Nos gustaría agradecer a Joshua Singer, Jonathan Schenk, así como revisores pensativos por comentarios en el manuscrito. También nos gustaría agradecer a Ben White y Harold Zakon debates sobre la técnica. Jonathan Schenk proporciona los datos de la Figura 3A. Este trabajo fue apoyado por una subvención de la Fundación de Whitehall y un R21 de NIH a QG.

1. preparar moscas y promotor de GAL4 identificar líneas
<ol><li>Seleccione una línea de promotor de GAL4 y cruzar con las moscas con el transgén de UAS-NaChBac y un transgen de optogenetic para la activación. Nota: CsChrimson UAS11 se selecciona debido a su alta conductancia y la facilidad con la cual activa mediada por NaChBac los potenciales de acción. UAS-NaChBac y UAS-CsChrimson están disponibles en el repositorio de las poblaciones de Bloomington.</li>
	<li>Preparar todo-trans retinal como una solución en etanol (35 mM) y guardar la solución en el congelador a-20 ° C.</li>
	<li>Mix 28 μl de este stock en aproximadamente 5 mL de patata rehidratado escamas alimento y añadir esta mezcla a la parte superior de un frasco de medios convencionales de Drosophila .</li>
	<li>Criar moscas adultas expresar csChrimson en alimentos que contienen 0,2 mM all-trans-retinal para 1 – 3 días11.</li>
</ol>2. preparar Stock TTX
<ol><li>Crear una solución stock de 1 mM TTX en agua destilada o desionizada. Almacenar esta solución en un refrigerador de laboratorio durante varios meses. Revise las políticas de las instituciones en relación con el almacenamiento de TTX como muchas instituciones clasifican TTX como una sustancia peligrosa o controlada.</li>
</ol>3. preparar moscas para electrofisiología
<ol><li>Recoger 1 – 3 días adulto viejo vuela que sobresalen en la comida con todo-trans-retinal. Nota: Consulte Murthy y Turner en 2013 para una descripción detallada del parche sujeción Drosophila las neuronas12,13.</li>
	<li>Poner las moscas en un vial de centelleo de vidrio. Coloque el frasco en hielo durante 1 minuto inmovilizar a las moscas.</li>
	<li>Utilizar pinzas gruesas para insertar una mosca en una cámara de grabación a medida. La cámara consta de un 3 ½" círculo corte láser de acrílico de 1/16". Corte un agujero de ¾" está en el centro donde se une una hoja personalizada con epoxy en 2 partes. La hoja contiene un triangular en forma de esperanza de que la mosca se le introduce.</li>
	<li>Aplique cera o epoxi curable UV alrededor del animal para fijarla firmemente dentro de la cámara de grabación.</li>
	<li>Iluminar la preparación con un cuello de cisne de fibra óptica para visualización bajo un estereomicroscopio. Fijar las fibras de cuello de cisne para la iluminación oblicua ajustando para que iluminan la marcha directamente desde el lado.</li>
	<li>Ajustar el nivel de luz a la posición más baja posible que todavía permite la clara visualización de la mosca. Esta intensidad de la luz variará a través de experimentos individuales. Nota: Este protocolo puede ser adaptado mediante el uso de un in situ cerebro explante método14.</li>
	<li>Recuperar la solución salina de grabación externos. La solución salina contiene en mM: NaCl 103, 3 KCl, 5 N-tris (hidroximetil) metil-2-aminoethane-sulfónico, trehalosa 8, glucosa 10, 26 NaHCO3, 1 NaH2PO4, 1.5 CaCl2y 4 de MgCl2 (ajustado a mΩ 270 – 275). La solución salina es burbujeada con 95% O25% CO2 (carbogen) y cuenta con un pH ajustado a 7.315.</li>
	<li>Coloque 4-6 gotas de solución salina de grabación extracelular sobre la preparación de la mosca. En este punto, aumentar el nivel de luz en el microscopio de disección para una mejor visibilidad.</li>
	<li>Afilar un alambre de tungsteno mediante electrólisis. Para hacer el cable, preparar una solución saturada de KNO3 y aplicar aproximadamente 20 V de CA corriente sumergir la punta del alambre en la solución 20 veces para 100 ms hasta que la punta es afilada. Use el alambre de tungsteno afilada para quitar la cutícula sobre la cabeza de la mosca y exponiendo el cerebro.</li>
	<li>Además exponer el cerebro quitando tráquea y cuerpos grasos que lo rodean. Si acceder a los lóbulos antenales, use un alambre de tungsteno doblado o una herramienta similar a meter suavemente antenas por debajo de la hoja de grabación cámara para aumentar la visibilidad. Utilice pinzas afiladas para rasgar suavemente lejos el revestimiento glial que cubre el área de interés donde se harán grabaciones.</li>
	<li>Transferencia de la cámara de grabación a la plataforma de electrofisiología. Inmediatamente iniciar la perfusión con solución salina de grabación externo burbujas con carbogen para preservar el cerebro. El depósito de solución salina se coloca sobre la platina del microscopio y es gravedad-alimentó a la preparación. Utilice una línea de vacío y un matraz de Erlenmeyer de 2 L para recoger los residuos salinos.</li>
</ol>4. obtener el registro de celulares
<ol><li>Tire un extractor comercial pipeta pipetas de parche. Consulte el manual de configuración conseguir una pipeta adecuada con una resistencia de punta cerca de mΩ 7.</li>
	<li>Añadir 4 μL de solución de grabación interno en una pipeta de parche. La solución salina interna consta de aspartato de potasio 140, 10 HEPES, MgATP 4, Na 0,53GTP, 1 EGTA y 1 KCl en mM.</li>
	<li>Configurar el amplificador de abrazadera de parche para registro de celulares. Cero offset del amplificador y el amplificador para entregar pulsos de prueba. Aquí, se utiliza un amplificador de abrazadera AM sistemas parche 2.400.</li>
	<li>Aplicar presión positiva a través de la pipeta y acercarse a la célula. Uso de un micromanipulador para dirigir la pipeta y en contacto con la célula. Libere la presión positiva. Conjunto del explotación potencial de la membrana a -60 mV. La pipeta debe formar un sello gigaohm con membrana de la célula según lo evidenciado por una sub-picoamp bajo tenencia actual. Nota: Si usando GFP celular objetivo, intentar minimizar el uso de la luz epifluorescente para evitar activación de ChR2 y potencial depresión sináptica. También espere unos minutos antes de aplicar el paso 5.</li>
	<li>El amplificador para entregar pulsos de prueba de -50 mV a -60 mV. Esta opción es estándar en los amplificadores de la abrazadera del remiendo. Pulsos de prueba revelará un gran capacitativa transitorio que representa la corriente necesaria para cargar la pipeta patch. Eliminar transitorios capacitativa ajustando las perillas de la compensación de capacidad en el AM 2400 o similar amplificador.</li>
	<li>Se aplican breves impulsos de presión negativa para romper la membrana celular y obtener configuración de celulares. Nota: Una configuración de células enteras se observa cuando hay un gran aumento en los transitorios capacitativa mostrando la capacitancia de la neurona. Un pequeño aumento en la explotación actual (línea base) es probable que también se observará. El amplificador a modo de pinza y ajuste potencial de la célula de -50 a -60 mV.</li>
</ol>5. probar la conectividad sináptica
<ol><li>Configurar el sistema de adquisición (DAQ) de datos para activar un controlador LED para generar pulsos de luz. Aquí, se utiliza un sistema DAQ instrumentos nacionales con Matlab para entregar una señal analógica a un conductor del LED. La intensidad del LED se ajusta a través de la señal analógica al conductor. El LED es 620-630 nm longitud de onda LED.</li>
	<li>Coloque el LED rojo alta potencia directamente debajo de la preparación. Ajustar la intensidad de luz para que la mosca llegue a 0.238 mW/mm2 .</li>
	<li>Activar las neuronas presinápticas durante la grabación de la célula postsináptica de interés. Lograr optogenetically de activación de la célula, pharmacogentically, o a través de la estimulación nerviosa. Aquí, se aplican csChrimson y pulsos breves de luz roja. Nota: Las conexiones sinápticas pueden ser monitoreadas en pinza como EPSPs o abrazadera del voltaje como EPSCs. Una conexión sináptica debe ser visible antes de aplicar la TTX en respuesta a un pulso de luz de 40 ms. Si no se observa ninguna conexión, no es probable que las neuronas synaptically están conectados ya sea mono - o polysynaptically. La explotación potencial puede ajustarse para enfatizar las conexiones excitatorias o inhibitorias en consecuencia.</li>
	<li>Si una conexión se observa en solución salina normal, añadir TTX al sistema de perfusión para lograr una concentración final de 1 μm. Utilice una bomba de recirculación para capturar y reutilizar la solución salina para conservar la TTX. La bomba peristáltica se dibuja la solución salina del baño y volver al depósito de solución salino.</li>
	<li>Ajustar la velocidad de la bomba para proporcionar un fuerte vacío constante que no permite ese nivel salino en el baño al subir y bajar. Nota: La aplicación de TTX dará lugar a la cesación de clavar la actividad en la neurona que se está controlando en célula entera. Esto confirma que suficiente TTX ha sido añadido a la solución salina.</li>
	<li>Volver a aplicar pulsos breves de luz roja (40 ms para cada pulso). En este punto, es probable que cualquier conexión sináptica que permanece monosynaptic. Añadir a antagonistas farmacológicos a la solución salina recirculación para probar la naturaleza química de las conexiones sinápticas que permanecen en la TTX. Nota: Cuando se combinan optogenetics y focalización fluorescente de neuronas, puede ser importante no activar persistentemente la población presináptica de las neuronas, tratando de obtener una grabación. Esto puede conducir a la depresión sináptica y hace difícil ver las conexiones. Porque csChrimson tiene una banda de excitación larga que se extiende ampliamente en la gama de la proteína verde fluorescente, un fluoróforo rojo puede utilizarse para visualizar neuronas y channel2rhodopsin (Ch2R) puede utilizarse para excitar a las poblaciones de la célula. Hacerlo requiere genética específica y un cubo de filtro personalizado. Para generar moscas adecuadas, hacer moscas que expresan el fluoróforo rojo (RFP o mCherry) bajo los sistemas de expresión binaria de sistema LexA o Q. Estos tendrán que ser cruzado con moscas expresando un promotor Gal4 y UAS-Ch2R y UAS-NaChBac genes efectores. El cubo de filtro óptimo para epifluorescencia tendrá una gama estrecha de excitación excitar el fluoróforo rojo, pero no excita Ch2R. Además, el sistema de filtro debe incluir un filtro de emisión del pase largo para recoger la mayor cantidad de luz emitida. Se utilizó un filtro personalizado de croma que incluía números de parte et580/25 x y t600lpxr (del conjunto 49306), pero con un filtro de barrera/emisión de et610lp.</li>
</ol>

<ol>
	<li>Petreanu, L., Huber, D., Sobczyk, A., Svoboda, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Channelrhodopsin-2-assisted+circuit+mapping+of+long-range+callosal+projections.">Channelrhodopsin-2-assisted circuit mapping of long-range callosal projections.</a> Nat Neurosci. 10, 663-668 (2007).</li><li>Yao, Z., Macara, A. M., Lelito, K. R., Minosyan, T. Y., Shafer, O. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+functional+neuronal+connectivity+in+the+Drosophila+brain.">Analysis of functional neuronal connectivity in the Drosophila brain.</a> J Neurophysiol. , 684-696 (2012).</li><li>Doyle, M. W., Andresen, M. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Reliability+of+monosynaptic+sensory+transmission+in+brain+stem+neurons+in+vitro.">Reliability of monosynaptic sensory transmission in brain stem neurons in vitro.</a> J Neurophysiol. 85, 2213-2223 (2001).</li><li>Nicholls, J. G., Purves, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monosynaptic+chemical+and+electrical+connexions+between+sensory+and+motor+cells+in+the+central+nervous+system+of+the+leech.">Monosynaptic chemical and electrical connexions between sensory and motor cells in the central nervous system of the leech.</a> J Physiol-London. 209, 647-667 (1970).</li><li>Byrne, J. H., Castellucci, V. F., Kandel, E. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Contribution+of+individual+mechanoreceptor+sensory+neurons+to+defensive+gill-withdrawal+reflex+in+Aplysia.">Contribution of individual mechanoreceptor sensory neurons to defensive gill-withdrawal reflex in Aplysia.</a> J Neurophysiol. 41, 418-431 (1978).</li><li>Liao, X., Walters, E. T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+use+of+elevated+divalent+cation+solutions+to+isolate+monosynaptic+components+of+sensorimotor+connections+in+Aplysia.">The use of elevated divalent cation solutions to isolate monosynaptic components of sensorimotor connections in Aplysia.</a> J Neurosci Meth. 120, 45-54 (2002).</li><li>Feinberg, E. H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GFP+Reconstitution+Across+Synaptic+Partners+(GRASP)+Defines+Cell+Contacts+and+Synapses+in+Living+Nervous+Systems.">GFP Reconstitution Across Synaptic Partners (GRASP) Defines Cell Contacts and Synapses in Living Nervous Systems.</a> Neuron. 57, 353-363 (2008).</li><li>Macpherson, L. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+labelling+of+neural+connections+in+multiple+colours+by+trans-synaptic+fluorescence+complementation.">Dynamic labelling of neural connections in multiple colours by trans-synaptic fluorescence complementation.</a> Nat Commun. 6, 10024-10029 (2015).</li><li>Zhang, X., Gaudry, Q. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+integration+of+a+serotonergic+neuron+in+the+Drosophila+antennal+lobe.">Functional integration of a serotonergic neuron in the Drosophila antennal lobe.</a> Elife. 5, (2016).</li><li>Wilson, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Early+olfactory+processing+in+Drosophila:+mechanisms+and+principles.">Early olfactory processing in Drosophila: mechanisms and principles.</a> Annu Rev Neurosci. 36, 217-241 (2013).</li><li>Klapoetke, N. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Independent+optical+excitation+of+distinct+neural+populations.">Independent optical excitation of distinct neural populations.</a> Nat Methods. 11, 338-346 (2014).</li><li>Murthy, M., Turner, G. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole-cell+in+vivo+patch-clamp+recordings+in+the+Drosophila+brain.">Whole-cell in vivo patch-clamp recordings in the Drosophila brain.</a> Cold Spring Harb Protoc. , 140-148 (2013).</li><li>Murthy, M., Turner, G. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dissection+of+the+head+cuticle+and+sheath+of+living+flies+for+whole-cell+patch-clamp+recordings+in+the+brain.">Dissection of the head cuticle and sheath of living flies for whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in the brain.</a> Cold Spring Harb Protoc. 2013, 134-139 (2013).</li><li>Gu, H., O'Dowd, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Whole+Cell+Recordings+from+Brain+of+Adult+Drosophila.">Whole Cell Recordings from Brain of Adult Drosophila.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2007).</li><li>Wilson, R. I., Turner, G. C., Laurent, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Transformation+of+olfactory+representations+in+the+Drosophila+antennal+lobe.">Transformation of olfactory representations in the Drosophila antennal lobe.</a> Science. 303, 366-370 (2004).</li><li>Kazama, H., Wilson, R. I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Homeostatic+Matching+and+Nonlinear+Amplification+at+Identified+Central+Synapses.">Homeostatic Matching and Nonlinear Amplification at Identified Central Synapses.</a> Neuron. 58, 401-413 (2008).</li><li>Becnel, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=DREADDs+in+Drosophila:+a+pharmacogenetic+approach+for+controlling+behavior,+neuronal+signaling,+and+physiology+in+the+fly.">DREADDs in Drosophila: a pharmacogenetic approach for controlling behavior, neuronal signaling, and physiology in the fly.</a> Cell Reports. 4, 1049-1059 (2013).</li><li>Armbruster, B. N., Li, X., Pausch, M. H., Herlitze, S., Roth, B. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Evolving+the+lock+to+fit+the+key+to+create+a+family+of+G+protein-coupled+receptors+potently+activated+by+an+inert+ligand.">Evolving the lock to fit the key to create a family of G protein-coupled receptors potently activated by an inert ligand.</a> P Natl Acad Sci USA. 104, 5163-5168 (2007).</li><li>Sun, Q. Q., Wang, X., Yang, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Laserspritzer:+A+Simple+Method+for+Optogenetic+Investigation+with+Subcellular+Resolutions.">Laserspritzer: A Simple Method for Optogenetic Investigation with Subcellular Resolutions.</a> PLoS One. 9, e101600-e101608 (2014).</li><li>Holloway, B. B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Monosynaptic+Glutamatergic+Activation+of+Locus+Coeruleus+and+Other+Lower+Brainstem+Noradrenergic+Neurons+by+the+C1+Cells+in+Mice.">Monosynaptic Glutamatergic Activation of Locus Coeruleus and Other Lower Brainstem Noradrenergic Neurons by the C1 Cells in Mice.</a> J Neurosci. 33, 18792-18805 (2013).</li><li>Petreanu, L., Mao, T., Sternson, S. M., Svoboda, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+subcellular+organization+of+neocortical+excitatory+connections.">The subcellular organization of neocortical excitatory connections.</a> Nature. 457, 1142-1145 (2009).</li><li>Kloppenburg, P., Ferns, D., Mercer, A. R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Serotonin+enhances+central+olfactory+neuron+responses+to+female+sex+pheromone+in+the+male+sphinx+moth+manduca+sexta.">Serotonin enhances central olfactory neuron responses to female sex pheromone in the male sphinx moth manduca sexta.</a> J Neurosci. 19, 8172-8181 (1999).</li><li>Suster, M. L., Seugnet, L., Bate, M., Sokolowski, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Refining+GAL4-driven+transgene+expression+in+Drosophila+with+a+GAL80+enhancer-trap.">Refining GAL4-driven transgene expression in Drosophila with a GAL80 enhancer-trap.</a> Genesis. 39, 240-245 (2004).</li></ol>

Los autores no tienen nada que revelar.

Análisis TERPS complementan técnicas actuales utilizadas para circuito agrietarse permitiendo la detección de las sinapsis entre las neuronas identificadas. Específicamente, el enfoque revela conexiones monosynaptic por silenciamiento ampliamente los potenciales de acción con TTX restableciendo la excitabilidad en una población selecta de neuronas con el canal de sodio TTX-insensible NaChBac. Liberación sináptica se produce por el estímulo de optogenetic mientras que eventos postsinápticos son monitoreados con ...

Una meta importante de la neurociencia es mapear las conexiones entre las neuronas para entender cómo fluye la información a través de circuitos. Numerosos enfoques y recursos se han convertido en disponibles para probar la conectividad funcional entre las neuronas en una gama de modelo sistemas1,2. Para generar los diagramas más precisos utilizando electrofisiología, es importante resolver si las conexiones observadas entre dos células son directos y monosynaptic versus indirecta y polysynaptic. Un estándar de oro para hacer esta distinción en las neuronas mamíferas es medir la latencia entre action potentials solo en las células presinápticas y la aparición de corrientes postsinápticas excitatorias (EPSCs) en la segunda neurona. Conexiones monosynaptic deben tener latencias cortas de unos pocos milisegundos y baja variabilidad3. Este enfoque puede ser complicado en invertebrados neuronas porque las sinapsis pueden ocurrir en sus dendritas lejos del sitio de grabación somáticos, provocando retrasos en la detección debido a las distancias largas electrotónicos entre conductancias postsinápticas y la grabación electrodo. Estos retrasos pueden introducir ambigüedad con respecto a poli-versus contribuciones monosynaptic. Además, pequeños eventos sinápticos puede decaer antes de llegar a la página grabaciones somática y conducir la actividad presináptica más fuerte, es probables que contratar eventos polysynaptic.
Han desarrollado varias técnicas para probar las conexiones monosynaptic en invertebrados. Un método utiliza soluciones de cationes divalentes alta (Hi-Di) que contiene exceso de magnesio++ y Ca++. Esta solución bloquea conexiones polysynaptic reduce probabilidad de liberación y aumento umbral potencial de acción a favor de la detección de monosynaptic entrada4,5. Determinar la proporción exacta de Mg++ ++ de CA requiere, sin embargo, no es trivial y polysynaptic contribuciones pueden persistir incluso modesta estimulación6. Un enfoque alternativo denominado reconstitución GFP a través de socios sináptica (GRASP) aprovecha la proximidad entre las membranas previas y postsinápticas en sinapsis para inferir una conexión monosynaptic 7. Aquí, un componente de la proteína verde fluorescente (GFP) se expresa en una neurona, y el fragmento complementario de la molécula se expresa en un supuesto socio postsináptico. La presencia de fluorescencia indica que las dos neuronas están lo suficientemente cerca para permitir la reconstitución de la molécula GFP e implica la existencia de sinapsis. ASIMIENTO puede Informe sinapsis falso, sin embargo, si dos celdas han estrechamente apposed membranas, como en un nervio o fascículo. Variantes del asimiento de eliminan tales falsos positivos por atar el presináptico fragmento de GFP directamente a synaptobrevin, permitiendo así la reconstitución solamente en sinapsis activa8. Mientras que asimiento y sus variantes han sido instrumentales en la determinación de conectividad funcional en la Drosophila del CNS, algunas conexiones pueden no hacerse visibles por comprensión si las distancias entre los socios pre- y postsinápticas es relativamente grande. Esto es particularmente pertinente en la evaluación de la transmisión de volumen asociada a neuromodulación9 o GABAérgicas inhibición10.
Aquí, se demuestra una técnica complementaria y novedosa para probar conexiones monosynaptic directas en Drosophila del CNS. Este método, llamado tetrodotoxina resistencia diseñado para sondeo sinapsis (TERPS), funciona por la coexpresión de la tetrodotoxina (TTX)-canal sodio resistente, NaChBac y un activador de optogenetic en una célula presináptica durante la grabación de la supuesta socios postsynaptic9. En presencia de TTX, se suprime toda actividad mediada por el potencial de acción en células distintas de las que NaChBac. El canal de NaChBac selectivamente restaura la excitabilidad en las celdas presinápticos específicos, permitiendo la transmisión sináptica evocada por la luz. Este método permite la fuerte activación de las neuronas presinápticas, tal que las conexiones se pueden resolver postsynaptically somática grabación mientras reduce la probabilidad de contratar circuitos polysynaptic. Importante, esta técnica permite el estudio de la transmisión de volumen y revela la difusión del transmisor liberado de una sola neurona a lo largo de un circuito. Además, los TERPS puede revelar la naturaleza química de la conexión a través de la farmacología convencional. TERPS es conveniente para el uso en cualquier modelo de sistema que permite la expresión transgénica de los canales de sodio TTX-insensible.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="946">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">UAS-csChrimson</td>
			<td style="width:219px;">Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">55135</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used as a neural activator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">UAS-NaChBac</td>
			<td>Bloomington Drosophila Stock Center</td>
			<td>9466</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Resotores excitibility in cells in TTX</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Tetrodotoxin</td>
			<td>Tochris</td>
			<td>1078</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Special permission may be needed to purchase TTX as it is a controlled substance</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">all trans-Retinal</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrichall trans-Retinal</td>
			<td>R2500</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Require co-factor for channelrhodopsin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:216px;">Weldable 321 Stainless Steel&#160;Sheet,&#160;0.002&#34;&#160;Thick,&#160;10&#34;&#160;Wide</td>
			<td>McMaster Carr</td>
			<td>3254K7</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to make custom fly holder. Custom foil can be laser cut at pololu.com from the provided PDF file</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Dissection Microscope</td>
			<td>Zeiss</td>
			<td>Stemi 2000-C</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used for dissection of preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Waxer</td>
			<td>Almore</td>
			<td>Eectra Waxer 66000</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used during dissection to secure fly in foil</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Paraffin Wax</td>
			<td>Joann</td>
			<td>4917217</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used with waxer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Number 5 forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>#5CO</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used for dissection and desheathing</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Dissection Scissors</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td>15001-08</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to remove parts of the cuticle during dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Tungsten wire</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>797500</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Use with electrolysis to make sharpened needles for dissection</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Reciculating Peristaltic Pump</td>
			<td>Simply Pumps (Amazon)</td>
			<td>PM200S</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">for recirculating TTX</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Speed Controller for peristaltic pump</td>
			<td>Zitrades (Amazon)</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">N/A</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">PWM Dimming Controller For LED Lights or Ribbon, 12 Volt 8 Amp,Adjustable Brightness Light Switch Dimmer Controller DC12V 8A 96W for Led Strip Light B</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Versa-Mount&#160;Precision Compressed Air Regulator</td>
			<td>McMaster Carr</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">1804T1</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">For applying positive pressure during patching</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Glass capilaries</td>
			<td>World Precision Instruments</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">TW150F-3</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">For patch pipettes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Multipurpose Gauge</td>
			<td>McMaster Carr</td>
			<td>3846K431</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Gauge for pressure regulator</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Electrophysiology Camera</td>
			<td>Dage MTI&#160;</td>
			<td>IR-1000</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Any camera that works in the IR range (850 nm) will work. You do not want to use red illumination as this can activate csChrimson</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">IR LED</td>
			<td>Thorlabs&#160;</td>
			<td>M850F2</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">For oblique illumination</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">fiber optic for IR LED</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>M89L01</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Couples to IR LED</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Objective lens&#160;</td>
			<td>Olympus 40X</td>
			<td>LUMPlanFLN</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">This can be used on most microscipes and works well for visualizing fly neurons.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Amber LED</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>M590L3d</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">For visualizing RFP and mCherry</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Blue LED</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td>M470L3d</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">For visualizing GFP</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">GFP filter set</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td>49011</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">For visualizing GFP or stimulating channel2rhodopsin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Custom mCherry Filter Set</td>
			<td>Chroma</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">&#160;et580/25x and t600lpxr (from the 49306 set) but with an et610lp barrier/emission optic</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Use only if you wish to patch identified neurons with channel2rhodopsin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Dichroic to combine Amber and blue LED</td>
			<td>Thorlabs</td>
			<td style="width:344px;">DMLP550R</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Use only patch under mCherry and excite channel2rhodopsin with blue light.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Red LED</td>
			<td>LEDSupply</td>
			<td>Cree XPE 620 - 630 nm</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to drive csChrimson</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">LED Driver</td>
			<td>LEDSupply</td>
			<td>3021-D-E-1000</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to drive LEDs for optogenetic stimulation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Manipulator</td>
			<td>Sutter Instruments</td>
			<td>MP-225</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to position pipette during recordings</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Patchclamp Amplifier</td>
			<td>A-M Systems</td>
			<td>Model 2400</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">An equivalent amplifier is suitable</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Bessel Filter</td>
			<td>Warner Instruments&#160;</td>
			<td>LPF 202A</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Auxillary filter used to filter current trace to oscilloscope during patching.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Data Acquisition System&#160;</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>NI PCIe-6321&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160;&#160; 781044-01</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to record data from amplifier to computer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Connector Block - BNC Terminal BNC-2090A</td>
			<td>National Instruments</td>
			<td>779556-01</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to connect amplifier to DAQ card.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Steel Foil&#160;</td>
			<td>McMaster Carr</td>
			<td>3254K7</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Steel foil for custom recording chamber</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;">Magnets</td>
			<td>K&#38;J Magnetics</td>
			<td>D42</td>
			<td style="width:167px;">To secure recording chamber to ring stand</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="100">
			<td height="100" style="height:100px;">1/16&#34; Cell Cast Acrylic Clear</td>
			<td>Pololu</td>
			<td></td>
			<td style="width:167px;">Used to make custom recording chamber. Acrylic can be laser cut at pololu.com from the provided PDF file</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

examining monosynaptic connections in drosophila using tetrodotoxin resistant sodium channels

Aquí, se aplica una nueva técnica denominada Tetrotoxin (TTX) resistencia diseñado para sondeo sinapsis (TERPS) para probar conexiones monosynaptic entre neuronas de destino. El método se basa en la expresión de un activador de transgénico con el canal de sodio tetrodotoxin resistentes, NaChBac, en la neurona presináptica específico. Conexiones con supuestos socios postsinápticos dependen de grabaciones de celulares en presencia de TTX, que bloquea la actividad eléctrica de las neuronas que no expresan NaChBac. Este enfoque puede ser modificado para trabajar con cualquier activador o proyección de imagen de calcio como un reportero de conexiones. TERPS agrega al conjunto creciente de herramientas disponibles para determinar la conectividad en redes. Sin embargo, los TERPS es único en que confiablemente también divulga a granel o transmisión de volumen y derrame transmisión.

TERPS se utiliza para distinguir entre mono - y polysynaptic en conexiones sinápticas entre las neuronas. Mientras que una estimulación débil de una célula puede utilizarse para probar las conexiones directas, conduciendo a una mayor actividad presináptica a menudo reclutas polysynaptic conexiones (figura 1A). TERPS funciona Co expresando el canal de sodio TTX-insensible NaChBac y un activador de optogenetic y pruebas de conexiones en presencia de TTX pa...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Examining Monosynaptic Connections in Drosophila Using Tetrodotoxin Resistant Sodium Channels at JoVE.com

Examining Monosynaptic Connections in Drosophila Using Tetrodotoxin Resistant Sodium Channels

Este artículo presenta un método para probar las conexiones monosynaptic entre neuronas mediante el empleo de tetrodotoxin y el canal de sodio tetrodotoxin resistentes, NaChBac.

Examinar las conexiones Monosynaptic en Drosophila utilizando canales de sodio Tetrodotoxin resistentes

Here, a new technique termed Tetrotoxin (TTX) Engineered Resistance for Probing Synapses (TERPS) is applied to test for monosynaptic connections between ...

examining-monosynaptic-connections-drosophila-using-tetrodotoxin

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Examining Monosynaptic Connections in Drosophila Using Tetrodotoxin Resistant Sodium Channels

9.9K vistas.  University of Maryland. Este artículo presenta un método para probar las conexiones monosynaptic entre neuronas mediante el empleo de tetrodotoxin y el canal de sodio tetrodotoxin resistentes, NaChBac.

Video: Examining Monosynaptic Connections in Drosophila Using Tetrodotoxin Resistant Sodium Channels

Correlating Behavioral Responses to fMRI Signals from Human Prefrontal Cortex: Examining Cognitive Processes Using Task Analysis

The aim of this methods paper is to describe how to implement a neuroimaging technique to examine complementary brain processes engaged by two similar tasks. Participants' behavior during task performance in an fMRI scanner can then be correlated to the brain activity using the blood-oxygen-level-dependent signal. We measure behavior to be able to sort correct trials, where the subject performed the task correctly and then be able to examine the brain signals related to correct performance. Conversely, if subjects do not perform the task correctly, and these trials are included in the same analysis with the correct trials we would introduce trials that were not only for correct performance. Thus, in many cases these errors can be used themselves to then correlate brain activity to them. We describe two complementary tasks that are used in our lab to examine the brain during suppression of an automatic responses: the stroop1 and anti-saccade tasks. The emotional stroop paradigm instructs participants to either report the superimposed emotional 'word' across the affective faces or the facial 'expressions' of the face stimuli1,2. When the word and the facial expression refer to different emotions, a conflict between what must be said and what is automatically read occurs. The participant has to resolve the conflict between two simultaneously competing processes of word reading and facial expression. Our urge to read out a word leads to strong 'stimulus-response (SR)' associations; hence inhibiting these strong SR's is difficult and participants are prone to making errors. Overcoming this conflict and directing attention away from the face or the word requires the subject to inhibit bottom up processes which typically directs attention to the more salient stimulus. Similarly, in the anti-saccade task3,4,5,6, where an instruction cue is used to direct only attention to a peripheral stimulus location but then the eye movement is made to the mirror opposite position. Yet again we measure behavior by recording the eye movements of participants which allows for the sorting of the behavioral responses into correct and error trials7 which then can be correlated to brain activity. Neuroimaging now allows researchers to measure different behaviors of correct and error trials that are indicative of different cognitive processes and pinpoint the different neural networks involved.

The goal of our research is to correlate behavior to brain activity. Accurate behavioral measures and imaging techniques allow us to elucidate brain-behavior relationships.

La correlación entre las respuestas de comportamiento a las señales de fMRI de la corteza prefrontal humana: estudio de determinados procesos cognitivos Uso del análisis de tareas

The aim of this methods paper is to describe how to implement a neuroimaging technique to examine complementary brain processes engaged by two similar ...

Investigación

Neurociencias

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

Visualización de los propioceptores<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Las larvas y pupas

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Multi-photon Intracellular Sodium Imaging Combined with UV-mediated Focal Uncaging of Glutamate in CA1 Pyramidal Neurons

Multi-photon fluorescence microscopy has enabled the analysis of morphological and physiological parameters of brain cells in the intact tissue with high spatial and temporal resolution. Combined with electrophysiology, it is widely used to study activity-related calcium signals in small subcellular compartments such as dendrites and dendritic spines. In addition to calcium transients, synaptic activity also induces postsynaptic sodium signals, the properties of which are only marginally understood. Here, we describe a method for combined whole-cell patch-clamp and multi-photon sodium imaging in cellular micro domains of central neurons. Furthermore, we introduce a modified procedure for ultra-violet (UV)-light-induced uncaging of glutamate, which allows reliable and focal activation of glutamate receptors in the tissue. To this end, whole-cell recordings were performed on Cornu Ammonis subdivision 1 (CA1) pyramidal neurons in acute tissue slices of the mouse hippocampus. Neurons were filled with the sodium-sensitive fluorescent dye SBFI through the patch-pipette, and multi-photon excitation of SBFI enabled the visualization of dendrites and adjacent spines. To establish UV-induced focal uncaging, several parameters including light intensity, volume affected by the UV uncaging beam, positioning of the beam as well as concentration of the caged compound were tested and optimized. Our results show that local perfusion with caged glutamate (MNI-Glutamate) and its focal UV-uncaging result in inward currents and sodium transients in dendrites and spines. Time course and amplitude of both inward currents and sodium signals correlate with the duration of the uncaging pulse. Furthermore, our results show that intracellular sodium signals are blocked in the presence of blockers for ionotropic glutamate receptors, demonstrating that they are mediated by sodium influx though this pathway. In summary, our method provides a reliable tool for the investigation of intracellular sodium signals induced by focal receptor activation in intact brain tissue.

We describe the combination of focal UV-induced photo-activation of neuro-active compounds with whole-cell patch-clamp and multi-photon imaging of intracellular sodium transients in dendrites and spines of hippocampal neurons in acute tissue slices of the mouse brain.

Multi-fotón intracelular de sodio Imaging Combinado con Desembalado focal UV-mediada de glutamato en las neuronas CA1 Piramidal

Multi-photon fluorescence microscopy has enabled the analysis of morphological and physiological parameters of brain cells in the intact tissue with high ...

High-resolution Quantification of Odor-guided Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster Using the Flywalk Paradigm

In their natural environment, insects such as the vinegar fly Drosophila melanogaster are bombarded with a huge amount of chemically distinct odorants. To complicate matters even further, the odors detected by the insect nervous system usually are not single compounds but mixtures whose composition and concentration ratios vary. This leads to an almost infinite amount of different olfactory stimuli which have to be evaluated by the nervous system.
To understand which aspects of an odor stimulus determine its evaluation by the fly, it is therefore desirable to efficiently examine odor-guided behavior towards many odorants and odor mixtures. To directly correlate behavior to neuronal activity, behavior should be quantified in a comparable time frame and under identical stimulus conditions as in neurophysiological experiments. However, many currently used olfactory bioassays in Drosophila neuroethology are rather specialized either towards efficiency or towards resolution.
Flywalk, an automated odor delivery and tracking system, bridges the gap between efficiency and resolution. It allows the determination of exactly when an odor packet stimulated a freely walking fly, and to determine the animal&#180;s dynamic behavioral reaction.

High-resolution Quantification of Odor-guided Behavior in Drosophila melanogaster Using the Flywalk Paradigm

The automated tracking system Flywalk is used for high-resolution quantification of odor-guided behavior in Drosophila melanogaster.

De alta resolución de cuantificación del comportamiento guiado Olor en<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em&gt; Uso de la<em&gt; Flywalk</em&gt; Paradigma

In their natural environment, insects such as the vinegar fly Drosophila melanogaster are bombarded with a huge amount of chemically distinct odorants. To ...

Using Linear Agarose Channels to Study Drosophila Larval Crawling Behavior

Drosophila larval crawling is emerging as a powerful model to study neural control of sensorimotor behavior. However, larval crawling behavior on flat open surfaces is complex,&#160;including: pausing, turning, and meandering. This complexity in the repertoire of movement hinders detailed analysis of the events occurring during a single crawl stride cycle. To overcome this obstacle, linear agarose channels were made that constrain larval behavior to straight, sustained, rhythmic crawling. In principle, because agarose channels and the Drosophila larval body are both optically clear, the movement of larval structures labeled by genetically-encoded fluorescent probes can be monitored in intact, freely-moving larvae. In the past, larvae were placed in linear channels and crawling at the level of whole organism, segment, and muscle were analyzed1. In the future, larvae crawling in channels can be used for calcium imaging to monitor neuronal activity. Moreover, these methods can be used with larvae of any genotype and with any researcher-designed channel. Thus the protocol presented below is widely applicable for studies using the Drosophila larva as a model to understand motor control.

Using Linear Agarose Channels to Study Drosophila Larval Crawling Behavior

The Drosophila larva is a powerful model system to study neural control of behavior. This publication describes the use of linear agarose channels to elicit sustained bouts of linear crawling and methods to quantify the dynamics of larval structures during repetitive crawling behavior.

Uso de los canales lineales de agarosa para estudiar<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Comportamiento de las larvas de arrastre

Drosophila larval crawling is emerging as a powerful model to study neural control of sensorimotor behavior. However, larval crawling behavior on flat ...

A Simple Way to Measure Alterations in Reward-seeking Behavior Using Drosophila melanogaster

We describe a protocol for measuring ethanol self-administration in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a proxy for changes in reward states. We demonstrate a simple way to tap into the fly reward system, modify experiences related to natural reward, and use voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure for changes in reward states. The approach serves as a relevant tool to study the neurons and genes that play a role in experience-mediated changes of internal state. The protocol is composed of two discrete parts: exposing the flies to rewarding and nonrewarding experiences, and assaying voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure of the motivation to obtain a drug reward. The two parts can be used independently to induce the modulation of experience as an initial step for further downstream assays or as an independent two-choice feeding assay, respectively. The protocol does not require a complicated setup and can therefore be applied in any laboratory with basic fly culture tools.

A Simple Way to Measure Alterations in Reward-seeking Behavior Using Drosophila melanogaster

We describe a protocol for inducing rewarding and nonrewarding experiences in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) using voluntary ethanol consumption as a measure for changes in reward states.

Una manera sencilla de medir alteraciones en el comportamiento de búsqueda de recompensa Uso<em&gt; Drosophila melanogaster</em

We describe a protocol for measuring ethanol self-administration in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster) as a proxy for changes in reward states. We ...

Quantitative Cell Biology of Neurodegeneration in Drosophila Through Unbiased Analysis of Fluorescently Tagged Proteins Using ImageJ

With the rising prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases, it is increasingly important to understand the underlying pathophysiology that leads to neuronal dysfunction and loss. Fluorescence-based imaging tools and technologies enable unprecedented analysis of subcellular neurobiological processes, yet there is still a need for unbiased, reproducible, and accessible approaches for extracting quantifiable data from imaging studies. We have developed a simple and adaptable workflow to extract quantitative data from fluorescence-based imaging studies using Drosophila models of neurodegeneration. Specifically, we describe an easy-to-follow, semi-automated approach using Fiji/ImageJ to analyze two cellular processes: first, we quantify protein aggregate content and profile in the Drosophila optic lobe using fluorescent-tagged mutant huntingtin proteins; and second, we assess autophagy-lysosome flux in the Drosophila visual system with ratiometric-based quantification of a tandem fluorescent reporter of autophagy. Importantly, the protocol outlined here includes a semi-automated segmentation step to ensure all fluorescent structures are analyzed to minimize selection bias and to increase resolution of subtle comparisons. This approach can be extended for the analysis of other cell biological structures and processes implicated in neurodegeneration, such as proteinaceous puncta (stress granules and synaptic complexes), as well as membrane-bound compartments (mitochondria and membrane trafficking vesicles). This method provides a standardized, yet adaptable reference point for image analysis and quantification, and could facilitate reliability and reproducibility across the field, and ultimately enhance mechanistic understanding of neurodegeneration.

Quantitative Cell Biology of Neurodegeneration in Drosophila Through Unbiased Analysis of Fluorescently Tagged Proteins Using ImageJ

We have developed a simple and adaptable workflow to extract quantitative data from fluorescence-imaging-based cell biological studies of protein aggregation and autophagic flux in the central nervous system of Drosophila models of neurodegeneration.

Biología celular cuantitativa de neurodegeneración en Drosophila mediante análisis imparcial de fluorescencia etiquetas proteínas con ImageJ

With the rising prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases, it is increasingly important to understand the underlying pathophysiology that leads to neuronal ...

Quantification of Macronutrients Intake in a Thermogenetic Neuronal Screen using Drosophila Larvae

Foraging and feeding behaviors allow animals to access sources of energy and nutrients essential for their development, health, and fitness. Investigating the neuronal regulation of these behaviors is essential for the understanding of the physiological and molecular mechanisms underlying nutritional homeostasis. The use of genetically tractable animal models such as worms, flies, and fish greatly facilitates these types of studies. In the last decade, the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster has been used as a powerful animal model by neurobiologists investigating the neuronal control of feeding and foraging behaviors. While undoubtedly valuable, most studies examine adult flies. Here, we describe a protocol that takes advantage of the simpler larval nervous system to investigate neuronal substrates controlling feeding behaviors when larvae are exposed to diets differing in their protein and carbohydrates content. Our methods are based on a quantitative colorimetric no-choice feeding assay, performed in the context of a neuronal thermogenetic-activation screen. As a read-out, the amount of food eaten by larvae over a 1 h interval was used when exposed to one of the three dye-labeled diets that differ in their protein to carbohydrates (P:C) ratios. The efficacy of this protocol is demonstrated in the context of a neurogenetic screen in larval Drosophila, by identifying candidate neuronal populations regulating the amount of food eaten in diets of different macronutrient quality. We were also able to classify and group the genotypes tested into phenotypic classes. Besides a brief review of the currently available methods in the literature, the advantages and limitations of these methods are discussed and, also, some suggestions are provided about how this protocol might be adapted to other specific experiments.

Quantification of Macronutrients Intake in a Thermogenetic Neuronal Screen using Drosophila Larvae

Described here is a protocol that enables the colorimetric quantification of the amount of food eaten within a defined interval of time by Drosophila melanogaster larvae exposed to diets of different macronutrient quality. These assays are conducted in the context of a neuronal thermogenetic screen.

Cuantificación De La Ingesta De Macronutrientes En Una Pantalla Neuronal Termogenética Usando Larvas De Drosophila

Foraging and feeding behaviors allow animals to access sources of energy and nutrients essential for their development, health, and fitness. Investigating ...

Unraveling the Role of Discrete Areas of the Rat Brain in the Regulation of Ovulation through Reversible Inactivation by Tetrodotoxin Microinjections

Many experimental approaches have been used for studying the role of the brain in the regulation of ovulation. Examples include the lesion and deafferentation of neuronal groups, which are both invasive methods that permanently impair the integrity of the target area. These methods are accompanied by collateral effects that can affect the analysis of acute and temporal regulatory mechanisms. The stereotaxic implantation of guide cannulas aimed at specific brain regions, followed by a recovery period, allows researchers to microinject different drugs after the disappearance of the undesired effects of the surgery. Tetrodotoxin has been used to determine the roles of several brain areas in diverse physiological processes because it transiently inhibits the sodium-dependent action potentials, thus blocking all neural activity in the target region. This protocol combines this method with strategies for the assessment of the estrous cycle and ovulation to reveal the role of discrete brain regions in the regulation of ovulation at particular times of any given stage of the estrous cycle. Awake and unrestrained rats (Rattus norvegicus) were used to avoid the blocking effects that anesthetics and stress hormones exert on ovulation. This protocol can be easily adapted to other species, brain targets and pharmacological agents to study different physiological processes. Future improvements to this method include the design of a microinjection system using glass capillaries of small diameter instead of guide cannulas. This will reduce the amount of tissue damaged during the implantation and decrease the spread of the infused drugs outside the target area.

This protocol describes the construction of a low-cost microinjection system, its stereotaxic implantation into deep-brain structures and the procedure for timed microinjections of tetrodotoxin in awake and unrestrained rats. The goal is to reveal the participation of hypothalamic structures in the regulation of ovulation by inhibiting their neural activity.

Desentrañando el papel de las áreas discretas del cerebro de la rata en la regulación de la ovulación a través de la inactivación reversible por microinyecciones de tetrodotoxina

Many experimental approaches have been used for studying the role of the brain in the regulation of ovulation. Examples include the lesion and ...

A Standardized Pipeline for Examining Human Cerebellar Grey Matter Morphometry using Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Multiple lines of research provide compelling evidence for a role of the cerebellum in a wide array of cognitive and affective functions, going far beyond its historical association with motor control. Structural and functional neuroimaging studies have further refined understanding of the functional neuroanatomy of the cerebellum beyond its anatomical divisions, highlighting the need for the examination of individual cerebellar subunits in healthy variability and neurological diseases. This paper presents a standardized pipeline for examining cerebellum grey matter morphometry that combines high-resolution, state-of-the-art approaches for optimized and automated cerebellum parcellation (Automatic Cerebellum Anatomical Parcellation using U-Net Locally Constrained Optimization; ACAPULCO) and voxel-based registration of the cerebellum (Spatially Unbiased Infra-tentorial Template; SUIT) for volumetric quantification. 
The pipeline has broad applicability to a range of neurological diseases and is fully automated, with manual intervention only required for quality control of the outputs. The pipeline is freely available, with substantial accompanying documentation, and can be run on Mac, Windows, and Linux operating systems. The pipeline is applied in a cohort of individuals with Friedreich ataxia (FRDA), and representative results, as well as recommendations on group-level inferential statistical analyses, are provided. This pipeline could facilitate reliability and reproducibility across the field, ultimately providing a powerful methodological approach for characterizing and tracking cerebellar structural changes in neurological diseases.

A standardized pipeline is presented for examining cerebellum grey matter morphometry. The pipeline combines high-resolution, state-of-the-art approaches for optimized and automated cerebellum parcellation and voxel-based registration of the cerebellum for volumetric quantification.

Una tubería estandarizada para examinar la morfometría de materia gris cerebelosa humana utilizando imágenes de resonancia magnética estructural

Multiple lines of research provide compelling evidence for a role of the cerebellum in a wide array of cognitive and affective functions, going far beyond ...