Name: microperfusion technique to investigate regulation of microvessel permeability in rat mesentery
Uploaded: 2015-09-12T14:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microperfusion Technique to Investigate Regulation of Microvessel Permeability in Rat Mesentery at JoVE.com

This work was supported by National Institutes of Health grants HL44485 and HL28607.

Ethics Statement: All procedures were reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Preliminary Fabrication of Micropipettes, Restrainers, and Blockers
<ol>
	<li>Pull several clean borosilicate glass capillary tubes in half using an electronic puller adjusted so that, when pulled, the stretched portion of the tube is about 1 cm in length and the two halves are somewhat symmetric. Ensure that the taper is consistent with the dimensions in Figure 1</stron...

Details of Lp calculations. Although transvascular fluid movement occurs while the vessel is freely perfused, such exchange is far too small to be measured during free perfusion because it is typically less than 0.01% of the vessel perfusion rate. However, when perfusion is transiently stopped by occluding the microvessel, transvascular flow (i.e., filtration) is measured from the movement of marker red cells in the lumen as the column of fluid between a marker red cell and ...

Microperfusion in the vasculature entails establishing controlled flow of an artificial perfusate of known composition via a micropipette in a blood vessel usually less than 40 &#181;m in diameter. The perfused vessel remains within its normal tissue environment and is perfused with the animal&#8217;s blood up to the time of cannulation. When used in conjunction with a range of video imaging or fluorometric techniques, in situ microperfusion enables measurement of water and solute flows across the walls of microvessels under conditions where the driving forces for these flows are known and the permeability properties of the vascular wall can be directly evaluated. Further, by controlling the composition of the fluid surrounding the microvessel in the tissue (perfusate and superfusate), the regulation of microvessel permeability and exchange can be investigated by enabling the endothelial cells forming the microvessel wall to be exposed to a variety of experimental conditions (agonists, modified perfusion conditions, fluorescent indicators to measure intracellular composition and signaling) for precisely measured periods of time (sec to hr). In addition, ultrastructural or cytochemical evaluations of key cellular molecular structures regulating the barrier can be investigated in the same microvessels in which permeability is directly measured. The approach thereby forms a bridge between investigation of the cellular and molecular mechanisms to modify endothelial barrier function in cultured endothelial cell monolayers and investigation in intact microvessels. See the following reviews for further evaluation1-6.
A limitation of microperfusion is that it can be used only in microvascular beds that are thin, transparent and have sufficient structural integrity to enable cannulation with a glass micropipette. While early investigations used frog microvessels in mesentery and thin cutaneous pectoris muscle7,8, by far the most commonly used preparation in mammalian models is the rat mesentery9-15. Most investigations have focused on acute changes in vascular permeability studied over periods of 1-4 hr, but more recent investigations have been extended to measurements on individual vessels 24-72 hr after an initial perfusion12,16. The recently developed CRISPR technology, which promises to make more genetically modified rat models available for studying vascular permeability regulation17 should enable the methods described in this communication to be applied in venular microvessels of the mesentery in these important new rat models.
The method requires an inverted microscope equipped with a custom built microscope stage large enough to hold both the animal preparation and at least three micromanipulators used to position microtools close to the perfused vessel and to align a perfusion micropipette with the vessel lumen. For example a custom platform for an x-y microscope stage (about 90 &#215; 60 cm) can be fabricated from a 1 cm thick steel plate with a rust-proof coating. The stage is attached to an engineering index table or two dove-tail slides mounted at right angles and supported on Teflon pillars or ball transfers for movement in the horizontal plane. A typical rig (see Figure 2) has much in common with the microscope and micropositioning equipment used for a range of intravital microcirculation experiments such as those to measure single vessel blood flow and hematocrit, local oxygen delivery by blood perfused microvessels, regulation of vascular smooth muscle tone, and the local microvascular accumulation of fluorescent tracers injected into the whole circulation.18-26
The fundamental aspect of the technique is the measurement of volume flow (Jv) across a defined surface area (S) of the microvessel wall. To accomplish this via the modified Landis technique described herein a simple inverted microscope is adequate. A small video camera is mounted on the image port and the video signal, with an added time base, is displayed on a video monitor and recorded either in digital form on a computer or as a digital or analog signal on a video recorder. Once the microvessel is cannulated the portion of the microvessel visible to the camera can be changed by moving the stage and manipulators as a unit without disrupting the cannulation.
Measurement of transvascular flows may also be combined with more detailed investigations using a sophisticated fluorescence microscope with appropriate filters such as rigs used for measurements of solute permeability, fluorescent ratio monitoring of cytoplasmic calcium or other cellular mechanisms, and confocal imaging 6,12,13,27. A key advantage of all microperfusion approaches is the ability to make repeated measures, on the same vessel, under controlled change of driving force such as hydrostatic and oncotic pressures, or induced change in vessel responses to inflammatory conditions. The most common design is a paired comparison of measured hydraulic conductivity (Lp) on the same vessel with the vessel first perfused via a micropipette filled with a control perfusate and the red cell suspension to establish a baseline permeability state, then with a second pipette with the test agent added to the perfusate. Multiple cannulations are possible with the cycle repeated after reperfusion with the control pipette.
The present protocol demonstrates the cannulation and microperfusion of a venular vessel in rat mesentery to record water fluxes across the microvessel wall and measure the Lp of the vessel wall, a useful index of the permeability of the common pathway for water and solutes across the intact endothelial barrier. The procedure is called the modified Landis technique because the original Landis principle of using the relative movement of red cells as a measure of transvascular fluid exchange after perfusion is blocked is preserved28, but the range of experimental conditions (e.g., the hydrostatic and albumin oncotic pressure differences across the microvessel wall) available after microperfusion is far greater than in uncannulated blood perfused microvessels8,29.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>MICROSCOPE, TABLE AND STAGE</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>inverted microscope (metallurgical type) with trinocular head for video: example</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td>CK-40</td>
			<td>try to place eyepieces higher relative to stage--you have to look through eyepieces while reaching around to top of stage over intervening micromanipulators</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>inverted microscope (metallurgical type) with trinocular head for video: example</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>DMIL</td>
			<td>try to place eyepieces higher relative to stage--you have to look through eyepieces while reaching around to top of stage over intervening micromanipulators</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>narrow diameter, long working distance objective: example</td>
			<td>Nikon</td>
			<td>Nikon E Plan 10&#215;/0.25 LWD</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>stage platform--1/2 inch or 1 cm sheet steel</td>
			<td>welding shop</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>this should be heavy to reduce vibration</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Unislide x-y table: dove tail slides</td>
			<td>Velmex</td>
			<td>AXY4006W1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>VIDEO</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>CCD video camera: example</td>
			<td>Pulnix</td>
			<td>TM-7CN (no longer available)</td>
			<td>no color needed</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>video capture system with audio--generic</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>video playback system (completely still frame, single frame motion)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>small microphone</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MICROMANIPULATORS, HOLDERS</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>micromanipulator, XYZ (3)</td>
			<td>Prior/Stoelting (no longer available)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>look for fine Z, and larger range of travel in coarse drives for ease of positioning</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>hydraulic probe drive, one way</td>
			<td>FHC</td>
			<td>50-12-1C</td>
			<td>need to buy either manual drive or electronic drive</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>manual drum drive&#160;</td>
			<td>FHC</td>
			<td>50-12-9-02</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>or hydraulic drive, 3 way</td>
			<td>Siskiyou Corporation</td>
			<td>MX610 (1-way) or MX630 (3-way)</td>
			<td>great for short arms, water filled and must be sent back for refill ~every 2 years</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>connectors/rods/holders</td>
			<td>Siskiyou Corporation</td>
			<td>MXC-2.5, MXB etc.</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pin vise</td>
			<td>Starrett</td>
			<td>162C</td>
			<td>to hold restrainer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pipette holder</td>
			<td>World Prescision Instruments</td>
			<td>MPH3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>water manometer ~120 cm</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MICROSCOPE TRAY</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>clear Plexiglas for microscope tray for animal</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>3/4 inch polished quartz disc ~1/4 inch tall</td>
			<td>Quartz Scientific Inc.</td>
			<td>custom</td>
			<td>&#160;(or polished plexiglass, glass); make sure the height is less than working distance of objective</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Plexiglas glue (Weld-on 4: CAUTION CARCINOGEN)</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>medical adhesive for tissue well</td>
			<td>NuSil</td>
			<td>MED-1037</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>All-purpose silicone rubber heat mat, 5&#34; L x 2&#34; W</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>EW-03125-20</td>
			<td>heater for microscope tray--needs cord and controller--240V version available</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Power Cord Adapter for Kapton Heaters and Kits, 6 ft, 120 VAC</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>EW-03122-75</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>STACO 3PN1010B Variable-Voltage Controller, 10 A; 120 V In, 0-140 V Out</td>
			<td>Cole Parmer</td>
			<td>EW-01575-00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PIPET MANUFACTURE</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>vertical pipette puller</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument Company</td>
			<td>P-30 with nichrome filament</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>1.5 mm OD thin wall capillary tubing</td>
			<td>Sutter Instrument Company</td>
			<td>B150-110-10</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>pipette grinder air stone and dissection microscope--see reference in text</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>or purchase a package from Sutter Instruments or World Precision Instruments</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>RX Honing Machine, System II</td>
			<td>RX Honing Machine Corporation</td>
			<td>MAC-10700 Rx System II Machine</td>
			<td>alternative for air stone, use with a dissecting microscope mounted at an angle</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&#160;&#160; with ceramic sharpening disc</td>
			<td>RX Honing Machine Corporation</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>use &#34;as is&#34; or attach lapping film</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>lapping film sheets, 0.3 or 0.5 um</td>
			<td>3M</td>
			<td>part no. 051144 80827</td>
			<td>268X Imperial lapping film sheets with adhesive back--can be purchased from Amazon</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

microperfusion technique to investigate regulation of microvessel permeability in rat mesentery

Experiments to measure the permeability properties of individually perfused microvessels provide a bridge between investigation of molecular and cellular mechanisms regulating vascular permeability in cultured endothelial cell monolayers and the functional exchange properties of whole microvascular beds. A method to cannulate and perfuse venular microvessels of rat mesentery and measure the hydraulic conductivity of the microvessel wall is described. The main equipment needed includes an intravital microscope with a large modified stage that supports micromanipulators to position three different microtools: (1) a beveled glass micropipette to cannulate and perfuse the microvessel; (2) a glass micro-occluder to transiently block perfusion and enable measurement of transvascular water flow movement at a measured hydrostatic pressure, and (3) a blunt glass rod to stabilize the mesenteric tissue at the site of cannulation. The modified Landis micro-occlusion technique uses red cells suspended in the artificial perfusate as markers of transvascular fluid movement, and also enables repeated measurements of these flows as experimental conditions are changed and hydrostatic and colloid osmotic pressure difference across the microvessels are carefully controlled. Measurements of hydraulic conductivity first using a control perfusate, then after re-cannulation of the same microvessel with the test perfusates enable paired comparisons of the microvessel response under these well-controlled conditions. Attempts to extend the method to microvessels in the mesentery of mice with genetic modifications expected to modify vascular permeability were severely limited because of the absence of long straight and unbranched microvessels in the mouse mesentery, but the recent availability of the rats with similar genetic modifications using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology is expected to open new areas of investigation where the methods described herein can be applied.

Figure 4 shows the results from measuring the time course of changes in Lp in a rat venular microvessel cannulated successively with four perfusates.33 The magnitude of Lp calculated at a constant pressure was used as a measure of changes in microvessel wall permeability, first in the control state with a perfusate containing 1% bovine serum albumin then when the vessel was exposed to the inflammatory agent bradykinin (Bk) using a second micropipette containing 10 nM Bk. ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Microperfusion Technique to Investigate Regulation of Microvessel Permeability in Rat Mesentery at JoVE.com

Microperfusion Technique to Investigate Regulation of Microvessel Permeability in Rat Mesentery

The modified Landis technique enables paired measurement of the hydraulic conductivity of individual microvessels in the mesentery of normal and genetically modified rats under control and test conditions using microperfusion techniques. It provides a convenient method to evaluate mechanisms that regulate microvessel permeability and transvascular exchange under physiological conditions.

Experiments to measure the permeability properties of individually perfused microvessels provide a bridge between investigation of molecular and cellular ...

microperfusion-technique-to-investigate-regulation-microvessel

Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

Preparation of 2-dGuo-Treated Thymus Organ Cultures

In the thymus, interactions between developing T-cell precursors and stromal cells that include cortical and medullary epithelial cells are known to play a key role in the development of a functionally competent T-cell pool. However, the complexity of T-cell development in the thymus in vivo can limit analysis of individual cellular components and particular stages of development. In vitro culture systems provide a readily accessible means to study multiple complex cellular processes. Thymus organ culture systems represent a widely used approach to study intrathymic development of T-cells under defined conditions in vitro. Here we describe a system in which mouse embryonic thymus lobes can be depleted of endogenous haemopoeitic elements by prior organ culture in 2-deoxyguanosine, a compound that is selectively toxic to haemopoeitic cells. As well as providing a readily accessible source of thymic stromal cells to investigate the role of thymic microenvironments in the development and selection of T-cells, this technique also underpins further experimental approaches that include the reconstitution of alymphoid thymus lobes in vitro with defined haemopoietic elements, the transplantation of alymphoid thymuses into recipient mice, and the formation of reaggregate thymus organ cultures. (This article is based on work first reported Methods in Molecular Biology 2007, Vol. 380 pages 185-196).

This video demonstrates the dissection and removal of the fetal thymus as well the preparation of ex vivo cultures of 2-dGuo-treated thymus.

In the thymus, interactions between developing T-cell precursors and stromal cells that include cortical and medullary epithelial cells are known to play ...

In vitro Reconstitution of the Active T. castaneum Telomerase

Efforts to isolate the catalytic subunit of telomerase, TERT, in sufficient quantities for structural studies, have been met with limited success for more than a decade. Here, we present methods for the isolation of the recombinant Tribolium castaneum TERT (TcTERT) and the reconstitution of the active T. castaneum telomerase ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex in vitro.
Telomerase is a specialized reverse transcriptase1 that adds short DNA repeats, called telomeres, to the 3' end of linear chromosomes2 that serve to protect them from end-to-end fusion and degradation. Following DNA replication, a short segment is lost at the end of the chromosome3 and without telomerase, cells continue dividing until eventually reaching their Hayflick Limit4. Additionally, telomerase is dormant in most somatic cells5 in adults, but is active in cancer cells6 where it promotes cell immortality7.
The minimal telomerase enzyme consists of two core components: the protein subunit (TERT), which comprises the catalytic subunit of the enzyme and an integral RNA component (TER), which contains the template TERT uses to synthesize telomeres8,9. Prior to 2008, only structures for individual telomerase domains had been solved10,11. A major breakthrough in this field came from the determination of the crystal structure of the active12, catalytic subunit of T. castaneum telomerase, TcTERT1.
Here, we present methods for producing large quantities of the active, soluble TcTERT for structural and biochemical studies, and the reconstitution of the telomerase RNP complex in vitro for telomerase activity assays. An overview of the experimental methods used is shown in Figure 1.

In vitro Reconstitution of the Active T. castaneum Telomerase

Efforts to isolate the catalytic subunit of telomerase, TERT, in sufficient quantities for structural studies, have been met with limited success for more than a decade. Here, we present methods for the isolation of the recombinant Tribolium castaneum TERT (TcTERT) and the reconstitution of the active T. castaneum telomerase ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex in vitro.

Efforts to isolate the catalytic subunit of telomerase, TERT, in sufficient quantities for structural studies, have been met with limited success for more ...

Rat Mesentery Angiogenesis Assay

The adult rat mesentery window angiogenesis assay is biologically appropriate and is exceptionally well suited to the 
study of sprouting angiogenesis in vivo [see review papers], which is the dominating form of angiogenesis in human tumors and non-tumor 
tissues, as discussed in invited review papers1,2. Angiogenesis induced in the membranous mesenteric parts by intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of a pro-angiogenic factor can be modulated
by subcutaneous (s.c.), intravenous (i.v.) or oral (p.o.) treatment with modifying agents of choice. Each membranous part of the mesentery is 
translucent and framed by fatty tissue, giving it a window-like appearance.
The assay has the following advantageous features: (i) the test tissue is natively vascularized, albeit 
sparsely, and since it is extremely thin, the microvessel network is virtually two-dimensional, which allows the entire network 
to be assessed microscopically in situ; (ii) in adult rats the test tissue lacks significant physiologic angiogenesis, which characterizes
 most normal adult mammalian tissues; the degree of native vascularization is, however, correlated with age, as discussed in1; 
(iii) the negligible level of trauma-induced angiogenesis ensures high sensitivity; (iv) the 
assay replicates the clinical situation, as the angiogenesis-modulating test drugs are administered systemically and the responses 
observed reflect the net effect of all the metabolic, cellular, and molecular alterations induced by the treatment; (v) the assay 
allows assessments of objective, quantitative, unbiased variables of microvascular spatial extension, density, and network pattern 
formation, as well as of capillary sprouting, thereby enabling robust statistical analyses of the dose-effect and molecular 
structure-activity relationships; and (vi) the assay reveals with high sensitivity the toxic or harmful effects of treatments in 
terms of decreased rate of physiologic body-weight gain, as adult rats grow robustly.
Mast-cell-mediated angiogenesis was first demonstrated using this assay3,4. The model demonstrates a high level of 
discrimination regarding dosage-effect relationships and the measured effects of systemically administered chemically or functionally closely related drugs and proteins, 
including: (i) low-dosage, metronomically administered standard chemotherapeutics that yield diverse, drug-specific effects (i.e., 
angiogenesis-suppressive, neutral or angiogenesis-stimulating activities5); (ii) natural iron-unsaturated human lactoferrin, which stimulates 
VEGF-A-mediated angiogenesis6, and natural iron-unsaturated bovine lactoferrin, which inhibits VEGF-A-mediated angiogenesis7; and (iii) 
low-molecular-weight heparin fractions produced by various means8,9. Moreover, the assay is highly suited to studies of the combined 
effects on angiogenesis of agents that are administered systemically in a concurrent or sequential fashion.
The idea of making this video originated from the late Dr. Judah Folkman when he visited our laboratory and witnessed the methodology being demonstrated.
Review papers (invited) discussing and appraising the assay
Norrby, K. In vivo models of angiogenesis. J. Cell. Mol. Med. 10, 588-612 (2006).
Norrby, K. Drug testing with angiogenesis models. Expert Opin. Drug. Discov. 3, 533-549 (2008).

Normal adult vascularized mammalian tissue that lacks physiologic angiogenesis and that has not been exposed to surgical intervention is used to study: (i) the initiation and development of angiogenesis following intraperitoneal administration of test agents; and (ii) modification of angiogenesis following systemic administration of selected test agents.

The adult rat mesentery window angiogenesis assay is biologically appropriate and is exceptionally well suited to the 
study of sprouting angiogenesis in ...

The ex vivo Isolated Skeletal Microvessel Preparation for Investigation of Vascular Reactivity

The isolated microvessel preparation is an ex vivo preparation that allows for examination of the different contributions of factors that control vessel diameter, and thus, perfusion resistance1-5. This is a classic experimental preparation that was, in large measure, initially described by Uchida et al.15 several decades ago. This initial description provided the basis for the techniques that was extensively modified and enhanced, primarily in the laboratory of Dr. Brian Duling at the University of Virginia6-8, and we present a current approach in the following pages. This preparation will specifically refer to the gracilis arteriole in a rat as the microvessel of choice, but the basic preparation can readily be applied to vessels isolated from nearly any other tissue or organ across species9-13. Mechanical (i.e., dimensional) changes in the isolated microvessels can easily be evaluated in response to a broad array of physiological (e.g., hypoxia, intravascular pressure, or shear) or pharmacological challenges, and can provide insight into mechanistic elements comprising integrated responses in an intact, although ex vivo, tissue. The significance of this method is that it allows for facile manipulation of the influences on the integrated regulation of microvessel diameter, while also allowing for the control of many of the contributions from other sources, including intravascular pressure (myogenic), autonomic innervation, hemodynamic (e.g., shear stress), endothelial dependent or independent stimuli, hormonal, and parenchymal influences, to provide a partial list. Under appropriate experimental conditions and with appropriate goals, this can serve as an advantage over in vivo or in situ tissue/organ preparations, which do not readily allow for the facile control of broader systemic variables. 
The major limitation of this preparation is essentially the consequence of its strengths. By definition, the behavior of these vessels is being studied under conditions where many of the most significant contributors to the regulation of vascular resistance have been removed, including neural, humoral, metabolic, etc. As such, the investigator is cautioned to avoid over-interpretation and extrapolation of the data that are collected utilizing this preparation. The other significant area of concern with regard to this preparation is that it can be very easy to damage cellular components such as the endothelial lining or the vascular smooth muscle, such that variable source of error can be introduced. It is strongly recommended that the individual investigator utilize appropriate measurements to ensure the quality of the preparation, both at the initiation of the experiment and periodically throughout the course of a protocol.

The ex vivo Isolated Skeletal Microvessel Preparation for Investigation of Vascular Reactivity

An ex vivo preparation is described for isolation of the largest gracilis muscle resistance arterioles for interrogation of both vascular responses to vasoactive stimuli and the assessment of basic structural properties via passive wall mechanics.

The isolated  microvessel preparation is an ex vivo preparation that allows for examination of the different contributions of  factors that control vessel ...

Rat Mesentery Exteriorization: A Model for Investigating the Cellular Dynamics Involved in Angiogenesis

Microvacular network growth and remodeling are critical aspects of wound healing, inflammation, diabetic retinopathy, tumor growth and other disease conditions1, 2. Network growth is commonly attributed to angiogenesis, defined as the growth of new vessels from pre-existing vessels. The angiogenic process is also directly linked to arteriogenesis, defined as the capillary acquisition of a perivascular cell coating and vessel enlargement. Needless to say, angiogenesis is complex and involves multiple players at the cellular and molecular level3. Understanding how a microvascular network grows requires identifying the spatial and temporal dynamics along the hierarchy of a network over the time course of angiogenesis. This information is critical for the development of therapies aimed at manipulating vessel growth.
The exteriorization model described in this article represents a simple, reproducible model for stimulating angiogenesis in the rat mesentery. It was adapted from wound-healing models in the rat mesentery4-7, and is an alternative to stimulate angiogenesis in the mesentery via i.p. injections of pro-angiogenic agents8, 9. The exteriorization model is attractive because it requires minimal surgical intervention and produces dramatic, reproducible increases in capillary sprouts, vascular area and vascular density over a relatively short time course in a tissue that allows for the two-dimensional visualization of entire microvascular networks down to single cell level. The stimulated growth reflects natural angiogenic responses in a physiological environment without interference of foreign angiogenic molecules. Using immunohistochemical labeling methods, this model has been proven extremely useful in identifying novel cellular events involved in angiogenesis. Investigators can readily correlate the angiogenic metrics during the time course of remodeling with time specific dynamics, such as cellular phenotypic changes or cellular interactions4, 5, 7, 10, 11.

This article describes a simple model for stimulating angiogenesis in the rat mesentery. The model produces dramatic increases in capillary sprouting, vascular area and vascular density over a relatively short time course in a tissue that allows en face visualization of entire microvascular networks down to the single cell level.

Microvacular network growth and remodeling are critical aspects of wound healing, inflammation, diabetic retinopathy, tumor growth and other disease ...

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the messagefor review see 1. However, it's now widely accepted that synonymous codon usage is the primary cause of non-uniform translational elongation rates1. Synonymous codons are not used with identical frequency. A bias exists in the use of synonymous codons with some codons used more frequently than others2. Codon bias is organism as well as tissue specific2,3. Moreover, frequency of codon usage is directly proportional to the concentrations of cognate tRNAs4. Thus, a frequently used codon will have higher multitude of corresponding tRNAs, which further implies that a frequent codon will be translated faster than an infrequent one. Thus, regions on mRNA enriched in rare codons (potential pause sites) will as a rule slow down ribosome movement on the message and cause accumulation of nascent peptides of the respective sizes5-8. These pause sites can have functional impact on the protein expression, mRNA stability and protein foldingfor review see 9. Indeed, it was shown that alleviation of such pause sites can alter ribosome movement on mRNA and subsequently may affect the efficiency of co-translational (in vivo) protein folding1,7,10,11. To understand the process of protein folding in vivo, in the cell, that is ultimately coupled to the process of protein synthesis it is essential to gain comprehensive insights into the impact of codon usage/tRNA content on the movement of ribosomes along mRNA during translational elongation.
Here we describe a simple technique that can be used to locate major translation pause sites for a given mRNA translated in various cell-free systems6-8. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA. The rationale is that at low-frequency codons, the increase in the residence time of the ribosomes results in increased amounts of nascent peptides of the corresponding sizes. In vitro transcribed mRNA is used for in vitro translational reactions in the presence of radioactively labeled amino acids to allow the detection of the nascent chains. In order to isolate ribosome bound nascent polypeptide complexes the translation reaction is layered on top of 30% glycerol solution followed by centrifugation. Nascent polypeptides in polysomal pellet are further treated with ribonuclease A and resolved by SDS PAGE. This technique can be potentially used for any protein and allows analysis of ribosome movement along mRNA and the detection of the major pause sites. Additionally, this protocol can be adapted to study factors and conditions that can alter ribosome movement and thus potentially can also alter the function/conformation of the protein.

Isolation of Ribosome Bound Nascent Polypeptides in vitro to Identify Translational Pause Sites Along mRNA

A technique to identify translational pause sites on mRNA is described. This procedure is based on isolation of nascent polypeptides accumulating on ribosomes during in vitro translation of a target mRNA, followed by the size analysis of the nascent chains using a denaturing gel electrophoresis.

The rate of translational elongation is non-uniform. mRNA secondary structure, codon usage and mRNA associated proteins may alter ribosome movement on the ...

Using SecM Arrest Sequence as a Tool to Isolate Ribosome Bound Polypeptides

Extensive research has provided ample evidences suggesting that protein folding in the cell is a co-translational process1-5. However, the exact pathway that polypeptide chain follows during co-translational folding to achieve its functional form is still an enigma. In order to understand this process and to determine the exact conformation of the co-translational folding intermediates, it is essential to develop techniques that allow the isolation of RNCs carrying nascent chains of predetermined sizes to allow their further structural analysis.
SecM (secretion monitor) is a 170 amino acid E. coli protein that regulates expression of the downstream SecA (secretion driving) ATPase in the secM-secA operon6. Nakatogawa and Ito originally found that a 17 amino acid long sequence (150-FSTPVWISQAQGIRAGP-166) in the C-terminal region of the SecM protein is sufficient and necessary to cause stalling of SecM elongation at Gly165, thereby producing peptidyl-glycyl-tRNA stably bound to the ribosomal P-site7-9. More importantly, it was found that this 17 amino acid long sequence can be fused to the C-terminus of virtually any full-length and/or truncated protein thus allowing the production of RNCs carrying nascent chains of predetermined sizes7. Thus, when fused or inserted into the target protein, SecM stalling sequence produces arrest of the polypeptide chain elongation and generates stable RNCs both in vivo in E. coli cells and in vitro in a cell-free system. Sucrose gradient centrifugation is further utilized to isolate RNCs.
The isolated RNCs can be used to analyze structural and functional features of the co-translational folding intermediates. Recently, this technique has been successfully used to gain insights into the structure of several ribosome bound nascent chains10,11. Here we describe the isolation of bovine Gamma-B Crystallin RNCs fused to SecM and generated in an in vitro translation system.

We describe here a technique that is now routinely used to isolate stably bound ribosome nascent chain complexes (RNCs). This technique takes advantage of the discovery that a 17 amino acid long SecM "arrest sequence" can halt translation elongation in a prokaryotic (E. coli) system, when inserted into (or fused to the C-terminus) of virtually any protein.

Extensive research has provided ample evidences suggesting that protein folding in the cell is a co-translational process1-5. However, the exact pathway ...

Quantifying Single Microvessel Permeability in Isolated Blood-perfused Rat Lung Preparation

The isolated blood-perfused lung preparation is widely used to visualize and define signaling in single microvessels. By coupling this preparation with real time imaging, it becomes feasible to determine permeability changes in individual pulmonary microvessels. Herein we describe steps to isolate rat lungs and perfuse them with autologous blood. Then, we outline steps to infuse fluorophores or agents via a microcatheter into a small lung region. Using these procedures described, we determined permeability increases in rat lung microvessels in response to infusions of bacterial lipopolysaccharide. The data revealed that lipopolysaccharide increased fluid leak across both venular and capillary microvessel segments. Thus, this method makes it possible to compare permeability responses among vascular segments and thus, define any heterogeneity in the response. While commonly used methods to define lung permeability require postprocessing of lung tissue samples, the use of real time imaging obviates this requirement as evident from the present method. Thus, the isolated lung preparation combined with real time imaging offers several advantages over traditional methods to determine lung microvascular permeability, yet is a straightforward method to develop and implement.

The isolated blood-perfused lung preparation makes it feasible to visualize microvessel networks on the lung surface. Here we describe an approach to quantify permeability of single microvessels in isolated lungs using real time fluorescence imaging.

The isolated blood-perfused lung preparation is widely used to visualize and define signaling in single microvessels. By coupling this preparation with ...

Measuring the Osmotic Water Permeability Coefficient (Pf) of Spherical Cells: Isolated Plant Protoplasts as an Example

Studying AQP regulation mechanisms is crucial for the understanding of water relations at both the cellular and the whole plant levels. Presented here is a simple and very efficient method for the determination of the osmotic water permeability coefficient (Pf) in plant protoplasts, applicable in principle also to other spherical cells such as frog oocytes. The first step of the assay is the isolation of protoplasts from the plant tissue of interest by enzymatic digestion into a chamber with an appropriate isotonic solution. The second step consists of an osmotic challenge assay: protoplasts immobilized on the bottom of the chamber are submitted to a constant perfusion starting with an isotonic solution and followed by a hypotonic solution. The cell swelling is video recorded. In the third step, the images are processed offline to yield volume changes, and the time course of the volume changes is correlated with the time course of the change in osmolarity of the chamber perfusion medium, using a curve fitting procedure written in Matlab (the &#8216;PfFit&#8217;), to yield Pf.

Measuring the Osmotic Water Permeability Coefficient Pf of Spherical Cells: Isolated Plant Protoplasts as an Example

Measuring the osmotic water permeability coefficient (Pf) of cells can help understand the regulatory mechanisms of aquaporins (AQPs). Pf determination in spherical plant cell protoplasts presented here involves protoplasts isolation and numerical analysis of their initial rate of volume change as a result of an osmotic challenge during constant bath perfusion.

Studying AQP regulation mechanisms is crucial for the understanding of water relations at both the cellular and the whole plant levels. Presented here is ...

In Vitro and In Vivo Approaches to Determine Intestinal Epithelial Cell Permeability

The intestinal barrier defends against pathogenic microorganism and microbial toxin. Its function is regulated by tight junction permeability and epithelial cell integrity, and disruption of the intestinal barrier function contributes to progression of gastrointestinal and systemic disease. Two simple methods are described here to measure the permeability of intestinal epithelium. In vitro, Caco-2BBe cells are plated in tissue culture wells as a monolayer and transepithelial electrical resistance (TER) can be measured by an epithelial (volt/ohm) meter. This method is convincing because of its user-friendly operation and repeatability. In vivo, mice are gavaged with 4 kDa fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-dextran, and the FITC-dextran concentrations are measured in collected serum samples from mice to determine the epithelial permeability. Oral gavage provides an accurate dose, and therefore is the preferred method to measure the intestinal permeability in vivo. Taken together, these two methods can measure the permeability of the intestinal epithelium in vitro and in vivo, and hence be used to study the connection between diseases and barrier function.

In Vitro and In Vivo Approaches to Determine Intestinal Epithelial Cell Permeability

Two methods are presented here to determine intestinal barrier function. An epithelial meter (volt/ohm) is used for measurements of transepithelial electrical resistance of cultured epithelia directly in tissue culture wells. In mice, the FITC-dextran gavage method is used to determine the intestinal permeability in vivo.