The authors would like to thank the UC Davis Mouse Biology Program for breeding the mice. This research was supported by a grant from Merck KGaA, Darmstadt, Germany.

All animal studies and experiments were conducted under a protocol approved by the University of California, Davis Institutional Animal Care and Use Administrative Advisory Committee.
1. MUC1.Tg Mouse Breeding and Propagation
<ol>
	<li>The UC Davis Mouse Biology Program (MBP) breeds wild type C57BL/6 male mice with heterozygous MUC1.Tg C57BL/6 female mice to establish our breeding colony. MUC1.Tg offspring are delivered for studies as needed.</li>
	<li>MBP personnel clip the toes of the offs...

<ol>
	<li>Siegel, R., Naishadham, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> CA Cancer J. Clin. 63, 11-30 (2013).</li><li>Lynch, C. F., Davila, J. A., Ries, L. A. G., Young, J. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chapter+23.+Cancer+of+the+urinary+bladder.">Chapter 23. Cancer of the urinary bladder.</a> SEER Survival Monograph: Cancer Survival Among Adults: U.S. SEER Program, 1988-2001, Patient and Tumor Characteristics. , 07-6215 (2007).</li><li>Jacobs, B. L., Lee, C. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bladder+cancer+in+2010:+how+far+have+we+come.">Bladder cancer in 2010: how far have we come.</a> CA Cancer J. Clin. 60 (4), 244-272 (2010).</li><li>Sexton, W. J., Wiegand, L. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Bladder+cancer:+a+review+of+non-muscle+invasive+disease.">Bladder cancer: a review of non-muscle invasive disease.</a> Cancer Control. 17 (4), 256-268 (2010).</li><li>Bohle, A., Jocham, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intravesical+bacillus+Calmette-Guerin+versus+mitomycin+C+for+superficial+bladder+cancer:+a+formal+meta-analysis+of+comparative+studies+on+recurrence+and+toxicity.">Intravesical bacillus Calmette-Guerin versus mitomycin C for superficial bladder cancer: a formal meta-analysis of comparative studies on recurrence and toxicity.</a> J. Urol. 169 (1), 90-95 (2003).</li><li>Shokeir, A. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Squamous+cell+carcinoma+of+the+bladder:+pathology,+diagnosis+and+treatment.">Squamous cell carcinoma of the bladder: pathology, diagnosis and treatment.</a> BJU Int. 93 (2), 216-220 (2004).</li><li>Rosenberg, S. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Progress+in+human+tumour+immunology+and+immunotherapy.">Progress in human tumour immunology and immunotherapy.</a> Nature. 411 (6835), 380-384 (2001).</li><li>Joudi, F. N., Smith, B. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Final+results+from+a+national+multicenter+phase+II+trial+of+combination+bacillus+Calmette-Guerin+plus+interferon+alpha-2B+for+reducing+recurrence+of+superficial+bladder+cancer.">Final results from a national multicenter phase II trial of combination bacillus Calmette-Guerin plus interferon alpha-2B for reducing recurrence of superficial bladder cancer.</a> Urol. Oncol. 24 (4), 344-348 (2006).</li><li>Lau, S. K., Weiss, L. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+expression+of+MUC1,+MUC2,+and+MUC5AC+in+carcinomas+of+various+sites:+an+immunohistochemical+study.">Differential expression of MUC1, MUC2, and MUC5AC in carcinomas of various sites: an immunohistochemical study.</a> Am. J. Clin. Pathol. 122 (1), 61-69 (2004).</li><li>Hollingsworth, M. A., Swanson, B. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mucins+in+cancer:+protection+and+control+of+the+cell+surface.">Mucins in cancer: protection and control of the cell surface.</a> Nat. Rev. Cancer. 4 (1), 45-60 (2004).</li><li>Scholfield, D. P., Simms, M. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MUC1+mucin+in+urological+malignancy.">MUC1 mucin in urological malignancy.</a> BJU Int. 91 (6), 560-566 (2003).</li><li>Devine, P. L., McKenzie, I. F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mucins:+structure,+function,+and+association+with+malignancy.">Mucins: structure, function, and association with malignancy.</a> Bioessays. 14 (9), 619-625 (1992).</li><li>Jerome, K. R., Barnd, D. L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytotoxic+T-lymphocytes+derived+from+patients+with+breast+adenocarcinomas+recognize+an+epitope+present+on+the+protein+core+of+a+mucin+molecule+preferentially+expressed+by+malignant+cells.">Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes derived from patients with breast adenocarcinomas recognize an epitope present on the protein core of a mucin molecule preferentially expressed by malignant cells.</a> Cancer Res. 51 (11), 2908-2916 (1991).</li><li>Takahashi, T., Makiguchi, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+of+MUC1+on+myeloma+cells+and+induction+of+HLA-unrestricted+CTL+against+MUC1+from+a+multiple+myeloma+patient.">Expression of MUC1 on myeloma cells and induction of HLA-unrestricted CTL against MUC1 from a multiple myeloma patient.</a> J. Immunol. 153 (5), 2102-2109 (1994).</li><li>Choi, C., Witzens, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enrichment+of+functional+CD8+memory+T+cells+specific+for+MUC1+in+bone+marrow+of+patients+with+multiple+myeloma.">Enrichment of functional CD8 memory T cells specific for MUC1 in bone marrow of patients with multiple myeloma.</a> Blood. 105 (5), 2132-2134 (2005).</li><li>Barnd, D. L., Lan, M. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specific,+major+histocompatibility+complex-+unrestricted+recognition+of+tumor-associated+mucins+by+human+cytotoxic+T-cells.">Specific, major histocompatibility complex- unrestricted recognition of tumor-associated mucins by human cytotoxic T-cells.</a> Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 86 (18), 7159-7163 (1989).</li><li>Ioannides, C. G., Fisk, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cytotoxic+T-cells+from+ovarian+malignant+tumors+can+recognize+polymorphic+epithelial+mucin+core+peptides.">Cytotoxic T-cells from ovarian malignant tumors can recognize polymorphic epithelial mucin core peptides.</a> J. Immunol. 151 (7), 3693-3703 (1993).</li><li>Tang, C. K., Katsara, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Strategies+used+for+MUC1+immunotherapy:+human+clinical+studies.">Strategies used for MUC1 immunotherapy: human clinical studies.</a> Expert Rev. Vaccines. 7 (7), 963-975 (2008).</li><li>Mukherjee, P., Ginardi, A. R., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MUC1-specific+cytotoxic+T+lymphocytes+eradicate+tumors+when+adoptively+transferred+in+vivo.">MUC1-specific cytotoxic T lymphocytes eradicate tumors when adoptively transferred in vivo.</a> Clin. Cancer Res. 7, 848-855 (2001).</li><li>Acres, B., Limacher, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MUC1+as+a+target+antigen+for+cancer+immunotherapy.">MUC1 as a target antigen for cancer immunotherapy.</a> Expert Rev. Vaccines. 4 (4), 493-502 (2005).</li><li>Butts, C., Murray, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Randomized+phase+IIB+trial+of+BLP25+liposome+vaccine+in+stage+IIIB+and+IV+non-small-cell+lung+cancer.">Randomized phase IIB trial of BLP25 liposome vaccine in stage IIIB and IV non-small-cell lung cancer.</a> J. Clin. Oncol. 23 (27), 6674-6681 (2005).</li><li>Butts, C., Maksymiuk, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Updated+survival+analysis+in+patients+with+stage+IIIB+or+IV+non-small-cell+lung+cancer+receiving+BLP25+liposome+vaccine+(L-BLP25),+phase+IIB+randomized,+multicenter,+open-label+trial.">Updated survival analysis in patients with stage IIIB or IV non-small-cell lung cancer receiving BLP25 liposome vaccine (L-BLP25), phase IIB randomized, multicenter, open-label trial.</a> J. Cancer. Res. Clin. Oncol. 137 (9), 1337-1342 (2011).</li><li>Agrawal, B., Krantz, M. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+induction+of+primary+human+CD4++and+CD8++T+cell+responses+against+cancer-associated+MUC1+peptide+epitopes.">Rapid induction of primary human CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses against cancer-associated MUC1 peptide epitopes.</a> Int. Immunol. 10 (12), 1907-1916 (1998).</li><li>Palmer, M., Parker, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phase+I+study+of+the+BLP25+(MUC1+peptide)+liposomal+vaccine+for+active+specific+immunotherapy+in+stage+IIIB/IV+non-small-cell+lung+cancer.">Phase I study of the BLP25 (MUC1 peptide) liposomal vaccine for active specific immunotherapy in stage IIIB/IV non-small-cell lung cancer.</a> Clin. Lung Cancer. 3 (1), 49-57 (2001).</li><li>Walsh, M. D., Hohn, B. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mucin+expression+by+transitional+cell+carcinomas+of+the+bladder.">Mucin expression by transitional cell carcinomas of the bladder.</a> Br. J. Urol. 73 (3), 256-262 (1994).</li><li>Murray, A., Simms, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Production+and+characterization+of+rhenium-188-C595+antibody+for+radioimmunotherapy+of+transitional+cell+bladder+cancer.">Production and characterization of rhenium-188-C595 antibody for radioimmunotherapy of transitional cell bladder cancer.</a> J. Nucl. Med. 42 (5), 726-732 (2001).</li><li>Hughes, O., Bishop, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Targeting+superficial+bladder+cancer+by+the+intravesical+administration+of+67copper-labelled+anti-MUC1+mucin+monoclonal+antibody+C595.">Targeting superficial bladder cancer by the intravesical administration of 67copper-labelled anti-MUC1 mucin monoclonal antibody C595.</a> J. Clin. Oncol. 18 (2), 363-370 (2000).</li><li>Conn, I. G., Crocker, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=HMFG-2+as+a+prognostic+indicator+in+superficial+bladder+cancer.">HMFG-2 as a prognostic indicator in superficial bladder cancer.</a> J. Clin. Pathol. 41 (11), 1191-1195 (1988).</li><li>Hughes, O., Denley, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=MUC1+mucin+expression+in+transitional+cell+carcinoma+of+the+bladder:+a+target+for+diagnosis+and+therapy+with+monoclonal+antibody+C595.">MUC1 mucin expression in transitional cell carcinoma of the bladder: a target for diagnosis and therapy with monoclonal antibody C595.</a> J. Urol. Pathol. 12, 185-197 (2000).</li><li>Rowse, G. J., Tempero, R. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tolerance+and+immunity+to+MUC1+in+a+human+MUC1+transgenic+murine+model.">Tolerance and immunity to MUC1 in a human MUC1 transgenic murine model.</a> Cancer Res. 58 (2), 315-321 (1998).</li><li>Mukherjee, P., Madsen, C. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mucin-1+specific+immunotherapy+in+a+mouse+model+of+spontaneous+breast+cancer.">Mucin-1 specific immunotherapy in a mouse model of spontaneous breast cancer.</a> J. Immunother. 26 (1), 47-62 (2003).</li><li>McCormick, D. L., Ronan, S. S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Influence+of+total+dose+and+dose+schedule+on+induction+of+urinary+bladder+cancer+in+the+mouse+by+N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxy-butyl)nitrosamine.">Influence of total dose and dose schedule on induction of urinary bladder cancer in the mouse by N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxy-butyl)nitrosamine.</a> Carcinogenesis. 2 (3), 251-254 (1981).</li><li>Wurz, G. T., Gutierrez, A. M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Antitumor+effects+of+L-BLP25+antigen-specific+tumor+immunotherapy+in+a+novel+human+MUC1+transgenic+lung+cancer+mouse+model.">Antitumor effects of L-BLP25 antigen-specific tumor immunotherapy in a novel human MUC1 transgenic lung cancer mouse model.</a> J. Transl. Med. 11, 10-1186 (2013).</li><li>Kunze, E., Schauer, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Stages+of+transformation+in+the+development+of+N-butyl-N-(4hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine-induced+transitional+cell+carcinomas+in+the+urinary+bladder+of+rats.">Stages of transformation in the development of N-butyl-N-(4hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine-induced transitional cell carcinomas in the urinary bladder of rats.</a> Z Krebsforsch Klin. Onkol. Cancer Res. Clin. Oncol. 87 (2), 139-160 (1976).</li><li>Crallan, R. A., Georgopoulos, N. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experimental+models+of+human+bladder+carcinogenesis.">Experimental models of human bladder carcinogenesis.</a> Carcinogenesis. 27 (3), 374-381 (2006).</li><li>Samma, S., Uemura, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+induction+of+carcinoma+in+situ+in+dog+urinary+bladder+by+sequential+treatment+with+N-methyl-N'-nitrosourea+and+N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine.">Rapid induction of carcinoma in situ in dog urinary bladder by sequential treatment with N-methyl-N'-nitrosourea and N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine.</a> Gann. 75 (5), 385-387 (1984).</li><li>Bornhof, C., Wolfrath, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Induction+of+urinary+bladder+urothelial+cancers+in+the+rabbit+by+dibutylnitrosamine+with+an+artificial+bladder+calculus+as+cocarcinogen.">Induction of urinary bladder urothelial cancers in the rabbit by dibutylnitrosamine with an artificial bladder calculus as cocarcinogen.</a> Urologe A. 28 (6), 339-343 (1989).</li><li>Irving, C. C., Tice, A. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Inhibition+of+N-n-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine-induced+urinary+bladder+cancer+in+rats+by+administration+of+disulfiram+in+the+diet.">Inhibition of N-n-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine-induced urinary bladder cancer in rats by administration of disulfiram in the diet.</a> Cancer Res. 39 (8), 3040-3043 (1979).</li><li>Mehta, N. R., Wurz, G. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=L-BLP25+vaccine+plus+letrozole+induces+a+TH1+immune+response+and+has+additive+antitumor+activity+in+MUC1-expresssing+mammary+tumors+in+mice.">L-BLP25 vaccine plus letrozole induces a TH1 immune response and has additive antitumor activity in MUC1-expresssing mammary tumors in mice.</a> Clin. Cancer Res. 18 (10), 2861-2871 (2012).</li></ol>

The successful induction of invasive transitional and squamous cell bladder carcinoma in human MUC1.Tg mice offers a preclinical model for Immunotherapy development. Immunotherapeutic studies require the use of a spontaneous, immune intact model in order to evaluate the inflammatory response to tumor progression over time as well as the immune response to immunotherapy. In a spontaneous tumor development model, the tumor microenvironment remains intact and the tumors develop at a more representative growth rate that allo...

Bladder cancer is the fourth most common form of cancer and the eighth leading cause of cancer deaths in American men. In the United States, an estimated 72,500 new cases and 15,000 deaths from bladder cancer are expected among men and women combined in 20131. The incidence of bladder cancer is approximately three times as high in men compared to women. In the United States, transitional cell carcinomas (TCC) account for over 90% of cases, while squamous cell carcinomas (SCC) have an incidence of less than 2%2. The overall relative 5-year survival rate for papillary TCC is 91.5% compared to only 30.9% for SCC2. Although noninvasive papillary TCCs account for approximately 75% of cases at the time of diagnosis, even with treatment more than 50% of patients will experience a recurrence within 5 years, with up to 30% of these patients progressing to muscle invasive disease3,4. Typical treatment regimens for non-muscle invasive disease include transurethral resection (TUR) followed by intravesical chemotherapy. In patients with high-grade Ta or T1 tumors, a repeat TUR may be performed prior to chemotherapy3,4. For those patients with low-grade Ta recurrences or high-grade Ta or T1 lesions, TUR followed by adjuvant chemotherapy or immunotherapy in the form of Bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) may be used3,4. Intravesical BCG has been shown to be superior to intravesical mitomycin C with respect to time to recurrence5. For T2 muscle invasive disease, radical cystectomy with or without neoadjuvant chemotherapy is the recommended course of treatment3. In patients with SCC, radical cystectomy appears to be the most effective treatment6. Given the very high rates of recurrence despite the best treatments available, there is clearly a need for new, more effective therapies for bladder cancer.
Expanding new immunotherapies for bladder cancer is one possible approach that may hold promise for extending disease-free survival. Historically, BCG has been the only effective immunotherapy for bladder cancer. Its mechanism of action is thought to involve the nonspecific induction of a T-helper 1 (Th1) type immune response via increasing levels of interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon gamma (IFN-&#947;)4. Cellular, or Th1 immunity, is critical in cancer immunotherapy as humoral, or Th2, immunity has never been shown to be effective against solid tumors, with the exception of antibodies directed against growth factor receptors7. In an attempt to improve upon the benefits of BCG monotherapy, IFN-&#945; 2B/BCG combination immunotherapy was evaluated in a phase II clinical trial with inconclusive results8. An alternative approach to immunotherapy for bladder cancer may be to target tumor-associated antigens (TAAs), the identification of which has made cancer immunotherapy more specific7.
One such TAA is mucin 1 (MUC1), which is a cell surface glycoprotein overexpressed in many epithelial cell cancers such as bladder, breast, lung, and pancreatic cancer9,10. The expression and modification of MUC1 is also substantially altered during carcinogenesis, such that underglycosylation exposes antigenic sequences of amino acids known as variable number of tandem repeats (VNTR) on the peptide core. While MUC1 is a self-molecule, these immunodominant VNTR regions are not normally exposed due to extensive glycosylation, and thus they are seen by the immune system as foreign11,12. Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) that specifically recognize MUC1 epitopes have been isolated from the tumor-draining lymph nodes of breast cancer patients13, as well as the blood and bone marrow of myeloma patients14,15, making MUC1 a potential target for a cellular immune response. The immunodominant VNTRs of the underglycosylated form of MUC1 are recognized by CTLs, resulting in the destruction of tumor cells16-19. Native cellular and/or humoral immune responses to cancerous MUC1 are, however, not strong enough to eliminate tumors. To augment the already existing weak immune response to MUC1, synthetic immunodominant peptides can be introduced through vaccination to generate a CTL response strong enough to be of clinical benefit18,20. A MUC1 liposomal vaccine has already been shown to increase survival in lung cancer patients21,22, generate CTLs capable of killing MUC1-positive tumor cells, and produce a Th1-polarized cytokine response23,24. With a high level of MUC1 expression9,11,25, bladder cancer is a logical candidate for testing MUC1-directed immunotherapy26,27. Furthermore, MUC1 has potential as a prognostic factor in bladder cancer28, MUC1 expression in TCC is significantly associated with stage and grade, and metastatic TCC has been shown to continue to express MUC129.
In order to evaluate the potential utility of MUC1-directed immunotherapy in bladder cancer, we developed an immune intact human MUC1 (hMUC1)-expressing transgenic (MUC1.Tg) mouse model of bladder cancer congenic on the C57BL/6 background30. Human MUC1 is expressed as a self-protein under the control of its own promoter, resulting in a tissue expression pattern consistent with that observed in humans30,31. The mice were induced with the known bladder carcinogen N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine (OH-BBN)32, and then the resulting tumors were evaluated for hMUC1 expression and tumor type and grade. To assess the effect of the carcinogen on Th1/Th2 cytokine levels during tumor development, serum samples were collected periodically for multiplex analysis. Mice were then treated with a MUC1-targeted peptide vaccine, and the serum cytokine and immune responses were evaluated by multiplex fluorometric microbead immunoassay and ELISpot.

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Reagent&#160;</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)-nitrosamine (OH-BBN)</td>
			<td>TCI America</td>
			<td>B0938</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20 G Gavage Needles</td>
			<td>Popper &#38; Sons, Inc.</td>
			<td>7921</td>
			<td>Stainless steel</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Peptide Vaccine</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>investigational agent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BD Microtainers</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>365957</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tissue Cassettes</td>
			<td>Simport</td>
			<td>M490-12</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>10% Neutral Buffered Formalin</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td>SF100-4</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Lysis Buffer</td>
			<td>Pierce</td>
			<td>87787</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Halt Protease &#38; Phosphatase inhibitor cocktail</td>
			<td>Thermo Scientific</td>
			<td>78444</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Pierce BCA Protein Assay Kit</td>
			<td>Pierce</td>
			<td>23225</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse Cytokine 20plex Kit</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>LMC006</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Magnetic Microsphere Beads</td>
			<td>Luminex</td>
			<td>MC100xx-01</td>
			<td>xx is the bead region</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse TNF- Capture Antibody</td>
			<td>BD Pharmingen</td>
			<td>551225</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse TNF- Detection Antibody</td>
			<td>BD Pharmingen</td>
			<td>554415</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse IFN- Capture Antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab10742</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-mouse IFN- Detection Antibody</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab83136</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PBS, pH 7.4</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>P3813-10PAK</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Tween-20</td>
			<td>Fisher</td>
			<td>BP337-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Assay Buffer</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>L-MAB</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cytokine Standard</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>MXM8070</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Multi-screen HTS 96well filter plates</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>MSBVN1210</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SA-PE</td>
			<td>Invitrogen</td>
			<td>SA10044</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>100 m Nylon Tissue Sieves</td>
			<td>BD</td>
			<td>352360</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Splenocyte Separation Media</td>
			<td>Lonza</td>
			<td>17-829E</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TNF- /IL-4 ELISpot plates</td>
			<td>R&#38;D Systems</td>
			<td>ELD5217</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit Anti-MUC1 monoclonal antibody</td>
			<td>Epitomics</td>
			<td>2900-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat Anti-actin monoclonal antibody</td>
			<td>Sigma</td>
			<td>A1978</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anti-rabbit HRP antibody</td>
			<td>Promega</td>
			<td>W401B</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-mouse HRP antibody</td>
			<td>Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.</td>
			<td>SC-2005</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>PVDF membrane</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>162-0174</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini Protean TGX Precast Gels</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>456-1083</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Muse Count &#38; Viability Kit</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>MCH100104</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MUC1 Antibody</td>
			<td>BD Pharmingen</td>
			<td>550486</td>
			<td>IHC antibody</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Animal Research Peroxidase Kit</td>
			<td>Dako</td>
			<td>K3954</td>
			<td>IHC staining</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td>[header]</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Equipment and Software</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Millipore plate vaccum apparatus</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>MSVMHTS00</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luminex Lx200</td>
			<td>Millipore / Luminex</td>
			<td>40-013</td>
			<td>Manufactured by Luminex, distributed by Millipore</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Luminex Xponent Software</td>
			<td>Millipore / Luminex</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Version 3.1; included with Luminex Lx200</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Milliple Analyst Software</td>
			<td>Milliplex / VigeneTech</td>
			<td>40-086</td>
			<td>Version 5.1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Muse Cell Analyzer</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>0500-3115</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Muse Software</td>
			<td>Millipore</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Version 1.1.0.0; included with Analyzer</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dissecting Microscope</td>
			<td>Unitron</td>
			<td>Z730</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graphpad Prism Software</td>
			<td>Graphpad Software Inc.</td>
			<td>N/A</td>
			<td>Version 5.1</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mini Protean Tetra Cell Gel apparatus</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>165-8001</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Trans Blot SD Cell and PowerPac</td>
			<td>BioRad</td>
			<td>170-3849</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

induction of invasive transitional cell bladder carcinoma in immune intact human muc1 transgenic mice:  a model for immunotherapy development

A preclinical model of invasive bladder cancer was developed in human mucin 1 (MUC1) transgenic (MUC1.Tg) mice for the purpose of evaluating immunotherapy and/or cytotoxic chemotherapy. To induce bladder cancer, C57BL/6 mice (MUC1.Tg and wild type) were treated orally with the carcinogen N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine (OH-BBN) at 3.0 mg/day, 5 days/week for 12 weeks. To assess the effects of OH-BBN on serum cytokine profile during tumor development, whole blood was collected via submandibular bleeds prior to treatment and every four weeks. In addition, a MUC1-targeted peptide vaccine and placebo were administered to groups of mice weekly for eight weeks. Multiplex fluorometric microbead immunoanalyses of serum cytokines during tumor development and following vaccination were performed. At termination, interferon gamma (IFN-&#947;)/interleukin-4 (IL-4) ELISpot analysis for MUC1 specific T-cell immune response and histopathological evaluations of tumor type and grade were performed. The results showed that: (1) the incidence of bladder cancer in both MUC1.Tg and wild type mice was 67%; (2) transitional cell carcinomas (TCC) developed at a 2:1 ratio compared to squamous cell carcinomas (SCC); (3) inflammatory cytokines increased with time during tumor development; and (4) administration of the peptide vaccine induces a Th1-polarized serum cytokine profile and a MUC1 specific T-cell response. All tumors in MUC1.Tg mice were positive for MUC1 expression, and half of all tumors in MUC1.Tg and wild type mice were invasive. In conclusion, using a team approach through the coordination of the efforts of pharmacologists, immunologists, pathologists and molecular biologists, we have developed an immune intact transgenic mouse model of bladder cancer that expresses hMUC1.

The preclinical assessment of the effects of novel immunotherapies and combinations in bladder cancer requires the development of an appropriate animal model. In our transgenic mouse model, induction with the chemical carcinogen OH-BBN resulted in a high rate of bladder cancer incidence of predominantly TCC with some SCC, which is similar to bladder cancer in humans. To determine tumor histology, MUC1 expression status and the immune response to the peptide vaccine treatment, 21 MUC1.Tg and 18 wild type mice were euthani...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Induction of Invasive Transitional Cell Bladder Carcinoma in Immune Intact Human MUC1 Transgenic Mice:  A Model for Immunotherapy Development at JoVE.com

Induction of Invasive Transitional Cell Bladder Carcinoma in Immune Intact Human MUC1 Transgenic Mice:  A Model for Immunotherapy Development

An N-butyl-N-(4-hydroxybutyl)nitrosamine-induced bladder cancer model was developed in human mucin 1 (MUC1) transgenic mice for the purpose of testing MUC1-directed immunotherapy. After administering a MUC1-targeted peptide vaccine, a cytotoxic T lymphocyte response to MUC1 was confirmed by measuring serum cytokine levels and T-cell specific activity.

A preclinical model of invasive bladder cancer was developed in human mucin 1 (MUC1) transgenic (MUC1.Tg) mice for the purpose of evaluating immunotherapy ...

induction-invasive-transitional-cell-bladder-carcinoma-immune-intact

Research

JoVE Journal

Medicine

Establishment and Propagation of Human Retinoblastoma Tumors in Immune Deficient Mice

Culturing retinoblastoma tumor cells in defined stem cell media gives rise to primary tumorspheres that can be grown and maintained for only a limited time. These cultured tumorspheres may exhibit markedly different cellular phenotypes when compared to the original tumors. Demonstration that cultured cells have the capability of forming new tumors is important to ensure that cultured cells model the biology of the original tumor. 
Here we present a protocol for propagating human retinoblastoma tumors in vivo using Rag2-/- immune deficient mice. Cultured human retinoblastoma tumorspheres of low passage or cells obtained from freshly harvested human retinoblastoma tumors injected directly into the vitreous cavity of murine eyes form tumors within 2-4 weeks. These tumors can be harvested and either further passaged into murine eyes in vivo or grown as tumorspheres in vitro. Propagation has been successfully carried out for at least three passages thus establishing a continuing source of human retinoblastoma tissue for further experimentation. 
Wesley S. Bond and Lalita Wadhwa are co-first authors.

A method is described to propagate human retinoblastoma tumors in mice. Tumor cells are directly injected into the eyes of immune deficient mice. Secondary tumors have been successfully established using both cells directly harvested from human tumors and cultured tumorspheres.

Culturing retinoblastoma tumor cells in defined stem cell media gives rise to primary tumorspheres that can be grown and maintained for only a limited ...

Multi-photon Imaging of Tumor Cell Invasion in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient management strategies. Orthotopic mouse models of oral cancer have been developed to facilitate the study of factors that impact invasion and serve as model system for evaluating anti-tumor therapeutics. In these systems, visualization of disseminated tumor cells within oral cavity tissues has typically been conducted by either conventional histology or with in vivo bioluminescent methods. A primary drawback of these techniques is the inherent inability to accurately visualize and quantify early tumor cell invasion arising from the primary site in three dimensions. Here we describe a protocol that combines an established model for squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue (SCOT) with two-photon imaging to allow multi-vectorial visualization of lingual tumor spread. The OSC-19 head and neck tumor cell line was stably engineered to express the F-actin binding peptide LifeAct fused to the mCherry fluorescent protein (LifeAct-mCherry). Fox1nu/nu mice injected with these cells reliably form tumors that allow the tongue to be visualized by ex-vivo application of two-photon microscopy. This technique allows for the orthotopic visualization of the tumor mass and locally invading cells in excised tongues without disruption of the regional tumor microenvironment. In addition, this system allows for the quantification of tumor cell invasion by calculating distances that invaded cells move from the primary tumor site. Overall this procedure provides an enhanced model system for analyzing factors that contribute to SCOT invasion and therapeutic treatments tailored to prevent local invasion and distant metastatic spread. This method also has the potential to be ultimately combined with other imaging modalities in an in vivo setting.

A comprehensive overview of the techniques involved in generating a mouse model of oral cancer and quantitative monitoring of tumor invasion within the tongue through multi-photon microscopy of labeled cells is presented. This system can serve as a useful platform for the molecular assessment and drug efficacy of anti-invasive compounds.

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient ...

Protocol for Long Duration Whole Body Hyperthermia in Mice

Hyperthermia is a general term used to define the increase in core body temperature above normal. It is often used to describe the increased core body temperature that is observed during fever. The use of hyperthermia as an adjuvant has emerged as a promising procedure for tumor regression in the field of cancer biology. For this purpose, the most important requirement is to have reliable and uniform heating protocols. We have developed a protocol for hyperthermia (whole body) in mice. In this protocol, animals are exposed to cycles of hyperthermia for 90 min followed by a rest period of 15 min. During this period mice have easy access to food and water. High body temperature spikes in the mice during first few hyperthermia exposure cycles are prevented by immobilizing the animal. Additionally, normal saline is administered in first few cycles to minimize the effects of dehydration. This protocol can simulate fever like conditions in mice up to 12-24 hr. We have used 8-12 weeks old BALB/Cj female mice to demonstrate the protocol.

This paper describes a protocol for whole body hyperthermia in mice that can stimulate fever like conditions up to 12-24 hr.

Hyperthermia is a general term used to define the increase in core body temperature above normal. It is often used to describe the increased core body ...

The Use of Cystometry in Small Rodents: A Study of Bladder Chemosensation

The lower urinary tract (LUT) functions as a dynamic reservoir that is able to store urine and to efficiently expel it at a convenient time. While storing urine, however, the bladder is exposed for prolonged periods to waste products. By acting as a tight barrier, the epithelial lining of the LUT, the urothelium, avoids re-absorption of harmful substances. Moreover, noxious chemicals stimulate the bladder's nociceptive innervation and initiate voiding contractions that expel the bladder's contents. Interestingly, the bladder's sensitivity to noxious chemicals has been used successfully in clinical practice, by intravesically infusing the TRPV1 agonist capsaicin to treat neurogenic bladder overactivity1. This underscores the advantage of viewing the bladder as a chemosensory organ and prompts for further clinical research. However, ethical issues severely limit the possibilities to perform, in human subjects, the invasive measurements that are necessary to unravel the molecular bases of LUT clinical pharmacology. A way to overcome this limitation is the use of several animal models2. Here we describe the implementation of cystometry in mice and rats, a technique that allows measuring the intravesical pressure in conditions of controlled bladder perfusion.
	After laparotomy, a catheter is implanted in the bladder dome and tunneled subcutaneously to the interscapular region. Then the bladder can be filled at a controlled rate, while the urethra is left free for micturition. During the repetitive cycles of filling and voiding, intravesical pressure can be measured via the implanted catheter. As such, the pressure changes can be quantified and analyzed. Moreover, simultaneous measurement of the voided volume allows distinguishing voiding contractions from non-voiding contractions3.
	Importantly, due to the differences in micturition control between rodents and humans, cystometric measurements in these animals have only limited translational value4. Nevertheless, they are quite instrumental in the study of bladder pathophysiology and pharmacology in experimental pre-clinical settings. Recent research using this technique has revealed the key role of novel molecular players in the mechano- and chemo-sensory properties of the bladder.

Cystometry is an efficient technique to measure bladder function of small animals in vivo. The bladder is continuously infused at rates controlled through an intravesical catheter, whereas the urethra is left free for micturition. This allows for repetitive filling and emptying of the bladder, while intravesical pressure and voided volume are recorded.

	The lower urinary tract (LUT) functions as a  dynamic reservoir that is able to store urine and to efficiently expel it at a  convenient time. While ...

Generation of Subcutaneous and Intrahepatic Human Hepatocellular Carcinoma Xenografts in Immunodeficient Mice

In vivo experimental models of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that recapitulate the human disease provide a valuable platform for research into disease pathophysiology and for the preclinical evaluation of novel therapies. We present a variety of methods to generate subcutaneous or orthotopic human HCC xenografts in immunodeficient mice that could be utilized in a variety of research applications. With a focus on the use of primary tumor tissue from patients undergoing surgical resection as a starting point, we describe the preparation of cell suspensions or tumor fragments for xenografting. We describe specific techniques to xenograft these tissues i) subcutaneously; or ii) intrahepatically, either by direct implantation of tumor cells or fragments into the liver, or indirectly by injection of cells into the mouse spleen. We also describe the use of partial resection of the native mouse liver at the time of xenografting as a strategy to induce a state of active liver regeneration in the recipient mouse that may facilitate the intrahepatic engraftment of primary human tumor cells. The expected results of these techniques are illustrated. The protocols described have been validated using primary human HCC samples and xenografts, which typically perform less robustly than the well-established human HCC cell lines that are widely used and frequently cited in the literature. In comparison with cell lines, we discuss factors which may contribute to the relatively low chance of primary HCC engraftment in xenotransplantation models and comment on technical issues that may influence the kinetics of xenograft growth. We also suggest methods that should be applied to ensure that xenografts obtained accurately resemble parent HCC tissues.

Human tumor xenografts in immunodeficient mice are valuable tools to study cancer biology. Specific protocols to generate subcutaneous and intrahepatic xenografts from human hepatocellular carcinoma cells or tumor fragments are described. Liver regeneration induced by partial hepatectomy in recipient mice is presented as a strategy to facilitate intrahepatic engraftment.

In  vivo experimental models of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) that recapitulate  the human disease provide a valuable platform for research into disease  ...

Urinary Bladder Distention Evoked Visceromotor Responses as a Model for Bladder Pain in Mice

Approximately 3-8 million people in the United States suffer from interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS), a debilitating condition characterized by increased urgency and frequency of urination, as well as nocturia and general pelvic pain, especially upon bladder filling or voiding. Despite years of research, the cause of IC/BPS remains elusive and treatment strategies are unable to provide complete relief to patients. In order to study nervous system contributions to the condition, many animal models have been developed to mimic the pain and symptoms associated with IC/BPS. One such murine model is urinary bladder distension (UBD). In this model, compressed air of a specific pressure is delivered to the bladder of a lightly anesthetized animal over a set period of time. Throughout the procedure, wires in the superior oblique abdominal muscles record electrical activity from the muscle. This activity is known as the visceromotor response (VMR) and is a reliable and reproducible measure of nociception. Here, we describe the steps necessary to perform this technique in mice including surgical manipulations, physiological recording, and data analysis. With the use of this model, the coordination between primary sensory neurons, spinal cord secondary afferents, and higher central nervous system areas involved in bladder pain can be unraveled. This basic science knowledge can then be clinically translated to treat patients suffering from IC/BPS.

Approximately 3-8 million people in the United States suffer from interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS), a debilitating condition characterized in part by pelvic pain. In order to study nervous system contributions to the condition, a physiological model of urinary bladder pain is used in mice and rats.

Approximately 3-8 million people in the United States suffer from interstitial cystitis/bladder pain syndrome (IC/BPS), a debilitating condition ...

Facial Nerve Axotomy in Mice: A Model to Study Motoneuron Response to Injury

The goal of this surgical protocol is to expose the facial nerve, which innervates the facial musculature, at its exit from the stylomastoid foramen and either cut or crush it to induce peripheral nerve injury. Advantages of this surgery are its simplicity, high reproducibility, and the lack of effect on vital functions or mobility from the subsequent facial paralysis, thus resulting in a relatively mild surgical outcome compared to other nerve injury models. A major advantage of using a cranial nerve injury model is that the motoneurons reside in a relatively homogenous population in the facial motor nucleus in the pons, simplifying the study of the motoneuron cell bodies. Because of the symmetrical nature of facial nerve innervation and the lack of crosstalk between the facial motor nuclei, the operation can be performed unilaterally with the unaxotomized side serving as a paired internal control. A variety of analyses can be performed postoperatively to assess the physiologic response, details of which are beyond the scope of this article. For example, recovery of muscle function can serve as a behavioral marker for reinnervation, or the motoneurons can be quantified to measure cell survival. Additionally, the motoneurons can be accurately captured using laser microdissection for molecular analysis. Because the facial nerve axotomy is minimally invasive and well tolerated, it can be utilized on a wide variety of genetically modified mice. Also, this surgery model can be used to analyze the effectiveness of peripheral nerve injury treatments. Facial nerve injury provides a means for investigating not only motoneurons, but also the responses of the central and peripheral glial microenvironment, immune system, and target musculature. The facial nerve injury model is a widely accepted peripheral nerve injury model that serves as a powerful tool for studying nerve injury and regeneration.

We present a surgical protocol detailing how to perform a cut or crush axotomy on the facial nerve in the mouse. The facial nerve axotomy can be employed to study the physiological response to nerve injury and test therapeutic techniques.

The goal of this surgical protocol is to expose the facial nerve, which innervates the facial musculature, at its exit from the stylomastoid foramen and ...

Induction of Accelerated Atherosclerosis in Mice: The "Wire-Injury" Model

Atherosclerosis is a proliferative fibro-inflammatory disease developing in the arterial wall, inducing a deficient blood flow or a lack of blood flow. Moreover, by rupture of the defective vascular wall, atherosclerosis induces occlusive thrombus formation, which represents the main cause of myocardial infarction or stroke and the most frequent cause of death. Despite the advances in the cardiovascular field, many questions remain unanswered, and additional basic research is essential to improve our understanding of the molecular mechanisms during atherosclerosis and its effects. Due to limited clinical studies, there is a need for representative animal models recreating atherosclerotic conditions such as neointima formation after stent implantation, balloon angioplasty, or endarterectomy. Since the mouse presents many advantages and is the most frequently used model for studying molecular processes, the current study proposes an invasive procedure of endothelial denudation, also known as the wire-injury model, which is representative of the human condition of neointima formation in arteries after revascularization procedures.

This study describes an invasive procedure for the induction of accelerated atherosclerosis in mice. In comparison to other methods using electric- or cryo-induced injury, mechanical-induced injury mimics the human condition of restenosis after revascularization therapies and is ideal for the study of the molecular mechanisms involved.

Atherosclerosis is a proliferative fibro-inflammatory disease developing in the arterial wall, inducing a deficient blood flow or a lack of blood flow. ...

Technique of Minimally Invasive Transverse Aortic Constriction in Mice for Induction of Left Ventricular Hypertrophy

Transverse aortic constriction (TAC) in mice is one of the most commonly used surgical techniques for experimental investigation of pressure overload-induced left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH) and its progression to heart failure. In the majority of the reported investigations, this procedure is performed with intubation and ventilation of the animal which renders it demanding and time-consuming and adds to the surgical burden to the animal. The aim of this protocol is to describe a simplified technique of minimally invasive TAC without intubation and ventilation of mice. Critical steps of the technique are emphasized in order to achieve low mortality and high efficiency in inducing LVH.
Male C57BL/6 mice (10-week-old, 25-30 g, n=60) were anesthetized with a single intraperitoneal injection of a mixture of ketamine and xylazine. In a spontaneously breathing animal following a 3-4 mm upper partial sternotomy, a segment of 6/0 silk suture threaded through the eye of a ligation aid was passed under the aortic arch and tied over a blunted 27-gauge needle. Sham-operated animals underwent the same surgical preparation but without aortic constriction. The efficacy of the procedure in inducing LVH is attested by a significant increase in the heart/body weight ratio. This ratio is obtained at days 3, 7, 14 and 28 after surgery (n = 6 - 10 in each group and each time point). Using our technique, LVH is observed in TAC compared to sham animals from day 7 through day 28. Operative and late (over 28 days) mortalities are both very low at 1.7%.
In conclusion, our cost-effective technique of minimally invasive TAC in mice carries very low operative and post-operative mortalities and is highly efficient in inducing LVH. It simplifies the operative procedure and reduces the strain put on the animal. It can be easily performed by following the critical steps described in this protocol.

The aim of this protocol is to describe step-by-step the technique of minimally invasive transverse aortic constriction (TAC) in mice. By elimination of intubation and ventilation which are mandatory for the commonly used standard procedure, minimally invasive TAC simplifies the operative procedure and reduces the strain put on the animal.

Transverse aortic constriction (TAC) in mice is one of the most commonly used surgical techniques for experimental investigation of pressure ...

A Minimally Invasive Model to Analyze Endochondral Fracture Healing in Mice Under Standardized Biomechanical Conditions

Bone healing models are necessary to analyze the complex mechanisms of fracture healing to improve clinical fracture treatment. During the last decade, an increased use of mouse models in orthopedic research was noted, most probably because mouse models offer a large number of genetically-modified strains and special antibodies for the analysis of molecular mechanisms of fracture healing. To control the biomechanical conditions, well-characterized osteosynthesis techniques are mandatory, also in mice. Here, we report on the design and use of a closed bone healing model to stabilize femur fractures in mice. The intramedullary screw, made of medical-grade stainless steel, provides through fracture compression an axial and rotational stability compared to the mostly used simple intramedullary pins, which show a complete lack of axial and rotational stability. The stability achieved by the intramedullary screw allows the analysis of endochondral healing. A large amount of callus tissue, received after stabilization with the screw, offers ideal conditions to harvest tissue for biochemical and molecular analyses. A further advantage of the use of the screw is the fact that the screw can be inserted into the femur with a minimally invasive technique without inducing damage to the soft tissue. In conclusion, the screw is a unique implant that can ideally be used in closed fracture healing models offering standardized biomechanical conditions.

This protocol describes a minimally invasive osteosynthesis technique using an intramedullary screw for standardized stabilization of femur fractures, which can be used to analyze endochondral bone healing in mice.

Bone healing models are necessary to analyze the complex mechanisms of fracture healing to improve clinical fracture treatment. During the last decade, an ...