Name: an instrumented pull test to characterize postural responses
Uploaded: 2019-04-06T15:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses at JoVE.com

We thank Angus Begg (The Bionics Institute) for his assistance in the video protocol. We acknowledge Dr. Sue Finch (Statistical Consulting Centre and Melbourne Statistical Consulting Platform, University of Melbourne) who provided statistical support. This work was supported by the funding through the National Health and Medical Research Council (1066565), the Victorian Lions Foundation, and The Victorian Government&#39;s Operational Infrastructure Support Program.

All methods described were reviewed and approved by the local human research ethics committee at Melbourne Health. Informed consent was obtained from the participant prior to the study.
1. Equipment setup
<ol>
	<li>Prepare the electromagnetic motion tracker with 3 miniature motion sensors as per the manufacturer&#39;s guidelines. Prior to data collection, ensure each sensor is sampled at a minimum 250 Hz, displacement is measured in millimeter units and rotations (pitch, roll, and yaw) are i...

<ol>
	<li>Shemmell, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Interactions+between+stretch+and+startle+reflexes+produce+task-appropriate+rapid+postural+reactions.">Interactions between stretch and startle reflexes produce task-appropriate rapid postural reactions.</a> Frontiers in Integrative Neuroscience. 9, (2015).</li><li>Kerr, G. K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Predictors+of+future+falls+in+Parkinson+disease.">Predictors of future falls in Parkinson disease.</a> Neurology. 75 (2), 116-124 (2010).</li><li>Latt, M. D., Lord, S. R., Morris, J. G. L., Fung, V. S. C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+and+physiological+assessments+for+elucidating+falls+risk+in+Parkinson's+disease.">Clinical and physiological assessments for elucidating falls risk in Parkinson's disease.</a> Movement disorders: official journal of the Movement Disorder Society. 24 (9), 1280-1289 (2009).</li><li>Foreman, K. B., Addison, O., Kim, H. S., Dibble, L. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Testing+balance+and+fall+risk+in+persons+with+Parkinson+disease,+an+argument+for+ecologically+valid+testing.">Testing balance and fall risk in persons with Parkinson disease, an argument for ecologically valid testing.</a> Parkinsonism &amp; Related Disorders. 17 (3), 166-171 (2011).</li><li>Fahn, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Recent Developments in Parkinson's Disease. , 153-163 (1987).</li><li>Hunt, A. L., Sethi, K. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+pull+test:+a+history.">The pull test: a history.</a> Movement disorders: official journal of the Movement Disorder Society. 21 (7), 894-899 (2006).</li><li>Visser, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Clinical+tests+for+the+evaluation+of+postural+instability+in+patients+with+parkinson's+disease.">Clinical tests for the evaluation of postural instability in patients with parkinson's disease.</a> Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation. 84 (11), 1669-1674 (2003).</li><li>Jacobs, J. V., Horak, F. B., Van Tran, K., Nutt, J. 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Here, we have demonstrated the protocol for instrumentation of the clinical pull test, taking a method widely used in clinical practice and yielding an objective measurement of postural responses in addition to the important aspect of the pull administration. Using semi-portable motion tracking, this method offers a means of measurement that is more accessible compared to conventional laboratory techniques28. Using this method, researchers can explore characteristics of postural responses to a top...

An erratum was issued for: <a href="https://www.jove.com/video/59309/an-instrumented-pull-test-to-characterize-postural-responses">An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses</a>.&#160; Author&#160;affiliations were&#160;updated.
The affiliations for Joy Tan were updated from:
1. Department of Medical Bionics, The University of Melbourne&#160; 
2. Department of Neurology, The Royal Melbourne Hospital
to:
1.&#160;Department of Medical Bionics, The University of Melbourne&#160; 
2.&#160;Department of Neurology, The Royal Melbourne Hospital 
4. The Bionics Institute
The affiliations for Thushara&#160;Perera&#160;were updated from:
1. Department of Medical Bionics, The University of Melbourne&#160; 
3. Department of Neurology, Austin Hospital
to:
1.&#160;Department of Medical Bionics, The University of Melbourne&#160; 
4. The Bionics Institute

An erratum was issued for: <a href="https://www.jove.com/video/59309/an-instrumented-pull-test-to-characterize-postural-responses">An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses</a>.&#160; The affiliation section&#160;was updated.

Erratum: An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses

Postural reflexes act to maintain&#160;balance and upright stance in response to perturbations1. Impairment of these postural responses in disorders such as Parkinson&#39;s disease results in postural instability, and commonly leads to falls, reduced walking confidence and diminished quality of life2,3,4. In clinical practice, postural reflexes are typically assessed with the pull test, where an examiner briskly pulls the patient backward at the shoulders and visually grades the response5,6,7,8. Postural instability is usually scored using the Unified Parkinson&#39;s Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS) (0 - normal to 4 - severe), as published by the International Movement Disorder Society5. This method has been used extensively in the assessment of individuals with Parkinson&#39;s disease but suffers poor reliability and very limited scaling (score/4)6,7,9. Pull test scores often do not correlate with important clinical endpoints such as falls and the integer-based rating lacks sensitivity to detect fine postural changes10,11.
Laboratory-based objective measures offer precise information about the nature of balance response by quantifying kinetic (e.g., the center of pressure), kinematic (e.g., joint goniometry/limb displacement) and neurophysiological (e.g., muscle recruitment) endpoints12. These methods may identify abnormalities before postural instability is clinically evident and track changes over time, including responses to treatment13,14.
Tools for Quantifying Postural Instability
Conventional techniques of dynamic posturography commonly employ moving platforms. Resulting postural responses are quantified using a combination of posturography, electromyography (EMG), and accelerometry12,15,16. However, the bottom-up responses of platform perturbations - which evoke a response like slipping on a wet floor, are fundamentally different from the top-down postural responses of the clinical pull test - as may occur when being bumped in a crowd. Emerging evidence suggests truncal perturbations yield different postural characteristics to those of moving platforms17,18,19. Accordingly, others have attempted truncal perturbations in the laboratory using complex techniques including motors, pulleys, and pendulums15,20,21,22. Methods of measurement are often expensive and inaccessible and comprise of video-based motion capture that requires dedicated space in specialized laboratories20,21. Ideally, an objective method to characterize pull test responses should have excellent psychometric properties, be easy to administer, simple to operate, widely accessible, and portable. This is important to facilitate widespread adoption of the technique as an alternative assessment tool to assess postural responses within research and potentially, clinical settings.
The Instrumented Pull Test 
The aim of this protocol is to offer researchers a technique for objective assessment of postural responses to the pull test. A semi-portable and widely available electromagnetic motion capture system underpins the technique. The perturbation involves manual pulls that do not require specialized mechanical systems. This method has sufficient sensitivity to detect small differences in postural reaction times and response amplitudes; therefore, it is suited to capturing potential abnormalities rated from normal up to grade 1 postural instability according to the UPDRS (postural instability with unassisted balance recovery)5. This method may also be utilized to explore the effects of therapy on postural instability. The protocol described here is derived from that in Tan et al.23.

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:223px;">Analog to Digital Convertor &#38; Software</td>
			<td style="width:140px;">CED</td>
			<td style="width:159px;">Micro 1401-3</td>
			<td style="width:357px;">Any suitable digital acquisition system can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Load Cell</td>
			<td>Omegadyne</td>
			<td>LCM201-100N</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">MATLAB Software</td>
			<td>MathWorks Inc.</td>
			<td>NA</td>
			<td>Any data science platform can be used</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Motion Sensor</td>
			<td>Ascension</td>
			<td>6DOF, type-800</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">Motion Tracker</td>
			<td>Ascension&#160;</td>
			<td>3D Guidance trakSTAR</td>
			<td>Mid-range transmitter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;">S&#38;F Technical Harness and Belt</td>
			<td>Lowepro</td>
			<td>LP36282</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

an instrumented pull test to characterize postural responses

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is a common and disabling deficit in Parkinson's disease. To assess postural reflexes, clinicians typically employ the pull test to grade corrective responses to a backward perturbation at the shoulders. However, the pull test is prone to issues with reliability and scaling (score/4). Here, we present an instrumented version of the pull test to more precisely quantify postural responses. Akin to the clinical test, pulls are manually administered except pull force is also recorded. Displacements of the trunk and feet are captured by a semi-portable motion tracking system. Raw data represent distance traveled (in millimeter units), making subsequent interpretation and analysis intuitive. The instrumented pull test also detects variabilities influencing pull test administration, such as pull force, thereby identifying and quantifying potential confounds that can be accounted for by statistical techniques. The instrumented pull test could have application in studies seeking to capture early abnormalities in postural responses, track postural instability over time, and detect responses to therapy.

The instrumented pull test (Figure 1) was used to investigate trunk and step responses in a young, healthy cohort23. Thirty-five trials were presented serially, with an auditory stimulus delivered concurrently with each pull (Figure 2). The auditory stimulus was either 90 dB (normal) or 116 dB (loud). The loud stimulus has been demonstrated as sufficient to trigger StartReact effects, where pre-prepared re...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses at JoVE.com

An Instrumented Pull Test to Characterize Postural Responses

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is difficult to quantify. Clinical assessments such as the pull test suffer issues with reliability and scaling. Here, we present an instrumented version of the pull test to objectively characterize postural responses.

Impairment of postural reflexes, termed postural instability, is a common and disabling deficit in Parkinson's disease. To assess postural reflexes, ...

The overall goal of this procedure is to assess postural responses more precisely using an instrumented version of the clinical pull test. This is achieved by using a semi-portable, motion-tracking system to capture postural responses to a manual backward pull. First, apply the harness and attach sensors to the trunk and feet.The next step is to ensure the participant is standing in comfortable stance along line markings, looking forwards. Next, the instrumented pull test procedure is performed. Pull force is recorded during each trial.Magnitude and reaction time of the trunk and step responses are computed. The final step is to assist the participant out of the harness and detach the sensors from the trunk and feet. Ultimately, the instrumented pull test is used to characterize postural responses that are produced by the clinical pull test.It can also be used to determine variabilities that influence pull test performance. The main advantage of this method is its capability to provide precise quantification of postural responses to the clinical pull test. Using semi-portable motion capture, the instrumented pull test offers a method of measurement that is more accessible compared to conventional laboratory techniques.This allows researchers to easily adopt this technique in the measurement of postural responses to the pull test. The instrumentation of clinical pull test has potential utility in research studies that seek to quantify postural instability in for example, over time in a cohort of patients or in response to therapies for balance problems, particularly in conditions such as Parkinson's disease. Visual demonstration of this method is critical because it is important for investigators to understand the sequence of events.These include equipment setup, patient preparation, and administration of instrumented pull test by an examiner. In short, all equipment is set up correctly prior to data collection. Prepare the electromagnetic motion tracker with three miniature motion sensors according to manufacturer guidelines.Each sensor is sampled at minimum 250 hertz with displacement measured in millimeters and rotation in degrees. All internal filtering must be disabled and the position of the sensor set to reference of static origin. Affix load cell to patient harness at shoulder level using rope with minimum diameter of 10 millimeters.Connect the load cell to data acquisition unit. Depending on load cell specifications, a pre-amplifier and separate power supply may be required. Connect the trigger output from the data acquisition unit into the trigger input of the motion tracker to ensure synchronized recording.Match the sampling rate of the motion tracker and disable any filtering. The trigger may also be used to time the delivery of auditory or visual stimuli for further characterization of balance mechanisms. The experiment should be conducted in a quiet room to minimize distractions during the assessment.Allow sufficient space for the participant to take several corrective steps to regain balance. Foam mats may be placed on the floor as a precautionary measure. Begin by obtaining informed consent from the participant.Participants appropriate for the instrumented pull test procedure include those who are able to stand independently and generate a corrected balance response not requiring assistance to recover. Request the participant wears comfortable, loose clothing on the day of the experiment and remove shoes for the test procedure. Assist the participant to wear the harness.Clip the buckles around the chest and waist. Ensure straps are adequately tightened, not allowing more than 50 millimeters of slack in the harness when pulling on the rope. Attach motion sensors using medical tape to the sternal notch and on the feet of the right and left ankle malleolus.All cables must be routed carefully to avoid trip hazards. Position the participant on the mat with feet aligned along the markings in comfortable stance. The participant should note their feet position on the lines so that they're able to return to the same position after each pull.The assessor should prompt the participant to return to the original feet position if any deviations are observed. Instruct the participant to focus on artwork 1.5 meters ahead at eye level with hands by their side to minimize distractions between pulls. The instrumented pull test is performed according to the clinical pull test guidelines described in the Unified Parkinson's Disease Ratings scale.First, explain the test procedure, and let the participant know stepping is allowed following the backward pull. Discourage anticipatory responses such as forward leaning of the trunk prior to the pull. Ensure the participant is attentive, standing upright, with eyes open, and feet at the designated markers in a comfortable stance.Stand behind the participant and apply a quick, forceful pull on the rope. Ensure the rope is held perpendicular to the shoulder level of the participant. After each pull, ensure the participant returns to the original feet positioning on the floor, and repeat the test 35 times.Allow the participant a short rest up to a minute after every 10 pulls. Request the participant refrain from speaking in between trials until a rest is allowed, unless expressing discomfort or requiring an earlier break. The assessor should be prepared to catch the participant at all times.An assistant is required for safety when participants with known postural instability are assessed. Detach sensors and assist the participant out of the harness following completion of the instrumented pull test procedure. Data recorded during the study must be analyzed with suitable data science software.Use trigger signals to align the motion tracker and load cell data. High pass filter or motion tracking and load cell data with a 0.05 hertz cut-off frequency to remove baseline grift. Double differentiate the trunk motion tracking displacement data to obtain trunk velocity and acceleration.Separate the continuous recording into individual trial epochs. Reject trials where anticipatory truncal movement is observed prior to pull administration. Determine posture reaction time as the difference between the onset of trunk displacement following the pull and the turning point of the trunk velocity curve, which indicates the beginning of trunk deceleration.Determine the magnitude of the postural response as the peak deceleration of the trunk. Stepping is defined as the foot moving past the stance foot in the backwards direction. Calculate step reaction time as the difference between the onset of truncal displacement to the initial movement of the stepping limb.Determine step response magnitude by calculating the total displacement of the feet in millimeters from initial foot lift-off to contact of the stepping limb arresting backward retropulsion. Exclude steps less than 50 millimeters as the changing base of support is considered negligible. Calculate peak pull force and rate of force development from the load cell.The peak pull force indicates the instantaneous maximum force delivered, whereas the force rate is the slope of the force versus time curve indicating how rapidly the force was generated. Postural responses from a cohort of young healthy participants were assessed using the instrumented pull test. 35 trials were performed with an auditory stimulus delivered concurrently with each pull at either 90 decibels or 116 decibels.Referred to as the start react effect, the startling 116 decibels stimulus is expected to speed reaction time beyond the lesser intensity 90 decibels stimulus. Of the 35 trials, the first was kept to analyze unhabituated responses, and four subsequent trials discarded to allow for practice effects. Subsequent trials analyzed comprised of 20 normal intensity trials at 90 decibels and 10 loud trials at 116 decibels that were randomly intermixed.Analysis was conducted using linear mixed models due to multiple contributing factors that could influence trunk and step postural responses. These factors include pull force and participant height and weight. The instrumented pull test was able to distinguish first trial effects, where responses from the very first trial were different compared to subsequent habituated trials.During the first trial, step reaction time was slower, and step response magnitude was larger. StartReact effects were only present in the trunk to subsequent habituated pulls. A loud auditory stimulus accelerated truncal reaction time and increased truncal response magnitude.Examiner peak pulled force was found to influence types of stepping responses and trunk reaction times. Participant weight influenced step reaction times. Otherwise, participant weight and height did not influence results.Depending on the participant's physical function and balance abilities, the instrumented pull test procedure should take approximately 20 minutes. This also allows for up to a minute's rest after every 10 pull test trials. In patients with known postural instability, it is important to prevent an actual fall during the experiment.An assistant should be present and the participant needs to be constantly monitored for fatigue and their ability to participate. Instrumentation of the clinical pull test has yielded a method to objectively quantify postural instability. This is potentially useful in tracking postural instability over time and also in the detection of emerging treatments for postural instability.

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An Alternative to the Traditional Cold Pressor Test: The Cold Pressor Arm Wrap

Recently research on the relationship between stress and cognition, emotion, and behavior has greatly increased. These advances have yielded insights into important questions ranging from the nature of stress&#39; influence on addiction1 to the role of stress in neural changes associated with alterations in decision-making2,3. As topics being examined by the field evolve, however, so too must the methodologies involved. In this article a practical and effective alternative to a classic stress induction technique, the cold pressor test (CPT), is presented: the cold pressor arm wrap (CPAW). CPT typically involves immersion of a participant&#39;s dominant hand in ice-cold water for a period of time4. The technique is associated with robust activation of the sympatho-adrenomedullary (SAM) axis (and release of catecholamines; e.g.&#160;adrenaline and noradrenaline) and mild-to-moderate activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis with associated glucocorticoid (e.g.&#160;cortisol) release. While CPT has been used in a wide range of studies, it can be impractical to apply in some research environments. For example use of water during, rather than prior to, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has the potential to damage sensitive and expensive equipment or interfere with acquisition of MRI signal. The CPAW is a practical and effective alternative to the traditional CPT. Composed of a versatile list of inexpensive and easily acquired components, CPAW makes use of MRI-safe gelpacs cooled to a temperature similar to CPT rather than actual water. Importantly CPAW is associated with levels of SAM and HPA activation comparable to CPT, and can easily be applied in a variety of research contexts. While it is important to maintain specific safety protocols when using the technique, these are easy to implement if planned for. Creation and use of the CPAW will be discussed.

The cold pressor test is a classic stress induction task used in a wide range of research examining the relationship between stress and cognition, emotion, and behavior. In this article, a practical and versatile alternative to the traditional cold pressor test is presented: the cold pressor arm wrap.

Recently research on the relationship between stress and cognition, emotion, and behavior has greatly increased. These advances have yielded insights into ...

Methods to Test Visual Attention Online

Online data collection methods have particular appeal to behavioral scientists because they offer the promise of much larger and much more representative data samples than can typically be collected on college campuses. However, before such methods can be widely adopted, a number of technological challenges must be overcome &#8211; in particular in experiments where tight control over stimulus properties is necessary. Here we present methods for collecting performance data on two tests of visual attention. Both tests require control over the visual angle of the stimuli (which in turn requires knowledge of the viewing distance, monitor size, screen resolution, etc.) and the timing of the stimuli (as the tests involve either briefly flashed stimuli or stimuli that move at specific rates). Data collected on these tests from over 1,700 online participants were consistent with data collected in laboratory-based versions of the exact same tests. These results suggest that with proper care, timing/stimulus size dependent tasks can be deployed in web-based settings.

To replicate laboratory settings, online data collection methods for visual tasks require tight control over stimulus presentation. We outline methods for the use of a web application to collect performance data on two tests of visual attention.

Online data collection methods have particular appeal to behavioral scientists because they offer the promise of much larger and much more representative ...

Assessing the Multiple Dimensions of Engagement to Characterize Learning: A Neurophysiological Perspective

In a recent theoretical synthesis on the concept of engagement, Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris1 defined engagement by its multiple dimensions: behavioral, emotional and cognitive. They observed that individual types of engagement had not been studied in conjunction, and little information was available about interactions or synergy between the dimensions; consequently, more studies would contribute to creating finely tuned teaching interventions. Benefiting from the recent technological advances in neurosciences, this paper presents a recently developed methodology to gather and synchronize data on multidimensional engagement during learning tasks. The technique involves the collection of (a) electroencephalography, (b) electrodermal, (c) eye-tracking, and (d) facial emotion recognition data on four different computers. This led to synchronization issues for data collected from multiple sources. Post synchronization in specialized integration software gives researchers a better understanding of the dynamics between the multiple dimensions of engagement. For curriculum developers, these data could provide informed guidelines for achieving better instruction/learning efficiency. This technique also opens up possibilities in the field of brain-computer interactions, where adaptive learning or assessment environments could be developed.

This paper aims to describe the techniques involved in the collection and synchronization of the multiple dimensions (behavioral, affective and cognitive) of learners&#8217; engagement during a task.

In a recent theoretical synthesis on the concept of engagement, Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris1 defined engagement by its multiple dimensions: ...

Sit-to-stand-and-walk from 120% Knee Height: A Novel Approach to Assess Dynamic Postural Control Independent of Lead-limb

Individuals with sensorimotor pathology e.g., stroke have difficulty executing the common task of rising from sitting and initiating gait (sit-to-walk: STW). Thus, in clinical rehabilitation separation of sit-to-stand and gait initiation - termed sit-to-stand-and-walk (STSW) - is usual. However, a standardized STSW protocol with a clearly defined analytical approach suitable for pathological assessment has yet to be defined.
Hence, a goal-orientated protocol is defined that is suitable for healthy and compromised individuals by requiring the rising phase to be initiated from 120% knee height with a wide base of support independent of lead limb. Optical capture of three-dimensional (3D) segmental movement trajectories, and force platforms to yield two-dimensional (2D) center-of-pressure (COP) trajectories permit tracking of the horizontal distance between COP and whole-body-center-of-mass (BCOM), the decrease of which increases positional stability but is proposed to represent poor dynamic postural control.
BCOM-COP distance is expressed with and without normalization to subjects&#39; leg length. Whilst COP-BCOM distances vary through STSW, normalized data at the key movement events of seat-off and initial toe-off (TO1) during steps 1 and 2 have low intra and inter subject variability in 5 repeated trials performed by 10 young healthy individuals. Thus, comparing COP-BCOM distance at key events during performance of an STSW paradigm between patients with upper motor neuron injury, or other compromised patient groups, and normative data in young healthy individuals is a novel methodology for evaluation of dynamic postural stability.

Here, we present a novel protocol to measure positional stability at key events during the sit-to-stand-to-walk using the center-of-pressure to the whole-body-center-of-mass distance. This was derived from the force platform and three-dimensional motion-capture technology. The paradigm is reliable and can be utilized for the assessment of neurologically compromised individuals.

Individuals with sensorimotor pathology e.g., stroke have difficulty executing the common task of rising from sitting and initiating gait (sit-to-walk: ...

The Other End of the Leash: An Experimental Test to Analyze How Owners Interact with Their Pet Dogs

It has been suggested that the way in which owners interact with their dogs can largely vary and influence the dog-owner bond, but very few objective studies, so far, have addressed how the owner interacts with the dog. The goal of the present study was to record dog owners&#39; interaction styles by means of objective observation and coding. The experiment included eight standardized situations in which owners of pet dogs were asked to perform specific tasks including both positive (i.e. playing, teaching a new task, showing a preference towards an object in a food searching task, greeting after separation) and potentially distressing tasks (i.e. physical restriction during DNA sampling, putting a T-shirt onto the dog, giving basic obedience commands while the dog was distracted). The video recordings were coded off-line using a specifically designed coding scheme including scores for communication, social support, warmth, enthusiasm, and play style, as well as frequency of behaviors like petting, praising, commands, and attention sounds. Exploratory Factor Analysis of the 20 variables measured revealed 3 factors, labeled as Owner Warmth, Owner Social Support, and Owner Control, which can be viewed as analogues to parenting style dimensions. The experimental procedure introduced here represents the first standardized measure of interaction styles of dog owners. The methodology presented here is a useful tool to investigate individual variation in the interaction style of pet dog owners that can be used to explain differences in the dog-human relationship, dogs&#39; behavioral outcomes, and dogs stress coping strategies, all crucial elements both from a theoretical and applied point of view.

This article presents eight different experimental tasks, mirroring the everyday life of dogs and owners, used to analyze how owners interact with their dogs in a standardized way. The tasks included both positive (e.g. play) and negative (potentially stressful) situations (e.g. physical restriction).

It has been suggested that the way in which owners interact with their dogs can largely vary and influence the dog-owner bond, but very few objective ...

Testing for Metacognitive Responding Using an Odor-based Delayed Match-to-Sample Test in Rats

Metamemory involves the cognitive ability to assess the strength of one&#39;s memories. To explore the possibility of metamemory in non-human animals, numerous behavioral tasks have been created, many of which utilize an option to decline memory tests. To assess metamemory in rats, we utilized this decline-test option paradigm by adapting previous visual delayed-match-to-sample tests (DMTS)1,2 developed for primate species to an odor-based test suitable for rodents. First,&#160;rats are given a sample to remember by digging in a cup of scented sand. After a delay, the rat is presented with four distinctly scented cups, one of which contains the identical scent experienced during the sample; if this matching cup is selected, then the rat obtains a preferred, larger reward. Selection of any of the other three non-matching sand-filled scented cups results in no reward. Retention intervals are individually titrated such that subjects perform between 40 and 70% correct, therefore ensuring rats sometimes remember and sometimes forget the sample. Here, the operational definition of metamemory is the ability to distinguish between the presence and absence of memory through behavioral responding. Towards this end, on two-thirds of trials, a decline option is presented in addition to the four choice cups (choice trials). If the decline-test option- an unscented colored sand cup, is selected, the subject receives a smaller less-preferred reward and avoids the memory test. On the remaining third of trials, the decline-test option is not available (forced trials), causing subjects to guess the correct cup when the sample is forgotten. On choice tests, subjects that know when they remember should select the decline option when memory is weak rather than take the test and choose incorrectly. Therefore, significantly higher performance on chosen tests as compared to forced memory tests is indicative of the adaptive use of the decline-test response and metacognitive responding.

This protocol describes a method for investigating the possibility of metamemory, or memory awareness, in rodents. The odor-based delayed-matching-to-sample paradigm is a novel, ecologically-relevant behavioral test useful for determining the extent to which rodents can adaptively respond based on cognitively monitoring the strength of their memory states.

Metamemory involves the cognitive ability to assess the strength of one&#39;s memories. To explore the possibility of metamemory in non-human animals, ...

Multi-Modal Signals for Analyzing Pain Responses to Thermal and Electrical Stimuli

The assessment of pain relies mostly on methods that require a person to communicate. However, for people with cognitive and verbal impairments, existing methods are not sufficient as they lack reliability and validity. To approach this problem, recent research focuses on an objective pain assessment facilitated by parameters of responses derived from physiology, and video and audio signals. To develop reliable automated pain recognition systems, efforts have been made in creating multimodal databases in order to analyze pain and detect valid pain patterns. While the results are promising, they only focus on discriminating pain or pain intensities versus no pain. In order to advance this, research should also consider the quality and duration of pain as they provide additional valuable information for more advanced pain management. To complement existing databases and the analysis of pain regarding quality and length, this paper proposes a psychophysiological experiment to elicit, measure, and collect valid pain reactions. Participants are subjected to painful stimuli that differ in intensity (low, medium, and high), duration (5 s / 1 min), and modality (heat / electric pain) while audio, video (e.g., facial expressions, body gestures, facial skin temperature), and physiological signals (e.g., electrocardiogram [ECG], skin conductance level [SCL], facial electromyography [EMG], and EMG of M. trapezius) are being recorded. The study consists of a calibration phase to determine a subject&#8217;s individual pain range (from low to intolerable pain) and a stimulation phase in which pain stimuli, depending on the calibrated range, are applied. The obtained data may allow refining, improving, and evaluating automated recognition systems in terms of an objective pain assessment. For further development of such systems and to investigate pain reactions in more detail, additional pain modalities such as pressure, chemical, or cold pain should be included in future studies. Recorded data of this study will be released as the &#8220;X-ITE Pain Database&#8221;.

This article focuses on the experimental elicitation of pain through heat (thermal) and electrical stimulation while recording physiological, visual, and paralinguistic responses. It aims at collecting valid multimodal data for analyzing pain based on its intensity, quality, and duration.&#160;

The assessment of pain relies mostly on methods that require a person to communicate. However, for people with cognitive and verbal impairments, existing ...

Flypub To Study Ethanol Induced Behavioral Disinhibition and Sensitization

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) remains a serious problem in our society. To develop effective interventions for addiction, it is important to understand the underlying neurobiological mechanisms, for which diverse experimental approaches and model systems are needed. The main ingredient of alcoholic beverages is ethanol, which causes adaptive changes in the central nervous system and behavior upon chronic intake. Behavioral sensitization (i.e., escalated responses) in particular represents a key adaptive change underlying addiction. Most ethanol-induced behavioral sensitization studies in animal models have been conducted on the locomotor activating effect of ethanol. A prominent effect of ethanol is behavioral disinhibition. Behavioral sensitization to the disinhibition effect of ethanol, however, is underrepresented. To address this issue, we developed the Flypub assay that allows measuring the escalated increase in disinhibited courtship activities upon recurring ethanol exposure in Drosophila melanogaster.&#160;Here, we report the step-by-step Flypub assay including assembly of ethanol exposure chambers, setup of the assay station, criteria for fly care and collection, ethanol delivery, quantification of disinhibited courtship activities, data processing and statistical analysis. Also provided are how to troubleshoot critical steps, overcome limitations and expand its utility to assess additional ethanol-induced behaviors. The Flypub assay in combination with powerful genetic tools in Drosophila melanogaster will facilitate the task of discovering the mechanism underlying ethanol-induced behavioral sensitization.

The Flypub assay measures the behaviors that the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster displays under the influence of ethanol. The assay can be readily mastered by experimenters at all levels and applied to various vaporized stimuli, facilitating substance abuse and addiction studies.

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) remains a serious problem in our society. To develop effective interventions for addiction, it is important to understand the ...

Elevated Plus Maze Test in an Angelman Syndrome Mouse Model

To begin, place the plus shaped maze on the testing platform just below the camera. Using the potentiometer on the wall, adjust the light intensity to 70 luxe at its center with the help of a luxometer with its sensor placed at the center of the maze during the adjustment. Open the software by double clicking on the viewer software icon and load the configuration for Elevated Plus Maze or EPM testing by clicking on the icon on the upper left side of the configuration tab.Enter the animal information into the corresponding fields of the experiment tab including animal id, genotype, gender, and experiment information. Verify that the zone's position, open arms, and closed arms are correctly configured. Using a visual control and computer mouse, ensure that the virtual outline zones match the corresponding EPM zones.Place the mouse cursor on the arrow icon on the upper left side of the acquisition tab. Remove the animal from the home cage and place it gently in the center of the EPM. Start the experiment by left clicking on the computer mouse.After five minutes, save the recorded data by clicking okay. Name the file and click save. Export the results to a csv file for offline analysis by clicking on the icon on the left vertical panel of the data analysis tab.In the EPM test, none of the parameters related to anxiety-like behavior were altered in maternal heterozygous Ube3A mutants.

Open Field Test in an Angelman Syndrome Mouse Model

Place the four open field, or OF, test boxes on the testing platform below the camera. Using the potentiometer on the wall, adjust the light intensity to 200 lux at the center of each OF test with the help of a luxometer with its sensor placed at the center of each box during the adjustment. Open the software by double clicking on the viewer software icon and load the configuration for EF testing by clicking on the icon on the upper left side of the configuration tab.Enter the animal information into the corresponding fields of the experiment tab. Verify that the zone's position matches the OF test boxes and adjust them if needed. Using a visual control and computer mouse, ensure that the virtual outline center and periphery zones match the corresponding OF test zones.Place the mouse cursor on the arrow icon on the upper left side of the acquisition tab. Remove four animals from the home cage and place them in the corner of each test box. Stop the experiment by left clicking on the computer mouse.In the OF test, the maternal heterozygous Ube3a mutant animals were significantly hypoactive as reflected by a shorter traversed distance, lower average speed, and longer resting time. However, none of the parameters related to anxiety-like behavior were altered in Ube3a mutants.