central para causar meningoencefalitis letal. Por lo tanto, el estudio de la asociación entre Cryptococcus y macrófagos es importante para entender la progresión de la infección. El presente estudio describe un protocolo de paso a paso para estudiar la infectividad de macrófagos por C. neoformans in vitro. El uso de este protocolo, se estudia el papel de los esteroles de acogida en las interacciones huésped-patógeno. Diferentes concentraciones de metil - ciclodextrina (MCD) se utilizaron para suprimir el colesterol de murino sarcoma retículo-macrófago línea celular J774A.1. El agotamiento de colesterol se confirmó y cuantificó usando tanto un dis comercialmentekit de cuantificación de colesterol e y cromatografía en capa fina. Células de colesterol empobrecido se activaron usando lipopolisacárido (LPS) y el interferón gamma (IFN) y se infectaron con Cryptococcus neoformans anticuerpos opsonizado de tipo salvaje células H99 en una relación de efector a diana de 1: 1. Las células infectadas fueron monitorizados después de 2 h de incubación con C. se calculó neoformans y su índice de fagocitosis. Agotamiento de colesterol dio lugar a una reducción significativa en el índice de fagocitosis. Los protocolos presentados ofrecen un método conveniente para imitar la iniciación del proceso de infección en un entorno de laboratorio y estudiar el papel de la composición de lípidos de acogida sobre la infectividad.

El agotamiento Colesterol Análisis del sobrenadante reservado en el paso 1.3 del protocolo, siguiendo las instrucciones del fabricante en el kit de ensayo de colesterol de Amplex Red produce una concentración elevada de colesterol en la muestra MβCD tratado en comparación con el control PBS 1x. Dependiendo del tipo de célula y el agotamiento de colesterol concentración MβCD utilizado puede variar. Para J774 tratados con 10 mM MβCD, se observó una disminución de aproximadamente el 50%....

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Macrophage Cholesterol Depletion and Its Effect on the Phagocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans at JoVE.com

Macrophage Cholesterol Depletion and Its Effect on the Phagocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans

In this article, a protocol for infection of macrophages with Cryptococcus neoformans is described. Also, a method for sterol depletion from the macrophages is explained. These protocols provide a guide to study fungal infections in vitro and examine the role of sterols in such infections.

El colesterol de los macrófagos agotamiento y su efecto sobre la fagocitosis de<em&gt; Cryptococcus neoformans</em

Cryptococcosis is a life-threatening infection caused by pathogenic fungi of the genus Cryptococcus. Infection occurs upon inhalation of spores, which are ...

macrophage-cholesterol-depletion-its-effect-on-phagocytosis

Research

JoVE Journal

Immunology and Infection

Macrophage Cholesterol Depletion and Its Effect on the Phagocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans

12.6K vistas.  Stony Brook University. In this article, a protocol for infection of macrophages with Cryptococcus neoformans is described. Also, a method for sterol depletion from the macrophages is explained. These protocols provide a guide to study fungal infections in vitro and examine the role of sterols in such infections. 

Video: Macrophage Cholesterol Depletion and Its Effect on the Phagocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans

Depletion of Specific Cell Populations by Complement Depletion

The purification of immune cell populations is often required in order to study their unique functions. In particular, molecular approaches such as real-time PCR and microarray analysis require the isolation of cell populations with high purity. Commonly used purification strategies include fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS), magnetic bead separation and complement depletion. Of the three strategies, complement depletion offers the advantages of being fast, inexpensive, gentle on the cells and a high cell yield. The complement system is composed of a large number of plasma proteins that when activated initiate a proteolytic cascade culminating in the formation of a membrane-attack complex that forms a pore on a cell surface resulting in cell death1. The classical pathway is activated by IgM and IgG antibodies and was first described as a mechanism for killing bacteria. With the generation of monoclonal antibodies (mAb), the complement cascade can be used to lyse any cell population in an antigen-specific manner. Depletion of cells by the complement cascade is achieved by the addition of complement fixing antigen-specific antibodies and rabbit complement to the starting cell population. The cells are incubated for one hour at 37&deg;C and the lysed cells are subsequently removed by two rounds of washing. MAb with a high efficiency for complement fixation typically deplete 95-100% of the targeted cell population. Depending on the purification strategy for the targeted cell population, complement depletion can be used for cell purification or for the enrichment of cell populations that then can be further purified by a subsequent method.

To effectively study the function of immune cell populations their purification is often required. Complement depletion is a fast and inexpensive technique for the isolation of immune cell populations with high purity.

El agotamiento de las poblaciones de células específicas por el agotamiento del complemento

The purification of immune cell populations is often required in order to study their unique functions.  In particular, molecular approaches such as ...

Investigación

Inmunología e Infección

Depletion and Reconstitution of Macrophages in Mice

Macrophages are critical players in the innate immune response to infectious challenge or injury, initiating the innate immune response and directing the acquired immune response. Macrophage dysfunction can lead to an inability to mount an appropriate immune response and as such, has been implicated in many disease processes, including inflammatory bowel diseases. Macrophages display polarized phenotypes that are broadly divided into two categories. Classically activated macrophages, activated by stimulation with IFN&gamma; or LPS, play an essential role in response to bacterial challenge whereas alternatively activated macrophages, activated by IL-4 or IL-13, participate in debris scavenging and tissue remodeling and have been implicated in the resolution phase of inflammation. During an inflammatory response in vivo, macrophages are found amid a complex mixture of infiltrating immune cells and may participate by exacerbating or resolving inflammation. To define the role of macrophages in situ in a whole animal model, it is necessary to examine the effect of depleting macrophages from the complex environment. To ask questions about the role of macrophage phenotype in situ, phenotypically defined polarized macrophages can be derived ex vivo, from bone marrow aspirates and added back to mice, with or without prior depletion of macrophages. In the protocol presented here clodronate-containing liposomes, versus PBS injected controls, were used to deplete colonic macrophages during dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis in mice. In addition, polarized macrophages were derived ex vivo and transferred to mice by intravenous injection. A caveat to this approach is that clodronate-containing liposomes deplete all professional phagocytes, including both dendritic cells and macrophages so to ensure the effect observed by depletion is macrophage-specific, reconstitution of phenotype by adoptive transfer of macrophages is necessary. Systemic macrophage depletion in mice can also be achieved by backcrossing mice onto a CD11b-DTR background, which is an excellent complementary approach. The advantage of clodronate-containing liposome-mediated depletion is that it does not require the time and expense involved in backcrossing mice and it can be used in mice regardless of the background of the mice (C57BL/6, BALB/c, or mixed background).

Macrophages play a central role in homeostasis and pathology in many tissues. The protocol presented here describes methods for depleting macrophages in vivo, deriving polarized macrophages from bone marrow aspirates, and adoptively transferring macrophages into mice. These techniques allow determination of the role that polarized macrophages play in health and disease.

El agotamiento y la reconstitución de los macrófagos en ratones

Macrophages are critical players in the innate  immune response to infectious challenge or injury, initiating the innate immune  response and directing ...

The Synergistic Effect of Visible Light and Gentamycin on Pseudomona aeruginosa Microorganisms

Recently there were several publications on the bactericidal effect of visible light, most of them claiming that blue part of the spectrum (400 nm-500 nm) is responsible for killing various pathogens1-5. The phototoxic effect of blue light was suggested to be a result of light-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation by endogenous bacterial photosensitizers which mostly absorb light in the blue region4,6,7. There are also reports of biocidal effect of red and near infra red8 as well as green light9.
In the present study, we developed a method that allowed us to characterize the effect of high power green (wavelength of 532 nm) continuous (CW) and pulsed Q-switched (Q-S) light on Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Using this method we also studied the effect of green light combined with antibiotic treatment (gentamycin) on the bacteria viability. P. aeruginosa is a common noscomial opportunistic pathogen causing various diseases. The strain is fairly resistant to various antibiotics and contains many predicted AcrB/Mex-type RND multidrug efflux systems10.
The method utilized free-living stationary phase Gram-negative bacteria (P. aeruginosa strain PAO1), grown in Luria Broth (LB) medium exposed to Q-switched and/or CW lasers with and without the addition of the antibiotic gentamycin. Cell viability was determined at different time points. The obtained results showed that laser treatment alone did not reduce cell viability compared to untreated control and that gentamycin treatment alone only resulted in a 0.5 log reduction in the viable count for P. aeruginosa. The combined laser and gentamycin treatment, however, resulted in a synergistic effect and the viability of P. aeruginosa was reduced by 8 log's.
The proposed method can further be implemented via the development of catheter like device capable of injecting an antibiotic solution into the infected organ while simultaneously illuminating the area with light.

The Synergistic Effect of Visible Light and Gentamycin on Pseudomona aeruginosa Microorganisms

We show that a developed biomedical device involving continuous or pulsed visible laser based treatment that is combined with antibiotic treatment (gentamycin), results in a statistically significant synergistic effect leading to a reduction in the viability of P. aeruginosa PAO1, by 8 log's compared to antibiotic treatment alone.

El efecto sinérgico de la luz visible y gentamicina en<em&gt; Pseudomona aeruginosa</em&gt; Microorganismos

Recently there were several publications on the  bactericidal effect of visible light, most of them claiming that blue part of  the spectrum (400 nm-500 ...

Using Click Chemistry to Measure the Effect of Viral Infection on Host-Cell RNA Synthesis

Many RNA viruses have evolved the ability to inhibit host cell transcription as a means to circumvent cellular defenses. For the study of these viruses, it is therefore important to have a quick and reliable way of measuring transcriptional activity in infected cells. Traditionally, transcription has been measured either by incorporation of radioactive nucleosides such as 3H-uridine followed by detection via autoradiography or scintillation counting, or incorporation of halogenated uridine analogs such as 5-bromouridine (BrU) followed by detection via immunostaining. The use of radioactive isotopes, however, requires specialized equipment and is not feasible in a number of laboratory settings, while the detection of BrU can be cumbersome and may suffer from low sensitivity.
The recently developed click chemistry, which involves a copper-catalyzed triazole formation from an azide and an alkyne, now provides a rapid and highly sensitive alternative to these two methods. Click chemistry is a two step process in which nascent RNA is first labeled by incorporation of the uridine analog 5-ethynyluridine (EU), followed by detection of the label with a fluorescent azide. These azides are available as several different fluorophores, allowing for a wide range of options for visualization.
This protocol describes a method to measure transcriptional suppression in cells infected with the Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) strain MP-12 using click chemistry. Concurrently, expression of viral proteins in these cells is determined by classical intracellular immunostaining. Steps 1 through 4 detail a method to visualize transcriptional suppression via fluorescence microscopy, while steps 5 through 8 detail a method to quantify transcriptional suppression via flow cytometry. This protocol is easily adaptable for use with other viruses.

This method describes the use of click chemistry to measure changes in host cell transcription after infection with the Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) strain MP-12. Results can be visualized qualitatively via fluorescence microscopy or obtained quantitatively through flow cytometry. This method is adaptable for use with other viruses.

Usando Click Química para medir el efecto de la infección viral en el Host-Cell ARN Síntesis

Many RNA viruses have evolved the ability to inhibit host cell transcription as a means to circumvent cellular defenses. For the study of these viruses, ...

Visualizing Non-lytic Exocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans from Macrophages Using Digital Light Microscopy

Many aspects of the infection of macrophages by Cryptococcus neoformans have been extensively studied and well defined. However, one particular interaction that is not clearly understood is non-lytic exocytosis. In this process, yeast cells are released into the extracellular space by a poorly understood mechanism that leaves both the macrophage and Cn viable. Here, we describe how to follow a large number of individually infected macrophages for a 24 hr infection period by time-lapsed microscopy. Infected macrophages are housed in a heating chamber with a CO2 atmosphere attached to a microscope that provides the same conditions as a cell-culture incubator. Live digital microscopy can provide information about the dynamic interactions between a host and pathogen that is not available from static images. Being able to visualize each infected cell can provide clues as to how macrophages handle fungal infections, and vice versa. This technique is a powerful tool in studying the dynamics that are behind a complex phenomenon.

Visualizing Non-lytic Exocytosis of Cryptococcus neoformans from Macrophages Using Digital Light Microscopy

We describe how to visualize macrophage-C. neoformans (Cn) interactions in real time, with specific emphasis on the process of non-lytic exocytosis using digital light microscopy. Using this technique individually infected macrophages can be studied to ascertain various aspects of this phenomenon.

La visualización no lítico exocitosis de<em&gt; Cryptococcus neoformans</em&gt; De macrófagos Usando microscopía de luz digital

Many aspects of the infection of macrophages by Cryptococcus neoformans have been extensively studied and well defined. However, one particular ...

High Throughput Fluorometric Technique for Assessment of Macrophage Phagocytosis and Actin Polymerization

The goal of fluorometric analysis is to serve as an efficient, cost effective, high throughput method of analyzing phagocytosis and other cellular processes. This technique can be used on a variety of cell types, both adherent and non-adherent, to examine a variety of cellular properties. When studying phagocytosis, fluorometric technique utilizes phagocytic cell types such as macrophages, and fluorescently labeled opsonized particles whose fluorescence can be extinguished in the presence of trypan blue. Following plating of adherent macrophages in 96-well plates, fluorescent particles (green or red) are administered and cells are allowed to phagocytose for varied amounts of time. Following internalization of fluorescent particles, cells are washed with trypan blue, which facilitates extinction of fluorescent signal from bacteria which are not internalized, or are merely adhering to the cell surface. Following the trypan wash, cells are washed with PBS, fixed, and stained with DAPI (nuclear blue fluorescent label), which serves to label nuclei of cells. By a simple fluorometric quantification through plate reading of nuclear (blue) or particle (red/green) fluorescence we can examine the ratio of relative fluorescence units of green:blue and determine a phagocytic index indicative of amount of fluorescent bacteria internalized per cell. The duration of assay using a 96-well method and multichannel pipettes for washing, from end of phagocytosis to end of data acquisition, is less than 45 min. Flow cytometry could be used in a similar manner but the advantage of fluorometry is its high throughput, rapid method of assessment with minimal manipulation of samples and quick quantification of fluorescent intensity per cell. Similar strategies can be applied to non adherent cells, live labeled bacteria, actin polymerization, and essentially any process utilizing fluorescence. Therefore, fluorometry is a promising method for its low cost, high throughput capabilities in the study of cellular processes.

Here we present a protocol to quantify phagocytosis of fluorescent particles by adherent macrophage cell line using a fluorometric method. This method facilitates a high throughput quantification of particle internalization as well as the resulting actin polymerization.

Alto Rendimiento Fluorométrico Técnica de Evaluación de macrófagos fagocitosis y actina polimerización

The goal of fluorometric analysis is to serve as an efficient, cost effective, high throughput method of analyzing phagocytosis and other cellular ...

Biolistic Transformation of a Fluorescent Tagged Gene into the Opportunistic Fungal Pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans

The basidiomycete Cryptococcus neoformans, an invasive opportunistic pathogen of the central nervous system, is the most frequent cause of fungal meningitis worldwide resulting in more than 625,000 deaths per year worldwide.&#160;Although electroporation has been developed for the transformation of plasmids in Cryptococcus, only&#160;biolistic&#160;delivery provides&#160;an effective means to transform&#160;linear&#160;DNA&#160;that can be integrated into the genome by homologous recombination.&#160;
Acetate has been shown to be a major fermentation product during cryptococcal infection, but the significance of this is not yet known.&#160;A bacterial pathway composed of the enzymes xylulose-5-phosphate/fructose-6-phosphate phosphoketolase (Xfp) and acetate kinase (Ack) is one of three potential pathways for acetate production in C. neoformans. Here, we demonstrate the biolistic transformation of a construct, which has the gene encoding Ack fused to the fluorescent tag mCherry, into&#160;C. neoformans. We then confirm integration of the ACK-mCherry fusion into the&#160;ACK&#160;locus.

Biolistic Transformation of a Fluorescent Tagged Gene into the Opportunistic Fungal Pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans

Biolistic transformation is a method used to generate stable integration of DNA into the genome of the opportunistic pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans through homologous recombination. We will demonstrate biolistic transformation of a construct, which has the gene encoding acetate kinase fused to the fluorescent tag mCherry into&#160;C. neoformans.

Transformación biolística de un fluorescente Tagged gen en el oportunista por hongos patógenos<em&gt; Cryptococcus neoformans</em

The basidiomycete Cryptococcus neoformans, an invasive opportunistic pathogen of the central nervous system, is the most frequent cause of fungal ...

RNA Purification from Intracellularly Grown Listeria monocytogenes in Macrophage Cells

Analysis of the transcriptome of bacterial pathogens during mammalian infection is a valuable tool for studying genes and factors that mediate infection. However, isolating bacterial RNA from infected cells or tissues is a challenging task, since mammalian RNA mostly dominates the lysates of infected cells. Here we describe an optimized method for RNA isolation of Listeria monocytogenes bacteria growing within bone marrow derived macrophage cells. Upon infection, cells are mildly lysed and rapidly filtered to discard most of the host proteins and RNA, while retaining intact bacteria. Next, bacterial RNA is isolated using hot phenol-SDS extraction followed by DNase treatment. The extracted RNA is suitable for gene transcription analysis by multiple techniques. This method is successfully employed in our studies of Listeria monocytogenes gene regulation during infection of macrophage cells 1-4. The protocol can be easily modified to study other bacterial pathogens and cell types.

RNA Purification from Intracellularly Grown Listeria monocytogenes in Macrophage Cells

Here we describe a method for bacterial RNA isolation from Listeria monocytogenes bacteria growing inside murine macrophages. This technique can be used with other intracellular pathogens and mammalian host cells.

La purificación del ARN intracelularmente Grown<em&gt; Listeria monocytogenes</em&gt; En los macrófagos

Analysis of the transcriptome of bacterial pathogens during mammalian infection is a valuable tool for studying genes and factors that mediate infection. ...

Assessment of Antibody-based Drugs Effects on Murine Bone Marrow and Peritoneal Macrophage Activation

Macrophages are phagocytic innate immune cells, which initiate immune responses to pathogens and contribute to healing and tissue restitution. Macrophages are equally important in turning off inflammatory responses. We have shown that macrophages stimulated with intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) can produce high amounts of the anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin 10 (IL-10), and low levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines in response to bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS). IVIg is a polyvalent antibody, primarily immunoglobulin Gs (IgGs), pooled from the plasma of more than 1,000 blood donors. It is used to supplement antibodies in patients with immune deficiencies or to suppress immune responses in patients with autoimmune or inflammatory conditions. Infliximab, a therapeutic anti-tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF&#945;) antibody, has also been shown to activate macrophages to produce IL-10 in response to inflammatory stimuli. IVIg and other antibody-based biologics can be tested to determine their effects on macrophage activation. This paper describes methods for derivation, stimulation, and assessment of murine bone marrow macrophages activated by antibodies in vitro and murine peritoneal macrophages activated with antibodies in vivo. Finally, we demonstrate the use of western blotting to determine the contribution of specific cell signaling pathways to anti-inflammatory macrophage activity. These protocols can be used with genetically modified mice, to determine the effect of a specific protein(s) on anti-inflammatory macrophage activation. These techniques can also be used to assess whether specific biologics may act by changing macrophages to an IL-10-producing anti-inflammatory activation state that reduces inflammatory responses in vivo. This can provide information on the role of macrophage activation in the efficacy of biologics during disease models in mice, and provide insight into a potential new mechanism of action in people. Conversely, this may caution against the use of specific antibody-based biologics to treat infectious disease, particularly if macrophages play an important role in host defense against that infection.

Antibody-based drugs have revolutionized treatment for inflammatory diseases. In addition to having direct effects on specific targets, antibodies can activate macrophages to become anti-inflammatory. This protocol describes how anti-inflammatory macrophage activation can be assessed in vitro, using mouse bone marrow macrophages, and in vivo, using peritoneal macrophages.

Evaluación de los efectos de drogas basados en anticuerpos en médula ósea murina y activación de los macrófagos peritoneales

Macrophages are phagocytic innate immune cells, which initiate immune responses to pathogens and contribute to healing and tissue restitution. Macrophages ...

Size Matters: Measurement of Capsule Diameter in Cryptococcus neoformans

The polysaccharide capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans is the primary virulence factor and one of the most commonly studied aspects of this pathogenic yeast. Capsule size can vary widely between strains, has the ability to grow rapidly when introduced to stressful or low nutrient conditions, and has been positively correlated with strain virulence. For these reasons, the size of the capsule is of great interest to C. neoformans researchers. The growth of the C. neoformans capsule is induced during phenotypic testing to help understand the effects of different treatments on the yeast or size differences between strains. Here we describe one of the standard methods of capsule induction and compare two accepted methods of staining and measuring capsule diameter: (i) India ink, a negative stain, used in conjunction with conventional light microscopy and (ii) co-staining with fluorescent dyes of both the cell wall and capsule followed by confocal microscopy. Finally, we show how measurement of capsule diameter from India ink-stained samples can be automated using computational image analysis.

Size Matters: Measurement of Capsule Diameter in Cryptococcus neoformans

The polysaccharide capsule is the primary virulence factor in Cryptococcus neoformans, and its size correlates with strain virulence. Capsule diameter measurements are used in phenotypic testing and to gauge therapeutic efficacy. Here a standard method of capsule induction is presented, and two methods of staining and measuring diameter are compared.

Tamaño importa: Medición del diámetro de la cápsula de Cryptococcus neoformans

The polysaccharide capsule of Cryptococcus neoformans is the primary virulence factor and one of the most commonly studied aspects of this pathogenic ...