The authors thank Drs. Steven Chu and Joe W. Gray for helpful discussions, Henry Marr for his initial work on the BiFC-PALM project, and Alexis Shoemaker for her technical assistance. This work is supported by startup funds to X.N. from OHSU. Research in the Nan laboratory was also supported by NIH 5U54CA143836-05, the Damon Runyon Cancer Research Foundation, the M. J. Murdock Charitable Trust, and the FEI company.

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The authors have nothing to disclose.

BiFC ha sido una técnica comúnmente utilizada para la detección y la visualización de los IBP en las células, mientras que PALM es una técnica de microscopía reciente sola molécula de super-resolución que permite formación de imágenes a nanoescala de muestras biológicas intactas. La combinación de BiFC con PALM logra imagen selectiva de los IBP en el interior de una celda con nanómetros resolución espacial y sensibilidad única molécula. BiFC-PALM extiende la utilidad de ambas técnicas, y como se demues...

Las interacciones proteína-proteína (IBP) son fundamentales para la biología 1 y están estrictamente regulados por mecanismos espacio-temporales en muchas escalas de tiempo y longitud. Los estudios sobre la señalización celular en la membrana celular, por ejemplo, han puesto de manifiesto compartimentos espaciales dinámicas, a nanoescala que facilitan IBP específicos y procesos celulares 2. Por lo tanto, la capacidad para sondear los IBP en los sistemas biológicos con suficientes resoluciones espaciales y temporales, una alta especificidad y alta sensibilidad es clave para lograr una comprensión mecanicista de la biología. Bimolecular complementación de fluorescencia (BiFC) es una de las pocas herramientas existentes para la visualización de los IBP en una celda con resolución subcelular y la compatibilidad de las células vivir 3-5. La técnica es relativamente sencilla y consiste en la división de una proteína de fluorescencia en dos fragmentos no fluorescentes; cuando etiquetados genéticamente para dos proteínas que interactúan ypuesto en proximidad, los fragmentos pueden reconstituir para formar una proteína fluorescente completa, dando señal fluorescente. Cuando se diseñan adecuadamente, sondas BiFC no deben reconstituir de forma espontánea en ausencia de IBP. Como tal, la señal de fluorescencia en un ensayo de BiFC sólo surgir en la presencia de los IBP, que permite la visualización directa de los IBP con alta especificidad. Beneficios adicionales de utilizar la fluorescencia como la lectura son de alta sensibilidad, resolución subcelular, y la compatibilidad con un alto rendimiento y ensayos de cribado de alto contenido, entre otros. Para estos beneficios, una serie de sondas BiFC basados ​​en diferentes proteínas fluorescentes padres se han desarrollado. Como en todas las otras técnicas de detección basados ​​en microscopía de luz convencional, sin embargo, la resolución espacial de BiFC se limita a ~ 250 nm por la difracción de la luz. Esto hace que sea un reto para estudiar la regulación de los IBP en la nanoescala, que, como se aludió antes y ejemplificado por las balsas de lípidos 6and nanoclusters Ras 7, es una escala de longitud crítica para la comprensión de muchos procesos celulares como la señalización. BiFC se ha combinado con microscopía de localización fotoactivado (PALM) 8,9 para superar este límite de la resolución espacial para obtener imágenes de los IBP 10. PALM es una técnica de microscopía de super-resolución reciente que elude el límite de difracción en imágenes de fluorescencia a través de la activación estocástico y localización subdiffractive de moléculas fluorescentes individuales. En cada ciclo de activación, una molécula fluorescente emite unos pocos cientos a unos pocos miles de fotones y da lugar a una sola imagen molécula en el detector. Mientras que la imagen es de difracción limitada (~ 250 nm de anchura), su centroide se puede determinar con precisión mucho mayor, típicamente del orden de un 10-50 nm en función del número de fotones detectados. Mediante la activación y localización de cada molécula fluorescente en la muestra, una imagen de alta resolución puede ser reconstruido. Performed en las células vivas, sola molécula de seguimiento (SMT-) PALM permite además adquisición de miles de trayectorias de difusión proteína a partir de una sola célula 11. Es importante destacar que, PALM utiliza sondas fluorescentes especializados tales como proteínas fluorescentes fotoactivables (PA-PM) para lograr la activación estocástico. Dado que tanto BiFC y proteínas fluorescentes uso PALM, que se combinaron mediante el fraccionamiento de PAmCherry1, un PA-FP comúnmente utilizado para PALM, en dos fragmentos entre los aminoácidos 159 y 160. El sistema basado en PAmCherry1 BiFC dividida muestra una baja señal de fondo de la reconstitución espontánea de los dos fragmentos. Cuando etiquetado genéticamente a un par de proteínas que interactúan, los dos fragmentos (RN = residuos 1 a 159; RC = Met + residuos 160-236) reconstituido de manera eficiente para formar proteínas completas PAmCherry1 incluso a 37 ° C y sin incubación a temperaturas más bajas, lo cual No es el caso de otros pares BiFC 12 como el padre mCherry 13. Furthermore, la proteína PAmCherry1 reconstituido conserva las propiedades fotofísicas del PAmCherry1 padres, tales como alta relación de contraste, rendimiento de fotones medio y fotoactivación rápida, entre otros, que son fundamentales para la exacta localización sola molécula y de imágenes PALM alta resolución. En este protocolo, se describe el uso de BiFC-PALM para obtener imágenes de las interacciones Ras-Raf en células U2OS utilizando dividida PAmCherry1 (Figura 1). El primer paso es el diseño de las construcciones para la expresión de proteínas de fusión entre los fragmentos PAmCherry1 (es decir, RN y RC) y las proteínas de interés. En teoría, para cada par de proteínas candidatas (A y B), hay ocho pares de proteínas de fusión a ensayar: RN-A / RC-B; RN-A / B-RC; RC-A / RN-B; RC-A / B-RN; A-RN / RC-B; A-RN / B-RC; A-RC / RN-B; y A-RC / B-RN. Este proceso a menudo se puede simplificar teniendo en cuenta las propiedades estructurales o bioquímicas de las proteínas candidatas. En el caso de Ras, la proteína esdespués de la traducción modificado el cuadro de CAAX C-terminal (C = Cys; A = alifático; X = cualquier), después de lo cual el motivo AAX se escinde. Por lo tanto, RN o RC sólo pueden ser fusionados con el extremo N-terminal de Ras; esto reduce el número de pares de proteína de fusión a cuatro (Figura 1B). Para Raf, los dominios Ras vinculante (RBD; residuos 51-131) se utiliza y se pueden etiquetar en cada extremo. Se generaron Estas cuatro configuraciones de fusión: RN-KRas / RC-Raf RBD; RN-KRas / Raf RBD-RC; RC-KRas / RN-Raf RBD; y RC-KRas / Raf RBD-RN. Además, tendrá que ser considerado el enlazador entre los fragmentos y las proteínas de interés. Un enlazador flexible de aproximadamente diez aminoácidos se utiliza a menudo, ya que proporciona la suficiente libertad para la complementación que se produzca. Uno de estos es enlazador (GGGGS) x2, aunque hay muchos otros que se han aplicado con éxito, incluyendo secuencias aleatorias generadas a partir de un sitio de clonación múltiple (MCS) 14. La longitud de los enlazadores puede necesitar ser optimizado depending del tamaño de las proteínas de interés y sus orientaciones cuando interactúan. Los fragmentos PAmCherry1 están contenidos en una pequeña columna vertebral de la clonación con flanqueando MCSs (ver Lista de Materiales). Los genes de interés se pueden insertar a través de los sitios de restricción o con un método de ligadura independiente. Después de la clonación y la secuencia de verificación, el casete de expresión se transfiere a un vector de expresión usando una reacción de recombinasa, un proceso de clonación con alta fidelidad y alta eficiencia. A continuación, las construcciones de expresión resultantes se transfectaron en la línea de célula diana o, si se desea una línea celular estable, empaquetado en lentivirus para infectar la línea celular objetivo. La transfección transitoria permite la validación rápida de las configuraciones BiFC, pero los problemas potenciales debe tenerse en cuenta. La transfección utilizando productos químicos a menudo hace hincapié en las células, lo que resulta en alta autofluorescencia; mientras que el uso del total de fluorescencia de reflexión interna (TIRF) microscopy puede mitigar esta señal de fondo mediante la limitación del volumen de la iluminación, TIRF ideal cuando los IBP tienen lugar en la membrana celular. Además, las transfecciones transitorias a menudo conducen a altos niveles de expresión de proteínas, muy por encima de los de las proteínas endógenas, que pueden causar artefactos en la detección de los IBP. Por lo tanto, se recomienda que se establezcan líneas celulares estables después de una configuración apropiada BiFC se ha determinado a través de pruebas inicial. Las líneas celulares estables también tienen el potencial para la expresión sintonizable mediante doxiciclina inducción 15. Después de la infección, las células se seleccionan con antibióticos, por lo general puromycin y neomicina, uno para cada constructo. Los pasos subsiguientes para la preparación de muestras, la adquisición de imágenes y análisis de datos se describen en detalle en los protocolos. Con este enfoque, la formación de agrupaciones de nanoescala en imágenes BiFC-palma de Ras-Raf RBD se observan rutinariamente (Figura 2A &lt;/ strong&gt;). Consistentemente, trayectorias smt-palma de Ras-Raf RBD muestran una distribución heterogénea en los estados de difusión (Figura 2B-D). Estos resultados sugieren que existen complejos de Ras-Raf en varios estados en la membrana celular, presumiblemente como monómeros y clusters, con potenciales implicaciones biológicas. Este trabajo demuestra el poder de BiFC-PALM en imagen selectiva de los IBP en células con nanómetros resolución espacial y sensibilidad única molécula, que sería difícil de obtener con BiFC convencional, fluorescencia co-localización, o transferencia de energía de resonancia de fluorescencia (FRET). En el diseño de experimentos BiFC e interpretación de los resultados, es importante tener en cuenta que el proceso BiFC es irreversible en la mayoría de casos, incluyendo PAmCherry1 dividida. Una vez que los dos fragmentos se combinan y forman una proteína PAmCherry1 completa, el enlace entre los dos fragmentos, y por lo tanto el PPI se convierte en permanente. Esto limita el uso de BiFC y BiFC-PALM para el seguimiento de la dinámica de los IBP (es decir, la cinética de unión y no la dinámica de difusión del complejo de proteínas, una vez que se forma) y, a veces incluso podría conducir a mislocalization de los complejos de PPI. Un factor adicional a tener en cuenta en el diseño de experimentos BiFC-PALM es el retraso en la maduración cromóforo que es inherente a las proteínas fluorescentes. Una vez que dos proteínas interactúan y los fragmentos de PF se unen, por lo general refold del orden de segundos (tiempo-medio de 60 seg para EYFP 3). Sin embargo, la maduración cromóforo subsiguiente y la señal fluorescente se desarrollan en el orden de minutos. Mientras que la fluorescencia puede ser detectable en 10 minutos después de la reconstitución de la fracción de Venus, una variante de rápido plegado YFP, el tiempo medio para la maduración en general es a menudo alrededor de 60 min 16. Split-PAmCherry1 se observó a tener tasas similares. Por lo tanto, BiFC y BiFC-PALM son opciones actualmente pobres para el seguimiento de la cinética de PPI en tiempo real; otro yothods, tales como FRET y una proteína fluorescente dependiente de la dimerización recientemente desarrollado 17, pueden ser más adecuados para este propósito.

<table>
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>TIRF Microscope</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>60X oil immersion TIRF objective with 1.49 NA</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMCCD camera</td>
			<td>Andor</td>
			<td>iXon Ultra 897</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>561 nm laser</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>405 nm laser</td>
			<td>Coherent</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>561 nm dichroic mirror</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>&#160;Di01-R405/488/561/635-25x36</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>561 nm filter</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>FF01-525/45-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>405/561 nm notch filter</td>
			<td>Semrock</td>
			<td>NF01-405/488/568-25</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature and CO2 controlled stage</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pENTR-D-TOPO-PAmCherry1_1-159-MCS</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>60545</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pENTR-D-TOPO-PAmCherry160-236-MCS</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td>60546</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pcDNA3.2-DEST</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>12489-019</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pLenti-DEST</td>
			<td>Addgene</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>http://www.addgene.org/Eric_Campeau/</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phusion High-Fidelity DNA Polymerase</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>F-531</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>In-Fusion HD Cloning</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>639649</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LR Clonase</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>11791</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vira Power Lentivirus Packaging</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>K497500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>X-tremeGENE Transfection Reagent</td>
			<td>Roche</td>
			<td>13873800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lab-Tek II Chambered Coverglass</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>155409</td>
			<td>#1.5 glass bottom dishes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>U2OS cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>HTB-96</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>293T/17 cells</td>
			<td>ATCC</td>
			<td>CRL-11268</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM with phenol red</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>11995</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>DMEM no phenol red</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>21063</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fetal bovine serum</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10082</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Leibovit&#39;s L-15, no phenol red</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>21083-027</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Reduced serum medium</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>31985</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Phosphate Buffered Saline</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>14040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>309604</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Syringe filter</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>SLHV033RB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lentiviral concentrator</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>631231</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Retroviral concentrator</td>
			<td>Clontech</td>
			<td>631455</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10 cm culture dish</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>353003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>6-well culture plate</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>353046</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Polybrene</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>107689</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Puromycin</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>A11138</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>G-418</td>
			<td>Calbiochem</td>
			<td>345812</td>
			<td>Neomycin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Doxycyline</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP2653</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tris base</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP152</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EDTA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>EDS</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>S5881</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Paraformaldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>158127</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glutaraldehyde</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>G6257</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PIPES</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P6757</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>H4034</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EGTA</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>3777</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium Sulfate</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>M2643</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Hydroxide</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>221473</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP358</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnesium chloride</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>M33</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 nm gold particles</td>
			<td>BBI Solutions</td>
			<td>EM.GC100</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Molecular grade water</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>10977</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dpn1</td>
			<td>New England Biolabs</td>
			<td>R0176</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR purification kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>28104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Miniprep kit</td>
			<td>Qiagen</td>
			<td>27104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Midiprep kit</td>
			<td>Macherey-Nagel</td>
			<td>740410</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>0.6 mL microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>05-408-120</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mL microcentrifuge tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>05-408-137</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>15 mL tubes</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>05-539-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>5 mL&#160; polypropylene round-bottom tubes</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>352063</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>14 mL polypropylene round-bottom tubes</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>352059</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>50 mL tube</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>352070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PCR tube</td>
			<td>GeneMate</td>
			<td>C-3328-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SOC medium</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>15544</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LB broth</td>
			<td>BD Biosciences</td>
			<td>244610</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Kanamycin sulfate</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP906</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Competent cells</td>
			<td>Life Technologies</td>
			<td>C4040</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Matlab</td>
			<td>Mathworks</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

photoactivated localization microscopy with bimolecular fluorescence complementation (bifc-palm)

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are key molecular events to biology. However, it remains a challenge to visualize PPIs with sufficient resolution and sensitivity in cells because the resolution of conventional light microscopy is diffraction-limited to ~250 nm. By combining bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) with photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM), PPIs can be visualized in cells with single molecule sensitivity and nanometer spatial resolution. BiFC is a commonly used technique for visualizing PPIs with fluorescence contrast, which involves splitting of a fluorescent protein into two non-fluorescent fragments. PALM is a recent superresolution microscopy technique for imaging biological samples at the nanometer and single molecule scales, which uses phototransformable fluorescent probes such as photoactivatable fluorescent proteins (PA-FPs). BiFC-PALM was demonstrated by splitting PAmCherry1, a PA-FP compatible with PALM, for its monomeric nature, good single molecule brightness, high contrast ratio, and utility for stoichiometry measurements. When split between amino acids 159 and 160, PAmCherry1 can be made into a BiFC probe that reconstitutes efficiently at 37 &#176;C with high specificity to PPIs and low non-specific reconstitution. Ras-Raf interaction is used as an example to show how BiFC-PALM helps to probe interactions at the nanometer scale and with single molecule resolution. Their diffusion can also be tracked in live cells using single molecule tracking (smt-) PALM. In this protocol, factors to consider when designing the fusion proteins for BiFC-PALM are discussed, sample preparation, image acquisition, and data analysis steps are explained, and a few exemplary results are showcased. Providing high spatial resolution, specificity, and sensitivity, BiFC-PALM is a useful tool for studying PPIs in intact biological samples.

El ejemplo BiFC-PALM mostrado es KRas G12D mutante interactuar con los Ras vinculante dominio (RBD) de FARC (Figura 1). Como se ha discutido, la RN o fragmentos de RC no se marcaron a la C-terminal de Ras, ya que perturbaría la localización de la membrana y por lo tanto la actividad biológica de Ras. Esto reduce las posibles combinaciones de ocho a cuatro (Figura 1B). Cada una de estas cuatro combinaciones se introdujo en células U2OS utilizando la infección lentiviral. Las célula...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation BiFC-PALM at JoVE.com

Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation BiFC-PALM

Protein-protein interactions are visualized in cells with nanometer spatial resolution by combining bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) with photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM). Described here is the use of BiFC-PALM for imaging Ras-Raf interactions in U2OS cells for visualizing the nanoscale clustering and diffusion of individual Ras-Raf complexes.

Fotoactivado Localización Microscopía con bimolecular fluorescencia Complementación (BiFC-PALM)

Protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are key molecular events to biology. However, it remains a challenge to visualize PPIs with sufficient resolution and ...

photoactivated-localization-microscopy-with-bimolecular-fluorescence

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC-PALM)

9.8K vistas.  Oregon Health and Science University. Protein-protein interactions are visualized in cells with nanometer spatial resolution by combining bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) with photoactivated localization microscopy (PALM). Described here is the use of BiFC-PALM for imaging Ras-Raf interactions in U2OS cells for visualizing the nanoscale clustering and diffusion of individual Ras-Raf complexes. 

Video: Photoactivated Localization Microscopy with Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation BiFC-PALM

Visualization of Cortex Organization and Dynamics in Microorganisms, using Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy

TIRF microscopy has emerged as a powerful imaging technology to study spatio-temporal dynamics of fluorescent molecules in vitro and in living cells1. The optical phenomenon of total internal reflection occurs when light passes from a medium with high refractive index into a medium with low refractive index at an angle larger than a characteristic critical angle (i.e. closer to being parallel with the boundary). Although all light is reflected back under such conditions, an evanescent wave is created that propagates across and along the boundary, which decays exponentially with distance, and only penetrates sample areas that are 100-200 nm near the interface2. In addition to providing superior axial resolution, the reduced excitation of out of focus fluorophores creates a very high signal to noise ratios and minimizes damaging effects of photobleaching2,3. Being a widefield technique, TIRF also allows faster image acquisition than most scanning based confocal setups.
At first glance, the low penetration depth of TIRF seems to be incompatible with imaging of bacterial and fungal cells, which are often surrounded by thick cell walls. On the contrary, we have found that the cell walls of yeast and bacterial cells actually improve the usability of TIRF and increase the range of observable structures4-8. Many cellular processes can therefore be directly accessed by TIRF in small, single-cell microorganisms, which often offer powerful genetic manipulation techniques. This allows us to perform in vivo biochemistry experiments, where kinetics of protein interactions and activities can be directly assessed in living cells.
We describe here the individual steps required to obtain high quality TIRF images for Saccharomyces cerevisiae or Bacillus subtilis cells. We point out various problems that can affect TIRF visualization of fluorescent probes in cells and illustrate the procedure with several application examples. Finally, we demonstrate how TIRF images can be further improved using established image restoration techniques.

Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy is a powerful approach to observe structures close to the cell surface at high contrast and temporal resolution. We demonstrate how TIRF can be employed to study protein dynamics at the cortex of cell wall-enclosed bacterial and fungal cells.

La visualización de la corteza organización y dinámica de los microorganismos, con total Microscopía de fluorescencia de reflexión interna

TIRF microscopy has emerged as  a powerful imaging technology to study spatio-temporal dynamics of fluorescent molecules  in vitro and in living cells1. ...

Investigación

Bioingeniería

Nanotopology of Cell Adhesion upon Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (VA-TIRFM)

Surface topology, e.g. of cells growing on a substrate, is determined with nanometer precision by Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy (VA-TIRFM). Cells are cultivated on transparent slides and incubated with a fluorescent marker homogeneously distributed in their plasma membrane. Illumination occurs by a parallel laser beam under variable angles of total internal reflection (TIR) with different penetration depths of the evanescent electromagnetic field. Recording of fluorescence images upon irradiation at about 10 different angles permits to calculate cell-substrate distances with a precision of a few nanometers. Differences of adhesion between various cell lines, e.g. cancer cells and less malignant cells, are thus determined. In addition, possible changes of cell adhesion upon chemical or photodynamic treatment can be examined. In comparison with other methods of super-resolution microscopy light exposure is kept very small, and no damage of living cells is expected to occur.

Nanotopology of Cell Adhesion upon Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence Microscopy VA-TIRFM

Topology of cell adhesion on a substrate is measured with nanometre precision by variable-angle total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (VA-TIRFM).

Nanotopology de adhesión celular en ángulo variable total microscopía de fluorescencia de reflexión interna (VA-TIRFM)

Surface topology, e.g. of cells growing on a substrate, is determined with nanometer precision by Variable-Angle Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence ...

Creating Adhesive and Soluble Gradients for Imaging Cell Migration with Fluorescence Microscopy

Cells can sense and migrate towards higher concentrations of adhesive cues such as the glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix and soluble cues such as growth factors. Here, we outline a method to create opposing gradients of adhesive and soluble cues in a microfluidic chamber, which is compatible with live cell imaging. A copolymer of poly-L-lysine and polyethylene glycol (PLL-PEG) is employed to passivate glass coverslips and prevent non-specific adsorption of biomolecules and cells. Next, microcontact printing or dip pen lithography are used to create tracks of streptavidin on the passivated surfaces to serve as anchoring points for the biotinylated peptide arginine-glycine-aspartic acid (RGD) as the adhesive cue. A microfluidic device is placed onto the modified surface and used to create the gradient of adhesive cues (100% RGD to 0% RGD) on the streptavidin tracks. Finally, the same microfluidic device is used to create a gradient of a chemoattractant such as fetal bovine serum (FBS), as the soluble cue in the opposite direction of the gradient of adhesive cues.

A method for the assembly of adhesive and soluble gradients in a microscopy chamber for live cell migration studies is described. The engineered environment combines antifouling surfaces and adhesive tracks with solution gradients and therefore allows one to determine the relative importance of guidance cues.

Creación de degradados adhesivas y soluble para la migración celular con imágenes de microscopía de fluorescencia

Cells can sense and migrate towards higher concentrations of adhesive cues such as the glycoproteins of the extracellular matrix and soluble cues such as ...

Localization and Relative Quantification of Carbon Nanotubes in Cells with Multispectral Imaging Flow Cytometry

Carbon-based nanomaterials, like carbon nanotubes (CNTs), belong to this type of nanoparticles which are very difficult to discriminate from carbon-rich cell structures and de facto there is still no quantitative method to assess their distribution at cell and tissue levels. What we propose here is an innovative method allowing the detection and quantification of CNTs in cells using a multispectral imaging flow cytometer (ImageStream, Amnis). This newly developed device integrates both a high-throughput of cells and high resolution imaging, providing thus images for each cell directly in flow and therefore statistically relevant image analysis. Each cell image is acquired on bright-field (BF), dark-field (DF), and fluorescent channels, giving access respectively to the level and the distribution of light absorption, light scattered and fluorescence for each cell. The analysis consists then in a pixel-by-pixel comparison of each image, of the 7,000-10,000 cells acquired for each condition of the experiment. Localization and quantification of CNTs is made possible thanks to some particular intrinsic properties of CNTs: strong light absorbance and scattering; indeed CNTs appear as strongly absorbed dark spots on BF and bright spots on DF with a precise colocalization.
This methodology could have a considerable impact on studies about interactions between nanomaterials and cells given that this protocol is applicable for a large range of nanomaterials, insofar as they are capable of absorbing (and/or scattering) strongly enough the light.

In this study, the main purpose was to monitor the cellular uptake and eventual exocytosis of carbon nanotubes (CNTs). From this perspective, we proposed here a unique method using multispectral imaging flow cytometry allowing a quantification and localization of CNTs in a statistically relevant number of cells.

Localización y cuantificación relativa de nanotubos de carbono en las células con multiespectral de imágenes de Citometría de Flujo

Carbon-based nanomaterials, like carbon nanotubes (CNTs), belong to this type of nanoparticles which are very difficult to discriminate from carbon-rich ...

High-resolution Spatiotemporal Analysis of Receptor Dynamics by Single-molecule Fluorescence Microscopy

Single-molecule microscopy is emerging as a powerful approach to analyze the behavior of signaling molecules, in particular concerning those aspect (e.g., kinetics, coexistence of different states and populations, transient interactions), which are typically hidden in ensemble measurements, such as those obtained with standard biochemical or microscopy methods. Thus, dynamic events, such as receptor-receptor interactions, can be followed in real time in a living cell with high spatiotemporal resolution. This protocol describes a method based on labeling with small and bright organic fluorophores and total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) microscopy to directly visualize single receptors on the surface of living cells. This approach allows one to precisely localize receptors, measure the size of receptor complexes, and capture dynamic events such as transient receptor-receptor interactions. The protocol provides a detailed description of how to perform a single-molecule experiment, including sample preparation, image acquisition and image analysis. As an example, the application of this method to analyze two G-protein-coupled receptors, i.e., &#946;2-adrenergic and &#947;-aminobutyric acid type B (GABAB) receptor, is reported. The protocol can be adapted to other membrane proteins and different cell models, transfection methods and labeling strategies.

This protocol describes how to use total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy to visualize and track single receptors on the surface of living cells and thereby analyze receptor lateral mobility, size of receptor complexes as well as to visualize transient receptor-receptor interactions. This protocol can be extended to other membrane proteins.

De alta resolución espacio-temporal Análisis de la Dinámica del receptor por Casa molécula de microscopía de fluorescencia

Single-molecule microscopy is emerging as a powerful approach to analyze the behavior of signaling molecules, in particular concerning those aspect (e.g., ...

3D Orbital Tracking in a Modified Two-photon Microscope: An Application to the Tracking of Intracellular Vesicles

The objective of this video protocol is to discuss how to perform and analyze a three-dimensional fluorescent orbital particle tracking experiment using a modified two-photon microscope1. As opposed to conventional approaches (raster scan or wide field based on a stack of frames), the 3D orbital tracking allows to localize and follow with a high spatial (10 nm accuracy) and temporal resolution (50 Hz frequency response) the 3D displacement of a moving fluorescent particle on length-scales of hundreds of microns2. The method is based on a feedback algorithm that controls the hardware of a two-photon laser scanning microscope in order to perform a circular orbit around the object to be tracked: the feedback mechanism will maintain the fluorescent object in the center by controlling the displacement of the scanning beam3-5. To demonstrate the advantages of this technique, we followed a fast moving organelle, the lysosome, within a living cell6,7. Cells were plated according to standard protocols, and stained using a commercially lysosome dye. We discuss briefly the hardware configuration and in more detail the control software, to perform a 3D orbital tracking experiment inside living cells. We discuss in detail the parameters required in order to control the scanning microscope and enable the motion of the beam in a closed orbit around the particle. We conclude by demonstrating how this method can be effectively used to track the fast motion of a labeled lysosome along microtubules in 3D within a live cell. Lysosomes can move with speeds in the range of 0.4-0.5 &#181;m/sec, typically displaying a directed motion along the microtubule network8.

In this video protocol we track - at high speed and in three dimensions - fluorescently labeled lysosomes within living cells, using the orbital tracking method in a modified two-photon microscope.

Rastreo Orbital 3D en un microscopio de dos fotones Modificado: una aplicación para el Seguimiento de vesículas intracelulares

The objective of this video protocol is to discuss how to perform and analyze a three-dimensional fluorescent orbital particle tracking experiment using a ...

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous number of imaging techniques currently available and the progress in instrumentation, there is still a need for highly sensitive probes that are suitable for in vivo imaging. One typical problem of available preclinical fluorescent probes is their rapid clearance in vivo, which reduces their imaging sensitivity. To circumvent rapid clearance, increase number of dye molecules at the target site, and thereby reduce background autofluorescence, encapsulation of the near-infrared fluorescent dye, DY-676-COOH in liposomes and verification of its potential for in vivo imaging of inflammation was done. DY-676 is known for its ability to self-quench at high concentrations. We first determined the concentration suitable for self-quenching, and then encapsulated this quenching concentration into the aqueous interior of PEGylated liposomes. To substantiate the quenching and activation potential of the liposomes we use a harsh freezing method which leads to damage of liposomal membranes without affecting the encapsulated dye. The liposomes characterized by a high level of fluorescence quenching were termed Lip-Q. We show by experiments with different cell lines that uptake of Lip-Q is predominantly by phagocytosis which in turn enabled the characterization of its potential as a tool for in vivo imaging of inflammation in mice models. Furthermore, we use a zymosan-induced edema model in mice to substantiate the potential of Lip-Q in optical imaging of inflammation in vivo. Considering possible uptake due to inflammation-induced enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect, an always-on liposome formulation with low, non-quenched concentration of DY-676-COOH (termed Lip-dQ) and the free DY-676-COOH were compared with Lip-Q in animal trials.

Fluorescence-quenching of a Liposomal-encapsulated Near-infrared Fluorophore as a Tool for In Vivo Optical Imaging

The use of fluorophores for in vivo imaging can be greatly limited by opsonization, rapid clearance, low detection sensitivity and cytotoxic effects on the host. Encapsulation of fluorophores in liposomes by film hydration and extrusion leads to fluorescence quenching and protection which enables in vivo imaging with high detection sensitivity.

Fluorescencia de extinción de un fluoróforo encapsulada en liposomas en infrarrojo cercano como herramienta para<em&gt; En Vivo</em&gt; Imagen Óptico

Optical imaging offers a wide range of diagnostic modalities and has attracted a lot of interest as a tool for biomedical imaging. Despite the enormous ...

Single Molecule Fluorescence Microscopy on Planar Supported Bilayers

In the course of a single decade single molecule microscopy has changed from being a secluded domain shared merely by physicists with a strong background in optics and laser physics to a discipline that is now enjoying vivid attention by life-scientists of all venues 1. This is because single molecule imaging has the unique potential to reveal protein behavior in situ in living cells and uncover cellular organization with unprecedented resolution below the diffraction limit of visible light 2. Glass-supported planar lipid bilayers (SLBs) are a powerful tool to bring cells otherwise growing in suspension in close enough proximity to the glass slide so that they can be readily imaged in noise-reduced Total Internal Reflection illumination mode 3,4. They are very useful to study the protein dynamics in plasma membrane-associated events as diverse as cell-cell contact formation, endocytosis, exocytosis and immune recognition. Simple procedures are presented how to generate highly mobile protein-functionalized SLBs in a reproducible manner, how to determine protein mobility within and how to measure protein densities with the use of single molecule detection. It is shown how to construct a cost-efficient single molecule microscopy system with TIRF illumination capabilities and how to operate it in the experiment.

Preparation of protein-functionalized planar glass-supported lipid bilayers, determination of protein mobility within and measurement of protein densities is shown here. A roadmap to building a noise-reduced Total Internal Reflection microscope is outlined, which allows visualizing single bilayer-resident fluorochromes with high spatiotemporal resolution.

Bilayers Individual Molécula microscopía de fluorescencia en planar compatibles

In the course of a single decade single molecule microscopy has changed from being a secluded domain shared merely by physicists with a strong background ...

Light-sheet Fluorescence Microscopy for the Study of the Murine Heart

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has been widely used for rapid image acquisition with a high axial resolution from micrometer to millimeter scale. Traditional light-sheet techniques involve the use of a single illumination beam directed orthogonally at sample tissue. Images of large samples that are produced using a single illumination beam contain stripes or artifacts and suffer from a reduced resolution due to the scattering and absorption of light by the tissue. This study uses a dual-sided illumination beam and a simplified CLARITY optical clearing technique for the murine heart. These techniques allow for deeper imaging by removing lipids from the heart and produce a large field of imaging, greater than 10 x 10 x 10 mm3. As a result, this strategy enables us to quantify the ventricular dimensions, track the cardiac lineage, and localize the spatial distribution of cardiac-specific proteins and ion-channels from the post-natal to adult mouse hearts with sufficient contrast and resolution.

This study uses a dual-sided illumination light-sheet fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) technique combined with optical clearing to study the murine heart.

Hoja de luz fluorescencia microscopía para el estudio del corazón murino

Light-sheet fluorescence microscopy has been widely used for rapid image acquisition with a high axial resolution from micrometer to millimeter scale. ...

Conducting Multiple Imaging Modes with One Fluorescence Microscope

Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool to detect biological molecules in situ and monitor their dynamics and interactions in real-time. In addition to conventional epi-fluorescence microscopy, various imaging techniques have been developed to achieve specific experimental goals. Some of the widely used techniques include single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer (smFRET), which can report conformational changes and molecular interactions with angstrom resolution, and single-molecule detection-based super-resolution (SR) imaging, which can enhance the spatial resolution approximately ten&#160;to twentyfold compared to diffraction-limited microscopy. Here we present a customer-designed integrated system, which merges multiple imaging methods in one microscope, including conventional epi-fluorescent imaging, single-molecule detection-based SR imaging, and multi-color single-molecule detection, including smFRET imaging. Different imaging methods can be achieved easily and reproducibly by switching optical elements. This set-up is easy to adopt by any research laboratory in biological sciences with a need for routine and diverse imaging experiments at a reduced cost and space relative to building separate microscopes for individual purposes.

Here we present a practical guide of building an integrated microscopy system, which merges conventional epi-fluorescent imaging, single-molecule detection-based super-resolution imaging, and multi-color single-molecule detection, including single-molecule fluorescence resonance energy transfer imaging, into one set-up in a cost-efficient way.

Realización de múltiples modos de la proyección de imagen con un microscopio de fluorescencia

Fluorescence microscopy is a powerful tool to detect biological molecules in situ and monitor their dynamics and interactions in real-time. In addition to ...