The authors gratefully acknowledge Dr. Nathan Kleeorin (Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev) for his assistance with the biomechanical measurements. Also, we thank Professor Olena Severynovska, Maryna Kuscheriava, Maksym Kryvonosov, Daryna Yakumenko and Evgenia Goncharyk of the Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology, Ecology, and Medicine, Oles Honchar Dnipro University, Dnipro, Ukraine for her support and helpful contributions to our discussions.

The experiments were performed following the recommendations of the Declarations of Helsinki and Tokyo and to the Guidelines for the Use of Experimental Animals of the European Community. The experiments were approved by the Animal Care Committee of Ben-Gurion University of the Negev.
1. Preparing rats for the experimental procedure
NOTE: Select adult male Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 300-350 g.
<ol>
	<li>Obtain approval for performing these experiments from the I...

<ol>
	<li>Faul, M., Wald, M. M., Xu, L., Coronado, V. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Traumatic+brain+injury+in+the+United+States;+emergency+department+visits,+hospitalizations,+and+deaths,+2002-2006.">Traumatic brain injury in the United States; emergency department visits, hospitalizations, and deaths, 2002-2006.</a> US Government. , (2010).</li><li>Taylor, C. A., Bell, J. M., Breiding, M. J., Xu, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Traumatic+Brain+Injury-Related+Emergency+Department+Visits,+Hospitalizations,+and+Deaths+-+United+States,+2007+and+2013.">Traumatic Brain Injury-Related Emergency Department Visits, Hospitalizations, and Deaths - United States, 2007 and 2013.</a> MMWR Surveillance Summaries. 66, 1-16 (2017).</li><li>Peterson, A. 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This protocol describes a rodent model of DAI. In DAI, rotational acceleration on the brain causes a shear effect that triggers axonal and biochemical changes that lead to loss of axonal function in a progressive process. Secondary axonal changes are produced by a rapid axonal stretch injury and are variable in their extent and severity4,5,10. Within hours to days after the primary injury, biochemical changes will lead to the lo...

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and disability in the United States. TBIs contribute to about 30% of all injury-related deaths1,2. The leading causes of TBI differ among age groups and include falls, high-speed collisions during sports, intentional self-harm, motor vehicle crashes and assaults1,2,3.
Brain diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is a specific type of TBI induced by rotational acceleration, shaking or blast injury of the brain resulting from unrestricted head movement in the instant after injury4,5,6,7,8. DAI involves widespread axonal damage leading to long-lasting neurological impairment that is associated with poor outcome, burdensome health-care costs, and a 33-64% mortality rate1,2,4,5,9,10,11. Despite significant recent research into the pathogenesis of DAI, there has not been a consensus on best treatment options11,12,13,14.
Over the last decades, numerous experimental models have attempted to accurately replicate different aspects of DAI11,12,15,16. However, these models have limitations given the unique presentation of DAI compared to other focal injuries. These prior models not only cause axonal injury in white matter regions but also result in focal cerebral injuries. Clinically, DAI is accompanied by micro hemorrhages, which may constitute a major cause of damage to white matter.
Only two animal models have been shown to replicate the key clinical features of DAI. Gennarelli and colleagues produced the first lateral head rotation device in 1982, using nonimpact head rotational acceleration to induce coma with DAI in a nonhuman primate model15. This primate model employed controlled single rotation for acceleration and deceleration to displace the head through 60&#176; within 10-20 ms. This technique was able to emulate impaired consciousness and widespread axonal damage that resembled the effects of severe TBI observed in human brains. However, primate models are very expensive4,11,16. Based in part on the previous model, a pig model of rotational acceleration brain injury was designed in 1994 (Ross et al.) with similar results14.
These two animal models, though they produced different presentations of typical pathology, have added greatly to the concepts of DAI pathogenesis. Rapid head rotation is generally accepted as the best method for inducing DAI, and rodents provide a less expensive model for the rapid head rotation studies11,16. Here, we validate a simple, reproducible and reliable rodent model of DAI that causes widespread white matter damage without skull fractures or contusions. This current model will enable better understanding of the pathophysiology of DAI and development of more effective treatments.&#8195;

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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">0.01 M sodium citrate</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">SIGMA - ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
			<td style="width:167px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">2.5% normal horse serum</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">SIGMA - ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">H0146</td>
			<td>Liquid</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">4 % buffered formaldehyde solution</td>
			<td style="width:121px;"></td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">Anti-Amyloid Precursor Protein, C - terminal antibodyproduced in rabbit</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">SIGMA - ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">Lot 056M4867V</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">biotinylated secondary antibody</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">Vector</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">BA-1000-1.5</td>
			<td>10 mM sodium phosphate, pH 7.8, 0.15 M NaCl, 0.08% sodium azide, 3 mg/ml bovine serum albumin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">bone-cutting forceps</td>
			<td style="width:121px;"></td>
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			<td></td>
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			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:216px;">DAB Peroxidase (HRP) Substrate Kit (with Nickel), 3,3&#8217;-diaminobenzidine</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">vector laboratory</td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">embedding cassettes</td>
			<td style="width:121px;"></td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">ethanol 99.9 %</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">ROMICAL</td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
			<td>Flammable Liquid</td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">guillotine</td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Hematoxylin</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">SIGMA - ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">H3136-25G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Hydrogen peroxide solution</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">Millipore</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">88597-100ML-F</td>
			<td></td>
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		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">Isofluran, USP 100%</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">Piramamal Critical Care, Inc</td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
			<td></td>
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			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Olympus BX 40 microscope</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
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			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:216px;">paraffine</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">paraplast plus leica biosystem</td>
			<td style="width:161px;"></td>
			<td>Tissue embedding medium</td>
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		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">SIGMA - ALDRICH</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">P5368-10PAK</td>
			<td>Contents of one pouch, when dissolved in one liter of distilled or deionized water, will yield 0.01 M phosphate buffered saline (NaCl 0.138 M; KCl - 0.0027 M); pH 7.4, at 25 &#176;C.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:216px;">Streptavidin HRP</td>
			<td style="width:121px;">ABCAM</td>
			<td style="width:161px;">ab64269</td>
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induction of diffuse axonal brain injury in rats based on rotational acceleration

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and disability. Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is the predominant mechanism of injury in a large percentage of TBI patients requiring hospitalization. DAI involves widespread axonal damage from shaking, rotation or blast injury, leading to rapid axonal stretch injury and secondary axonal changes that are associated with a long-lasting impact on functional recovery. Historically, experimental models of DAI without focal injury have been difficult to design. Here we validate a simple, reproducible and reliable rodent model of DAI that causes widespread white matter damage without skull fractures or contusions.

Table 1 illustrates the protocol timeline. The mortality rate in this model of DAI was 0%. A Mann-Whitney test indicated that neurological deficit was significantly greater for the 15 DAI rats compared to the 15 sham rats at 48 hours following intervention (Mdn = 1 vs. 0), U = 22.5, p &#60; 0.001, r = 0.78 (see Table 2). The data are measured in counts and are presented as median and 25&#8211;75 percentile range.
Representative photomicrographs of thalamic sec...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Induction of Diffuse Axonal Brain Injury in Rats Based on Rotational Acceleration at JoVE.com

Induction of Diffuse Axonal Brain Injury in Rats Based on Rotational Acceleration

This protocol validates a reliable, easy-to-perform and reproducible rodent model of brain diffuse axonal injury (DAI) that induces widespread white matter damage without skull fractures or contusions.

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and disability. Diffuse axonal injury (DAI) is the predominant mechanism of injury in a large ...

Traumatic brain injury is one of the major causes death and disability. Diffuse axonal brain injury is a widespread axonal damage develop after TBI. In this research, I would like to present our model about induction diffuse axonal brain injury based on rotational acceleration mechanism result TBI.Select adult male Sprague-Dawley rats weighing 300 to 350 gram. Provide rat chow and water ad libitum. Perform all experiment between 6:00 AM and 12:00 PM.The device was placed on a heavy, stable laboratory table.The device consists of the following components:a cylinder, an iron weight, a rotational mechanism consisting of a cylindrical tube, and head fixation pins. The weight is attached to a string and elevated to the height of 120 centimeters. The freely falling weight hits the bolt activating the rotational mechanism.The rat lateral head rotation device was used to turn the head rapidly from zero to 90 degrees. After induction, diffuse axonal brain injury, rat was moved to the recovery room. F is the force applied to the animal's head in kilograms.Capital M is the moment of the force, K for kinetic energy. Little m is the mass of the falling weight, g for gravitational acceleration, h for height in centimeters, and D is the distance between the ear pins in centimeters. For assessment of neurological deficit and grade model deficits, we used Neurological Severity Score in rats.We evaluate mobility, hemiplegia, beam walking task, failure in beam walking task. Failure of beam balancing task wide 1.5 centimeters. Stability and beam balancing, effort on beam balance 1.5 centimeter wide and reflexes.48 hours post-injury, all rats, injury and control group, were deeply anesthetized and transcardiacally perfused with 0.9%heparinized saline followed by 500 milliliters of 4%formaldehyde in 0.1 M phosphate buffer saline. After perfusion, decapitation was produced and the brains were immediately removed, then fixed in a 4%formaldehyde solution for 48 hours. The brains were then blocked into five millimeter coronal sections from the olfactory bulb face to the visual cortex while the cerebellum and brain stems were dissected.Following paraffin embedding, coronal and sagittal sections were made from the thalamus. Produce the immunochemical staining of beta-amyloid precursor protein. The various groups of rats at different times are shown on the scheme.Diffuse axonal brain injury at the beginning of the experiment. At time 48 hours, Neurological Severity Score was examined. At time 48 hours, immunochemical staining of beta-APP was performed at all two groups.Illustrated neurological deficit 48 hours following diffuse axonal brain injury for two study groups. A Mann-Whitney test indicated that neurological deficit was significantly greater for 15 diffuse axonal brain injury rats compared to 15 naive rats at 48 hours following intervention. Representative photomicrographs revealing axonal and neuronal immunoreactivities following isolated diffuse axonal brain injury in rats 48 hours post-injury.Smaller cellular strings are detected with beta-amyloid precursor protein. In sham group, it wasn't detected. In our work, we developed a simple, reproducible, and reliable new model for diffuse axonal brain injury based on rotational acceleration mechanism.Such a model will enable a better understanding of pathophysiology of diffuse axonal brain injury and development of more effective treatments. Thank you very much for your attention.

induction-diffuse-axonal-brain-injury-rats-based-on-rotational

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

8.3K vistas.  Ben-Gurion University of the Negev. La lesión cerebral traumática es una de las principales causas de muerte y discapacidad. La lesión cerebral axonal difusa es un daño axonal generalizado que se desarrolla después de la TBI. En esta investigación, me gustaría presentar nuestro modelo sobre la inducción difusa lesión cerebral axonal basada en el resultado del mecanismo de aceleración rotacional TBI.Seleccione ratas Sprague-Dawley machos adultos que pesen de 300 a 350 gramos. Proporcione comida de rata y agua ad...