Name: use of electron paramagnetic resonance in biological samples at ambient temperature and 77 k
Uploaded: 2019-01-11T13:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance in Biological Samples at Ambient Temperature and 77 K at JoVE.com

This work was supported by the University of Colorado School of Medicine Dean&#39;s Strategic Research Infrastructure award, R01 HL086680-09 and 1R35HL139726-01, to E.N.G. and UCD CFReT fellowship award (HE). The authors thank Dr. Sandra Eaton and Dr. Gareth Eaton (University of Denver), Dr. Gerald Rosen and Dr. Joseph P. Kao (University of Maryland), and Dr. Sujatha Venkataraman (University of Colorado Denver) for helpful discussions, and Joanne Maltzahn,&#160;Ashley Trumpie and Ivy McDermott (University of Colorado Denver) for technical support.

All animal studies were approved by the University of Colorado Denver Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Preparation of Reagents
<ol>
	<li>Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA) stock (150 mM)
	<ol>
		<li>Add 2.95 g of DTPA (393.35 g/mol) to 10 mL of deionized water.</li>
		<li>To dissolve DTPA, add 1 M NaOH dropwise and bring to a pH of 7.0.</li>
		<li>Bring the volume to 50 mL with water for a final DTPA concentration of 150 mM, and store at 4 &#176;C.</li>...

<ol>
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B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron+spin+relaxation+times+and+rapid+scan+EPR+imaging+of+pH-sensitive+amino-substituted+trityl+radicals.">Electron spin relaxation times and rapid scan EPR imaging of pH-sensitive amino-substituted trityl radicals.</a> Magnetic Resonance in Chemistry. 53 (4), 280-284 (2015).</li><li>Elajaili, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+disulfide+dinitroxides+at+250+MHz+to+monitor+thiol+redox+status.">Imaging disulfide dinitroxides at 250 MHz to monitor thiol redox status.</a> Journal of Magnetic Resonance. 260, 77-82 (2015).</li><li>Halpern, H. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxymetry+Deep+in+Tissues+with+Low-Frequency+Electron-Paramagnetic-Resonance.">Oxymetry Deep in Tissues with Low-Frequency Electron-Paramagnetic-Resonance.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 91 (26), 13047-13051 (1994).</li><li>Epel, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+thiol+redox+status+in+murine+tumors+in+vivo+with+rapid-scan+electron+paramagnetic+resonanc.">Imaging thiol redox status in murine tumors in vivo with rapid-scan electron paramagnetic resonanc.</a> Journal of Magnetic Resonance. 276, 31-36 (2017).</li><li>Legenzov, E. A., Sims, S. J., Dirda, N. D. A., Rosen, G. M., Kao, J. P. 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I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Distinct+roles+of+Nox1+and+Nox4+in+basal+and+angiotensin+II-stimulated+superoxide+and+hydrogen+peroxide+production.">Distinct roles of Nox1 and Nox4 in basal and angiotensin II-stimulated superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production.</a> Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 45 (9), 1340-1351 (2008).</li><li>Dikalov, S. I., Kirilyuk, I. A., Voinov, M., Grigor'ev, I. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EPR+detection+of+cellular+and+mitochondrial+superoxide+using+cyclic+hydroxylamines.">EPR detection of cellular and mitochondrial superoxide using cyclic hydroxylamines.</a> Free Radical Research. 45 (4), 417-430 (2011).</li><li>Dikalova, A. E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Therapeutic+Targeting+of+Mitochondrial+Superoxide+in+Hypertension.">Therapeutic Targeting of Mitochondrial Superoxide in Hypertension.</a> Circulation Research. 107 (1), 106-116 (2010).</li><li>Dikalov, S. I., Polienko, Y. F., Kirilyuk, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electron+Paramagnetic+Resonance+Measurements+of+Reactive+Oxygen+Species+by+Cyclic+Hydroxylamine+Spin+Probes.">Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Measurements of Reactive Oxygen Species by Cyclic Hydroxylamine Spin Probes.</a> Antioxidants &amp; Redox Signaling. , (2017).</li><li>Sharma, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=L-Carnitine+preserves+endothelial+function+in+a+lamb+model+of+increased+pulmonary+blood+flow.">L-Carnitine preserves endothelial function in a lamb model of increased pulmonary blood flow.</a> Pediatric Research. 74 (1), 39-47 (2013).</li><li>Berg, K., Ericsson, M., Lindgren, M., Gustafsson, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+High+Precision+Method+for+Quantitative+Measurements+of+Reactive+Oxygen+Species+in+Frozen+Biopsies.">A High Precision Method for Quantitative Measurements of Reactive Oxygen Species in Frozen Biopsies.</a> PloS One. 9 (3), (2014).</li><li>Kozlov, A. V., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=EPR+analysis+reveals+three+tissues+responding+to+endotoxin+by+increased+formation+of+reactive+oxygen+and+nitrogen+species.">EPR analysis reveals three tissues responding to endotoxin by increased formation of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species.</a> Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 34 (12), 1555-1562 (2003).</li><li>Van Rheen, Z., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lung+Extracellular+Superoxide+Dismutase+Overexpression+Lessens+Bleomycin-Induced+Pulmonary+Hypertension+and+Vascular+Remodeling.">Lung Extracellular Superoxide Dismutase Overexpression Lessens Bleomycin-Induced Pulmonary Hypertension and Vascular Remodeling.</a> American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology. 44 (4), 500-508 (2011).</li><li>Mouradian, G. C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Superoxide+Dismutase+3+R213G+Single-Nucleotide+Polymorphism+Blocks+Murine+Bleomycin-Induced+Fibrosis+and+Promotes+Resolution+of+Inflammation.">Superoxide Dismutase 3 R213G Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Blocks Murine Bleomycin-Induced Fibrosis and Promotes Resolution of Inflammation.</a> American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology. 56 (3), 362-371 (2017).</li><li>Dikalov, S. I., Li, W., Mehranpour, P., Wang, S. S., Zafari, A. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+of+extracellular+superoxide+by+human+lymphoblast+cell+lines:+comparison+of+electron+spin+resonance+techniques+and+cytochrome+C+reduction+assay.">Production of extracellular superoxide by human lymphoblast cell lines: comparison of electron spin resonance techniques and cytochrome C reduction assay.</a> Biochem Pharmacol. 73 (7), 972-980 (2007).</li><li>Kozuleva, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Quantification+of+superoxide+radical+production+in+thylakoid+membrane+using+cyclic+hydroxylamines.">Quantification of superoxide radical production in thylakoid membrane using cyclic hydroxylamines.</a> Free Radical Biology and Medicine. 89, 1014-1023 (2015).</li><li>Chen, K., Swartz, H. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidation+of+Hydroxylamines+to+Nitroxide+Spin+Labels+in+Living+Cells.">Oxidation of Hydroxylamines to Nitroxide Spin Labels in Living Cells.</a> Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 970 (3), 270-277 (1988).</li></ol>

The assessment of free radical production in biological settings is important in understanding redox regulated signaling in health and disease, but the measure of these species is highly challenging due to the short half-life of free radical species and technical limitations with commonly used methods. EPR is a valuable and powerful tool in redox biology, as it is the only unambiguous method for detecting free radicals. In this project, we demonstrate practical EPR methods for designing experiments and preparing samples ...

While measures of oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species are important to the study of diverse diseases across all organ systems, the detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is challenging due to a short half-life and high reactivity. An electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) technique is the most unambiguous method for detecting free radicals. Spin probes have advantages over the more commonly used fluorescent probes. Though fluorescent probes are relatively inexpensive and easy to use and provide rapid, sensitive detection of ROS, they do have serious limitations due to artifactual signals, an inability to calculate ROS concentrations, and a general lack of specificity1.
To facilitate the use of EPR for biological studies, a variety of spin probes have been synthesized that can measure a range of biologically relevant free radical species as well as pO2, pH, and redox states2,3,4,5,6,7. Spin traps have also been developed to capture short-lived radicals and form long-living adducts, which facilitates detection by EPR8. Both classes (spin probes and spin traps) have advantages and limitations. One commonly used class of spin probes are cyclic hydroxylamines, which are EPR-silent and react with short-lived radicals to form a stable nitroxide. Cyclic hydroxylamines react with superoxide 100 times faster than spin traps, enabling them to compete with cellular antioxidants, but they lack specificity and require the use of appropriate controls and inhibitors to identify the radical species or source responsible for the nitroxide signal. While spin traps exhibit specificity, with distinct spectral patterns depending on the trapped species, they have slow kinetics for superoxide spin trapping and are prone to biodegradation of the radical adducts. Applications for spin trapping have been well-documented in biomedical research9,10,11,12,13.
The goal of this project is to demonstrate practical EPR methods for designing experiments and preparing samples to detect superoxide using spin probes in different cellular compartments in vitro and in different tissue compartments in vivo. Several manuscripts have published protocols relevant to these goals, using cell-permeable, cell-impermeable, and mitochondrial targeted spin probes to target different cellular compartments in vitro and process tissue for analysis in mouse models14,15. We build upon this body of literature by validating an approach to measure superoxide using a 1-hydroxy-3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine (CMH) spin probe in different cellular compartments in vitro to ensure accurate measurements, highlighting potential technical problems that may skew results. We also provide methods to perform EPR measurements in blood, bronchoalveolar lavage fluid, and lung tissue using the CMH spin probe. These studies compare different methods to process the tissues as well as present a method to inject another spin probe, CPH, into mice prior to harvesting tissue. Finally, we develop a practical method to store samples in polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tubing to allow for the storage and transfer of samples before EPR measurements at 77 K.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" style="width:1993px;" width="1994">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;width:931px;">DMEM</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">LifeTech</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">10566-016</td>
			<td style="width:643px;">cell culture media</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid (DTPA)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>D6518-5G</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="23">
			<td height="23" style="height:23px;">sodium chloride (NaCl)&#160;</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;BP358-212</td>
			<td>used to prepare 50 mM phosphate saline buffer&#160; according to Sigma aldrish&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">potassium phosphate dibasic (HK2PO4 )</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific&#160;</td>
			<td>&#160;BP363-500</td>
			<td>used to prepare 50 mM phosphate saline buffer&#160; according to Sigma aldrish&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="24">
			<td height="24" style="height:24px;">potassium phosphate monobasic (KH2PO4 )</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P-5379</td>
			<td>used to prepare 50 mM phosphate saline buffer&#160; according to Sigma aldrish&#160;&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Krebs-Henseleit buffer (KHB)&#160;</td>
			<td>(Alfa Aesar, Hill)</td>
			<td>J67820</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Bovine erythrocyte superoxide dismutase (SOD)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>&#160;S7571-30KU</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA)&#160;</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>P1585-1MG</td>
			<td>Dissolve in DMSO</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Antimycin A (AA)</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>A8674-25MG</td>
			<td>Dissolve in Ethanol and store in glass vials(MW used is the averaged molecular weights for four lots)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1-Hydroxy-3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine . HCl (CMH)</td>
			<td>Enzo Life Sciences</td>
			<td>ALX-430-117-M050</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">1-Hydroxy-3-carboxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine . HCl (CPH)</td>
			<td>Enzo Life Sciences</td>
			<td>ALX-430-078-M250</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="49">
			<td height="49" style="height:49px;width:931px;">1-Hydroxy-4-[2-triphenylphosphonio)-acetamido]-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine, 1-Hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-[2-(triphenylphosphonio)acetamido]piperidinium dichloride ( mito-TEMPO-H)</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Enzo Life Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ALX-430-171-M005</td>
			<td style="width:643px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="49">
			<td height="49" style="height:49px;width:931px;">1-Hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidin-4-yl-trimethylammonium chloride . HCl (CAT1H)</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Enzo Life Sciences</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">ALX-430-131-M250</td>
			<td style="width:643px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="32">
			<td height="32" style="height:32px;width:931px;">Heparin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Sagent Pharmaceuticals</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">NDC 25021-400-10</td>
			<td style="width:643px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="30">
			<td height="30" style="height:30px;">Diphenyliodonium chloride&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:196px;">Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>43088</td>
			<td style="width:643px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="26">
			<td height="26" style="height:26px;width:931px;">Deferoxamin mesylate salt</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td style="width:224px;">D9533-1G</td>
			<td style="width:643px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Critoseal</td>
			<td>Leica</td>
			<td>39215003</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">BRAND disposable BLAUBRAND&#160;micropipettes, intraMark</td>
			<td>Sigma Aldrich</td>
			<td>708733</td>
			<td>Capillaries</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="40">
			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:931px;">PTFE FRACTIONAL FLUOROPOLYMER TUBING 
			3/16&#8221; OD x 1/8&#8221; ID</td>
			<td>NORELL</td>
			<td>1598774A</td>
			<td>Teflon tubing&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="35">
			<td height="35" style="height:35px;">SILICONE RUBBER STOPPERS FOR NMR SAMPLE TUBES&#160; FOR THIN WALL TUBES HAVING AN OD OF 4mm-5mm (3.2mm TO 4.2mm ID) TS-4-5-SR</td>
			<td>NORELL</td>
			<td>94987</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="35">
			<td height="35" style="height:35px;">EMXnano Bench-Top EPR spectrometer&#160;</td>
			<td>Bruker BioSpin GmbH</td>
			<td>E7004002</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="20">
			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">EMX NANO TISSUE CELL</td>
			<td>Bruker BioSpin GmbH</td>
			<td>E7004542</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

use of electron paramagnetic resonance in biological samples at ambient temperature and 77 k

The accurate and specific detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in different cellular and tissue compartments is essential to the study of redox-regulated signaling in biological settings. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy (EPR) is the only direct method to assess free radicals unambiguously. Its advantage is that it detects physiologic levels of specific species with a high specificity, but it does require specialized technology, careful sample preparation, and appropriate controls to ensure accurate interpretation of the data. Cyclic hydroxylamine spin probes react selectively with superoxide or other radicals to generate a nitroxide signal that can be quantified by EPR spectroscopy. Cell-permeable spin probes and spin probes designed to accumulate rapidly in the mitochondria allow for the determination of superoxide concentration in different cellular compartments.
In cultured cells, the use of cell permeable 1-hydroxy-3-methoxycarbonyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine (CMH) along with and without cell-impermeable superoxide dismutase (SOD) pretreatment, or use of cell-permeable PEG-SOD,&#160;allows for the differentiation of extracellular from cytosolic superoxide. The mitochondrial 1-hydroxy-4-[2-triphenylphosphonio)-acetamido]-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-piperidine,1-hydroxy-2,2,6,6-tetramethyl-4-[2-(triphenylphosphonio)acetamido] piperidinium dichloride (mito-TEMPO-H) allows for measurement of mitochondrial ROS (predominantly superoxide).
Spin probes and EPR spectroscopy can also be applied to in vivo models. Superoxide can be detected in extracellular fluids such as blood and alveolar fluid, as well as tissues such as lung tissue. Several methods are presented to process and store tissue for EPR measurements and deliver intravenous 1-hydroxy-3-carboxy-2,2,5,5-tetramethylpyrrolidine (CPH) spin probe in vivo. While measurements can be performed at room temperature, samples obtained from in vitro and in vivo models can also be stored at -80 &#176;C and analyzed by EPR at 77 K. The samples can be stored in specialized tubing stable at -80 &#176;C and run at 77 K to enable a practical, efficient, and reproducible method that facilitates storing and transferring samples.

Superoxide detection using CMH was validated using the X/XO superoxide generating system to demonstrate that the nitroxide (CM.) signal was fully inhibited by SOD, while catalase had no effect&#160;(Figure 1A). The total, extracellular superoxide was then evaluated in RAW 264.7 cells by incubating cells with the cell-permeable CMH spin probe +/- SOD pretreatment. The nitroxide concentration was measured in both the cell suspension and buffer, which...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Use of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance in Biological Samples at Ambient Temperature and 77 K at JoVE.com

Use of Electron Paramagnetic Resonance in Biological Samples at Ambient Temperature and 77 K

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy is an unambiguous method to measure free radicals. The use of selective spin probes allows for detection of free radicals in different cellular compartments. We present a practical, efficient method to collect biological samples that facilitate treating, storing, and transferring samples for EPR measurements.

The accurate and specific detection of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in different cellular and tissue compartments is essential to the study of ...

Dysregulated redox signaling is implicated in the pathogenesis of diverse diseases. The study of redox biology requires the accurate detection of reactive oxygen species in different cellular and tissue compartments. EPR spectroscopy is the only method that measures free radicals unambiguously.This protocol demonstrates a practical method for handling and storage of biologic samples for EPR spectroscopy. These protocols illustrate the use of EPR and spin probes in two representative models. Although they can be adapted to evaluate the active species in other biological settings.The design of the experiment and the handling of the sample are critical for its reproducibility. We recommend considering cell density and ensuring appropriate time-matched controls. Begin by gently washing raw 264.7 cells with one milliliter of Krebs-Henseleit Buffer or KHB, per well.And treat the cells with 500 microliters of KHB, supplemented with 100 micromil of DTPA per well. To pretreat with superoxide dismutase, add 15 microliters of superoxide dismutase stock, or vehicle, to each well, and place the plate at 37 degrees Celsius for 10 minutes. At the end of the superoxide dismutase pretreatment, add 12.5 microliters of 10 millimolar CMH and 40 microliters of 125 micromolar PMA working solution to the appropriate wells, and incubate at 37 degrees Celsius for 50 minutes.Immediately place the plates on ice and collect the buffer from each well into individual 1.5 milliliter tubes on ice. Next, add 100 microliters of fresh KHB plus DTPA to each well and gently scrape the cells from the bottom of each well. Then resuspend the cell suspensions with pipetting and transfer the cells into individual 1.5 milliliter tubes on ice.For superoxide detection at room temperature, first load 50 microliters of one buffer or cell sample into a capillary tube and seal the tube. Immediately place the tube into the electron paramagnetic resonance, or EPR, spectrometer and set the EPR acquisition parameters for room temperature measurements. Always test a blank sample of buffer containing the same concentration of probe treated under the same experimental conditions as a control.For superoxide detection at 77 degrees Kelvin, load 150 microliters of one sample into a one to two inch piece of straight polytetrafluoroethylene, or PTFE, tubing, with a rubber stopper at one end. Seal the other end of the tube with a second stopper and flash freeze the sample in liquid nitrogen. Then quickly remove the stoppers and place the PTFE tubing in a labeled cryotube for liquid nitrogen storage.For EPR measurements, fill the finger dewar of the EPR spectrometer with liquid nitrogen and place the PTFE tubing containing the sample in the liquid nitrogen. Place the finger dewar into the EPR spectrometer and set the EPR acquisition parameters for measurements at 77 degrees Kelvin. For ROS detection in frozen lung tissue, place the tissue on dry ice and use tweezers to stabilize the flash-frozen tissue on dry ice.Cut the sample into five 15 milligram pieces, and weigh the pieces in a tared 1.5 milliliter tube. Add 196 microliters of KHB plus DTPA and four microliters of CMH to the sample, and incubate the lung sample for one hour in a 37 degree Celsius water bath before pelleting the tissue fragments with a brief centrifugation. Then place the sample on ice before transferring 150 microliters of the supernatant into a piece of PTFE tubing for flash freezing in preparation of EPR measurement as just demonstrated.Evaluation of the total superoxide production in raw 264.7 cells stimulated with PMA as demonstrated, reveals that the nitroxide concentration in both the cell suspension and the buffer of the PMA-treated cells is similar, due to the permeable nature and rapid equilibration of the spin probe. The nitroxide radicals signal increases in raw 264.7 cells stimulated with PMA, compared to control cells, but not in cells pretreated with cell-impermeable superoxide dismutase. The concentration of nitroxide obtained at low temperatures in raw 264.7 cells after stimulation with PMA is also attenuated in the presence of superoxide dismutase consistent with the room temperature data.The nitroxide concentration is increased in the blood and bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of bleo mice and treated mice, as well as within the supernatants of harvested lung tissue pieces from bleo mice and injured animals, compared to PBS-treated controls. Further, after retro-orbital spin probe injection, bleo mice and treated animals demonstrate a higher spin probe signal compared to controls. These practical protocols will allow researchers to test free radical production in different cellular compartments and biological samples by EPR, including low temperature measurements.

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Sheathless Capillary Electrophoresis&#8211;Mass Spectrometry for Metabolic Profiling of Biological Samples

In metabolomics, a wide range of analytical techniques is used for the global profiling of (endogenous) metabolites in complex samples. In this paper, a protocol is presented for the analysis of anionic and cationic metabolites in biological samples by capillary electrophoresis&#8211;mass spectrometry (CE-MS). CE is well-suited for the analysis of highly polar and charged metabolites as compounds are separated on the basis of their charge-to-size ratio. A recently developed sheathless interfacing design, i.e., a porous tip interface, is used for coupling CE to electrospray ionization (ESI) MS. This interfacing approach allows the effective use of the intrinsically low-flow property of CE in combination with MS, resulting in nanomolar detection limits for a broad range of polar metabolite classes. The protocol presented here is based on employing a bare fused-silica capillary with a porous tip emitter at low-pH separation conditions for the analysis of a broad array of metabolite classes in biological samples. It is demonstrated that the same sheathless CE-MS method can be used for the profiling of cationic metabolites, including amino acids, nucleosides and small peptides, or anionic metabolites, including sugar phosphates, nucleotides and organic acids, by only switching the MS detection and separation voltage polarity. Highly information-rich metabolic profiles in various biological samples, such as urine, cerebrospinal fluid and extracts of the glioblastoma cell line, can be obtained by this protocol in less than 1 hr of CE-MS analysis.

Sheathless Capillary Electrophoresis&amp;#8211;Mass Spectrometry for Metabolic Profiling of Biological Samples

A protocol for metabolic profiling of biological samples by capillary electrophoresis&#8211;mass spectrometry using a sheathless porous tip interface design is presented.

In metabolomics, a wide range of analytical techniques is used for the global profiling of (endogenous) metabolites in complex samples. In this paper, a ...

Preparation and In Vivo Use of an Activity-based Probe for N-acylethanolamine Acid Amidase

Activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) is a method for the identification of an enzyme of interest in a complex proteome through the use of a chemical probe that targets the enzyme&#39;s active sites. A reporter tag introduced into the probe allows for the detection of the labeled enzyme by in-gel fluorescence scanning, protein blot, fluorescence microscopy, or liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Here, we describe the preparation and use of the compound ARN14686, a click chemistry activity-based probe (CC-ABP) that selectively recognizes the enzyme N-acylethanolamine acid amidase (NAAA). NAAA is a cysteine hydrolase that promotes inflammation by deactivating endogenous peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-alpha agonists such as palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) and oleoylethanolamide (OEA). NAAA is synthesized as an inactive full-length proenzyme, which is activated by autoproteolysis in the acidic pH of the lysosome. Localization studies have shown that NAAA is predominantly expressed in macrophages and other monocyte-derived cells, as well as in B-lymphocytes. We provide examples of how ARN14686 can be used to detect and quantify active NAAA ex vivo in rodent tissues by protein blot and fluorescence microscopy.

Preparation and In Vivo Use of an Activity-based Probe for N-acylethanolamine Acid Amidase

Here, we describe the preparation and use of an activity-based probe (ARN14686, undec-10-ynyl-N-[(3S)-2-oxoazetidin-3-yl]carbamate) that allows for the detection and quantification of the active form of the proinflammatory enzyme N-acylethanolamine acid amidase (NAAA), both in vitro and ex vivo.

Activity-based protein profiling (ABPP) is a method for the identification of an enzyme of interest in a complex proteome through the use of a chemical ...

Multimer-PAGE: A Method for Capturing and Resolving Protein Complexes in Biological Samples

There are many well-developed methods for purifying and studying single proteins and peptides. However, most cellular functions are carried out by networks of interacting protein complexes, which are often difficult to investigate because their binding is non-covalent and easily perturbed by purification techniques. This work describes a method of stabilizing and separating native protein complexes from unmodified tissue using two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Tissue lysate is loaded onto a non-denaturing blue-native polyacrylamide gel, then an electric current is applied until the protein migrates a short distance into the gel. The gel strip containing the migrated protein is then excised and incubated with the amine-reactive cross-linking reagent dithiobis(succinimidyl propionate), which covalently stabilizes protein complexes. The gel strip containing cross-linked complexes is then cast into a sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel, and the complexes are separated completely. The method relies on techniques and materials familiar to most molecular biologists, meaning it is inexpensive and easy to learn. While it is limited in its ability to adequately separate extremely large complexes, and has not been universally successful, the method was able to capture a wide variety of well-studied complexes, and is likely applicable to many systems of interest.

A method for stabilizing and separating native protein complexes from unmodified tissue lysate using an amine-reactive protein cross-linker coupled to a novel two-dimensional polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) system is presented.

There are many well-developed methods for purifying and studying single proteins and peptides. However, most cellular functions are carried out by ...

Analysis of &#946;-Amyloid-induced Abnormalities on Fibrin Clot Structure by Spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy

This article presents methods for generating in vitro fibrin clots and analyzing the effect of beta-amyloid (A&#946;) protein on clot formation and structure by spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). A&#946;, which forms neurotoxic amyloid aggregates in Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD), has been shown to interact with fibrinogen. This A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction makes the fibrin clot structurally abnormal and resistant to fibrinolysis. A&#946;-induced abnormalities in fibrin clotting may also contribute to cerebrovascular aspects of the AD pathology such as microinfarcts, inflammation, as well as, cerebral amyloid angiopathy (CAA). Given the potentially critical role of neurovascular deficits in AD pathology, developing compounds which can inhibit or lessen the A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction has promising therapeutic value. In vitro methods by which fibrin clot formation can be easily and systematically assessed are potentially useful tools for developing therapeutic compounds. Presented here is an optimized protocol for in vitro generation of the fibrin clot, as well as analysis of the effect of A&#946; and A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction inhibitors. The clot turbidity assay is rapid, highly reproducible and can be used to test multiple conditions simultaneously, allowing for the screening of large numbers of A&#946;-fibrinogen inhibitors. Hit compounds from this screening can be further evaluated for their ability to ameliorate A&#946;-induced structural abnormalities of the fibrin clot architecture using SEM. The effectiveness of these optimized protocols is demonstrated here using TDI-2760, a recently identified A&#946;-fibrinogen interaction inhibitor.

Analysis of &amp;#946;-Amyloid-induced Abnormalities on Fibrin Clot Structure by Spectroscopy and Scanning Electron Microscopy

Presented here are two methods that can be used individually or in combination to analyze the effect of beta-amyloid on fibrin clot structure. Included is a protocol for creating an in vitro fibrin clot, followed by clot turbidity and scanning electron microscopy methods.

This article presents methods for generating in vitro fibrin clots and analyzing the effect of beta-amyloid (A&#946;) protein on clot formation and ...

Using In Vitro Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer to Study the Dynamics Of Protein Complexes at a Millisecond Time Scale

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological functions. Such interactions can be highly dynamic, meaning the interacting subunits are constantly associated and dissociated at certain rates. While measuring the binding affinity using techniques such as quantitative pull-down reveals the strength of the interaction, studying the binding kinetics provides insights on how fast the interaction occurs and how long each complex can exist. Furthermore, measuring the kinetics of an interaction in the presence of an additional factor, such as a protein exchange factor or a drug, helps reveal the mechanism by which the interaction is regulated by the other factor, providing important knowledge for the advancement of biological and medical research. Here, we describe a protocol for measuring the binding kinetics of a protein complex that has a high intrinsic association rate and can be dissociated quickly by another protein. The method uses fluorescence resonance energy transfer to report the formation of the protein complex in vitro, and it enables monitoring the fast association and dissociation of the complex in real time on a stopped-flow fluorimeter. Using this assay, the association and dissociation rate constants of the protein complex are quantified.

Protein-protein interactions are critical for biological systems, and studies of the binding kinetics provide insights into the dynamics and function of protein complexes. We describe a method that quantifies the kinetic parameters of a protein complex using fluorescence resonance energy transfer and the stopped-flow technique. &#160;

Proteins are the primary operators of biological systems, and they usually interact with other macro- or small molecules to carry out their biological ...

In Vivo Calcium Imaging in C. elegans Body Wall Muscles

The model organism C. elegans provides an excellent system to perform in vivo calcium imaging. Its transparent body and genetic manipulability allow for the targeted expression of genetically encoded calcium sensors. This protocol outlines the use of these sensors for the in vivo imaging of calcium dynamics in targeted cells, specifically the body wall muscles of the worms. By utilizing the co-expression of presynaptic channelrhodopsin, stimulation of acetylcholine release from excitatory motor neurons can be induced using blue light pulses, resulting in muscle depolarization and reproducible changes in cytoplasmic calcium levels. Two worm immobilization techniques are discussed with varying levels of difficulty. Comparison of these techniques demonstrates that both approaches preserve the physiology of the neuromuscular junction and allow for the reproducible quantification of calcium transients. By pairing optogenetics and functional calcium imaging, changes in postsynaptic calcium handling and homeostasis can be evaluated in a variety of mutant backgrounds. Data presented validates both immobilization techniques and specifically examines the roles of the C. elegans sarco(endo)plasmic reticular calcium ATPase and the calcium-activated BK potassium channel in the body wall muscle calcium regulation.

In Vivo Calcium Imaging in C. elegans Body Wall Muscles

This method provides a way to couple optogenetics and genetically encoded calcium sensors to image baseline cytosolic calcium levels and changes in evoked calcium transients in the body wall muscles of the model organism C. elegans.

The model organism C. elegans provides an excellent system to perform in vivo calcium imaging. Its transparent body and genetic manipulability allow for ...

Use of Microscale Thermophoresis to Measure Protein-Lipid Interactions

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane trafficking, signal transduction and cytoskeletal remodeling. Classic tools for measuring such interactions include surface plasmon resonance (SPR) and isothermal titration calorimetry (ITC). While powerful tools, these approaches have setbacks. ITC requires large amounts of purified protein as well as lipids, which can be costly and difficult to produce. Furthermore, ITC as well as SPR are very time consuming, which could add significantly to the cost of performing these experiments. One way to bypass these restrictions is to use the relatively new technique of microscale thermophoresis (MST). MST is fast and cost effective using small amounts of sample to obtain a saturation curve for a given binding event. There currently are two types of MST systems available. One type of MST requires labeling with a fluorophore in the blue or red spectrum. The second system relies on the intrinsic fluorescence of aromatic amino acids in the UV range. Both systems detect the movement of molecules in response to localized induction of heat from an infrared laser. Each approach has its advantages and disadvantages. Label-free MST can use untagged native proteins; however, many analytes, including pharmaceuticals, fluoresce in the UV range, which can interfere with determination of accurate KD values. In comparison, labeled MST allows for a greater diversity of measurable pairwise interactions utilizing fluorescently labeled probes attached to ligands with measurable absorbances in the visible range as opposed to UV, limiting the potential for interfering signals from analytes.

Microscale thermophoresis obtains binding constants quickly at low material cost. Either labeled or label free microscale thermophoresis is commercially available; however, label free thermophoresis is not capable of the diversity of interaction measurements that can be performed using fluorescent labels. We provide a protocol for labeled thermophoresis measurements.

The ability to determine the binding affinity of lipids to proteins is an essential part of understanding protein-lipid interactions in membrane ...

Removal and Replacement of Endogenous Ligands from Lipid-Bound Proteins and Allergens

Many major allergens bind to hydrophobic lipid-like molecules, including Mus m 1, Bet v 1, Der p 2, and Fel d 1. These ligands are strongly retained and have the potential to influence the sensitization process either through directly stimulating the immune system or altering the biophysical properties of the allergenic protein. In order to control for these variables, techniques are required for the removal of endogenously bound ligands and, if necessary, replacement with lipids of known composition. The cockroach allergen Bla g 1 encloses a large hydrophobic cavity which binds a heterogeneous mixture of endogenous lipids when purified using traditional techniques. Here, we describe a method through which these lipids are removed using reverse-phase HPLC followed by thermal annealing to yield Bla g 1 in either its Apo-form or reloaded with a user-defined mixture of fatty acid or phospholipid cargoes. Coupling this protocol with biochemical assays reveal that fatty acid cargoes significantly alter the thermostability and proteolytic resistance of Bla g 1, with downstream implications for the rate of T-cell epitope generation and allergenicity. These results highlight the importance of lipid removal/reloading protocols such as the one described herein when studying allergens from both recombinant and natural sources. The protocol is generalizable to other allergen families including lipocalins (Mus m 1), PR-10 (Bet v 1), MD-2 (Der p 2) and Uteroglobin (Fel d 1), providing a valuable tool to study the role of lipids in the allergic response.

This protocol describes the removal of endogenous lipids from allergens, and their replacement with user-specified ligands through reverse-phase HPLC coupled with thermal annealing. 31P-NMR and circular dichroism allow for the rapid confirmation of ligand removal/loading, and the recovery of native allergen structure.

Many major allergens bind to hydrophobic lipid-like molecules, including Mus m 1, Bet v 1, Der p 2, and Fel d 1. These ligands are strongly retained and ...

Microcrystal Electron Diffraction of Small Molecules

A detailed protocol for preparing small molecule samples for microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) experiments is described. MicroED has been developed to solve structures of proteins and small molecules using standard electron cryo-microscopy (cryo-EM) equipment. In this way, small molecules, peptides, soluble proteins, and membrane proteins have recently been determined to high resolutions. Protocols are presented here for preparing grids of small-molecule pharmaceuticals using the drug carbamazepine as an example. Protocols for screening and collecting data are presented. Additional steps in the overall process, such as data integration, structure determination, and refinement are presented elsewhere. The time required to prepare the small-molecule grids is estimated to be less than 30 min.

Here, we describe the procedures developed in our laboratory for preparing powders of small molecule crystals for microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) experiments.

A detailed protocol for preparing small molecule samples for microcrystal electron diffraction (MicroED) experiments is described. MicroED has been ...

Preparing Lamellae from Vitreous Biological Samples Using a Dual-Beam Scanning Electron Microscope for Cryo-Electron Tomography

Presented here is a protocol for preparing cryo-lamellae from plunge-frozen grids of Plasmodium falciparum-infected&#160;human erythrocytes, which could easily be adapted for other biological samples. The basic principles for preparing samples, milling, and viewing lamellae are common to all instruments and the protocol can be followed as a general guide to on-grid cryo-lamella preparation for cryo-electron microscopy (cryoEM) and cryo-electron tomography (cryoET). Electron microscopy grids supporting the cells are plunge-frozen into liquid nitrogen-cooled liquid ethane using a manual or automated plunge freezer, then screened on a light microscope equipped with a cryo-stage. Frozen grids are transferred into a cryo-scanning electron microscope equipped with a focused ion beam (cryoFIB-SEM). Grids are routinely sputter coated prior to milling, which aids dispersal of charge build-up during milling. Alternatively, an e-beam rotary coater can be used to apply a layer of carbon-platinum to the grids, the exact thickness of which can be more precisely controlled. Once inside the cryoFIB-SEM an additional coating of an organoplatinum compound is applied to the surface of the grid via a gas injection system (GIS). This layer protects the front edge of the lamella as it is milled, the integrity of which is critical for achieving uniformly thin lamellae. Regions of interest are identified via SEM and milling is carried out in a step-wise fashion, reducing the current of the ion beam as the lamella reaches electron transparency, in order to avoid excessive heat generation. A grid with multiple lamellae is then transferred to a transmission electron microscope (TEM) under cryogenic conditions for tilt-series acquisition. A robust and contamination-free workflow for lamella preparation is an essential step for downstream techniques, including cellular cryoEM, cryoET, and sub-tomogram averaging. Development of these techniques, especially for lift-out and milling of high-pressure frozen samples, is of high-priority in the field.

Using focused ion beam milling to produce vitreous on-grid lamellae from plunge frozen biological samples for cryo-electron tomography.

Presented here is a protocol for preparing cryo-lamellae from plunge-frozen grids of Plasmodium falciparum-infected&#160;human erythrocytes, which could ...