This work was supported by grants to D.K. from the Medical Research Foundation of Oregon and from NIH/NINDS (NS047663). E.S. was supported by a training grant from the NIH (T32AG023477).

1. fissare la testina sui collari e inclusione in paraffina Nota: Tutte le fasi del processo di fissazione dovrebbe essere fatto in una cappa aspirante. Benzoato di metile, anche se non presentano un rischio per la salute, ha un odore molto distinta, che può essere schiacciante, se non gestita in una cappa aspirante. <ol><li> Prima anestetizzare le mosche, portare 50 mL di soluzione di Carnoy aggiungendo 15 ml di cloroformio e 5 ml di acido acetico glaciale a 30 ml di 99% di etanolo (non mescolare cloroformio e acido acetico). Versare in un contenitore di vetro con un fondo piatto, come un piatto di cristallizzazione, il garantire che i collari possono distesi e sono completamente coperti dalla soluzione. </li><li> Anestetizzare le mosche con CO 2 o etere. </li><li> mosche filo (fino a 20) con la maggior parte collari per il collo nelle collari che utilizzano pinze. Ricordare per allineare tutte le teste con lo stesso orientamento, come mostrato in figura 1A, ed essere gentile per garantire che nessun danno si verifica alla testa o occhi. </li><li> Includere mosche sine Oculis (frecce, Figura 1A) in posizioni casuali in modo che l&#39;ordine delle mosche può essere facilmente identificato in sezioni. Inoltre, se le mosche sperimentali hanno un colore degli occhi chiaro o bianco, filo alcune mosche dagli occhi rossi, come il tipo selvaggio, tra di loro per garantire che il pigmento è considerata sufficiente a macchiare la diapositiva. Registrare l&#39;ordine delle mosche su un foglio protocollo nonché il numero collare se si utilizza più di un collare. </li><li> Una volta che un collare è stato finito, posizionarlo nella soluzione Carnoy preparato per 3,5-4 ore. </li><li> Dump la soluzione Carnoy nel contenitore di smaltimento appropriato e iniziare i lavaggi etanolo. Assicurarsi di versare lentamente in modo da non disturbare il posizionamento dei collari nel contenitore. </li><li> Lavare i collari per 30 minuti in 99% etanolo due volte. </li><li> Lavare i collari in 100% di etanolo per 1 h. Assicurarsi di modificare i lavaggi in tempo per evitare overdehydration. </li><li> Mettere i collari di benzoato di metileO / N a temperatura ambiente. Sigillare il contenitore con parafilm per impedire l&#39;evaporazione del benzoato di metile. </li><li> Versare il methylbenozate nel corretto contenitore monouso nella cappa. Aggiungere una miscela precedentemente preparata di 1: 1 a basso punto di fusione (56-57 ° C) cera di paraffina e benzoato di metile. Da questo punto in poi, i collari devono essere tenuti in un incubatore a 65 ° C per assicurarsi che la paraffina non si indurisce. </li><li> Versare il methylbenozate e la miscela di paraffina nel giusto contenitore monouso, e versare fuso paraffina pura, mantenuta a 65 ° C, sui collari. </li><li> Modificare la paraffina dopo 30 minuti e ripetere questo almeno 5 volte. Almeno 6 - 8 lavaggi devono essere eseguiti. </li><li> Una volta che i lavaggi sono completi, inserire i collari in una vaschetta per il ghiaccio in gomma con scanalature circa le dimensioni dei collari. Versare paraffina fusa su di loro fino a quando completamente ricoperta e lasciarlo indurire O / N (cercare di evitare bolle d&#39;aria). </li><li> Rimuovere i blocchi di paraffina containing i collari dal vassoio del cubo di ghiaccio. Separare il blocco di paraffina dal collare con una lama di rasoio, rompendo delicatamente il collare. Le teste saranno nel blocco di paraffina mentre i corpi rimarranno nel collare. I blocchi possono essere conservati a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Per pulire i collari, ammollo in un agente deparafinization a 65 ° C per rimuovere la paraffina, pulito, con lavaggio luce, e lavare in etanolo prima di riutilizzarlo. </li></ol> 2. Sezioni e montaggio <ol><li> Riscaldare una piastra riscaldante a 50 ° C. Posizionare i titolari oggetto (o blocchi di montaggio in metallo) e lame di rasoio sul piatto e lasciarli riscaldare. </li><li> A seconda dell&#39;orientamento desiderato per il sezionamento, collegare il blocco di paraffina o con le teste verso il lato (per sezioni orizzontali) o verso l&#39;alto (per le sezioni frontali) a un blocco di montaggio riscaldata (fusione brevemente il blocco sul lato di contatto). Rimuovere il blocco dalla piastra di riscaldamento e lasciarlo raffreddare per almeno 10 min garantire che la paraffina è indurito sufficiente per una buona tenuta sul blocco di montaggio. Mantenere la fila di teste allineate parallelamente alla superficie del blocco il più possibile per evitare sezioni irregolari. </li><li> Prendere una lametta e tagliare l&#39;eccesso di paraffina dalle teste volo in modo che solo una piccola fila con le teste incorporate rimane (la lama può essere riscaldato per facilitare il taglio). Assicurarsi di non tagliare troppo in modo che la paraffina non si rompa durante il sezionamento (più il taglio può essere fatto durante il sezionamento). </li><li> Posizionare il blocco di montaggio nel supporto oggetto del microtomo e garantire che l&#39;allineamento della fila di teste è più possibile parallelo al bordo della lama. </li><li> Preparare vetrini da microscopio coprendole con un sottile strato di soluzione di poli-L-lisina (PLL) e lasciate asciugare per 5 min. Coprire con acqua poco prima di utilizzare. </li><li> Tagliare 7 sezioni micron e trasferire il nastro delle sezioni alla slitta galleggiante sull&#39;acqua. &lt;br /&gt; Nota: Per ottenere l&#39;intero cervello per le sezioni orizzontali, raccogliamo il nastro da quando si inizia a tagliare in un occhio fino a quando la testa è stata completamente tagliato (il taglio dal proboscide nel cervello). Più di una diapositiva può essere necessaria per l&#39;intera testa. </li><li> Posizionare il vetrino su una piastra di calore a 37 ° C e permettere al nastro di espandersi per circa 1 min. </li><li> Rimuovere l&#39;acqua in eccesso (versando fuori o utilizzando un tessuto) e asciugare il diapositive O / N. </li><li> Rimuovere la cera di paraffina dal vetrino posizionando i vetrini in un uomo alto, vaso slide-colorazione verticale riempito con un agente deparafinization (che copre completamente le sezioni). Effettuare 3 lavaggi di 30 min - 60 min ciascuno. </li><li> Rimuovere il vetrino dal lavaggio finale. Mettere 2 gocce di media incorporamento sul vetrino e coprirlo con un largo coprioggetti. </li></ol> 3. Fotografare e l&#39;analisi dei Sezioni <ol><li> Lasciare i vetrini preparati ad asciugare per 1 - 2 d. Poi, li esaminerà in una microsc a fluorescenzaope sotto la luce blu. </li><li> Utilizzare un ingrandimento minore per determinare l&#39;orientamento delle mosche e per individuare la zona di interesse se concentrandosi su una regione specifica. NOTA: Per le mosche SWS (vedi figura 2), troviamo la sezione che contiene il grande commessura e scattare una foto (di solito a 40X di ingrandimento). Analizzando l&#39;intero cervello (come in figura 3), si scorrere tutte le sezioni da una testa e sia fotografare la sezione con il fenotipo più grave o tutte le sezioni che mostrano vacuoli. </li><li> Per un&#39;analisi doppio cieco, prendere e immagini numero senza conoscere il genotipo e registrare il numero di collare e la posizione della testa della fila di identificarli in seguito. </li><li> Una volta che sono state prese le immagini, analizzarli utilizzando un software di imaging. </li><li> Contare il numero di vacuoli per sezione o per capo. Per misurare la dimensione vacuolo, aprire le immagini in un programma software e selezionare i vacuoli con una selezione troppol. Determinare la quantità di pixel nei vacuoli selezionati. </li><li> Per la conversione di micron 2, scattare una foto di uno scivolo di calibrazione micrometrico al ingrandimento utilizzato per l&#39;acquisizione di foto. Determinare la quantità di pixel in 100 micron 2 per calcolare il fattore di conversione. </li><li> Convertire il numero totale di pixel in micron 2 dividendo il numero di pixel per il fattore di conversione calcolata nel passaggio precedente. </li></ol>

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Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glucocerebrosidase+Deficiency+in+Drosophila+Results+in+alpha-Synuclein-Independent+Protein+Aggregation+and+Neurodegeneration.">Glucocerebrosidase Deficiency in Drosophila Results in alpha-Synuclein-Independent Protein Aggregation and Neurodegeneration.</a> PLoS Genet. 12, e1005944 (2016).</li><li>Dias-Santagata, D., Fulga, T. A., Duttaroy, A., Feany, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidative+stress+mediates+tau-induced+neurodegeneration+in+Drosophila.">Oxidative stress mediates tau-induced neurodegeneration in Drosophila.</a> J Clin Invest. 117, 236-245 (2007).</li><li>Kretzschmar, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glial+and+neuronal+expression+of+polyglutamine+proteins+induce+behavioral+changes+and+aggregate+formation+in+Drosophila.">Glial and neuronal expression of polyglutamine proteins induce behavioral changes and aggregate formation in Drosophila.</a> Glia. 49, 59-72 (2005).</li><li>Li, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Drosophila+model+for+TDP-43+proteinopathy.">A Drosophila model for TDP-43 proteinopathy.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 107, 3169-3174 (2010).</li></ol>

Gli autori non hanno nulla da rivelare.

Il metodo descritto fornisce un mezzo per quantificare neurodegenerazione nel cervello di Drosophila. Mentre altri metodi, come conteggio di un tipo di cellula specifico, possono essere utilizzati per identificare neurodegenerazione, il vantaggio di questo metodo è che può essere applicata più in generale. Contare le cellule richiede che queste cellule possono essere identificate in modo affidabile utilizzando un anticorpo specifico o l&#39;espressione di un marcatore specifico per cellule, che non è sempre...

Con l&#39;aumento dell&#39;aspettativa di vita, malattie neurodegenerative come il morbo di Alzheimer o di Parkinson sono diventati una minaccia per la salute crescente per la popolazione generale. Secondo il National Institutes of Health, 115 milioni di persone nel mondo sono previsti per essere colpiti da demenza nel 2050. Anche se sono stati compiuti progressi significativi per identificare geni e fattori di rischio coinvolti in almeno alcune di queste malattie, per molti di loro, il sottostante meccanismi molecolari sono ancora sconosciuti o non ben compreso. Semplici invertebrati organismi modello come Caenorhabditis elegans e Drosophila melanogaster offrono una varietà di vantaggi sperimentali per studiare i meccanismi di malattie neurodegenerative, tra cui un breve ciclo di vita, gran numero di discendenti, e la disponibilità di metodi ben consolidati e, a volte unici genetici e molecolari 1 -12. Inoltre, questi organismi sono suscettibili di imparzialeschermi di interazione in grado di identificare i fattori che contribuiscono a queste malattie per i loro effetti aggravanti o Ameliorating sui fenotipi neurodegenerative. Analizzando tali interazioni genetiche e valutare gli effetti dell&#39;invecchiamento richiede protocolli quantitativi per rilevare neurodegenerazione e misurare la sua gravità. Questa valutazione può essere fatta in modo relativamente facile quando si misura aspetti comportamentali di Drosophila, quali l&#39;apprendimento olfattivo, geotassi negativi, o fototassi veloce, che forniscono un valore numerico delle prestazioni 13-21. È anche possibile determinare gli effetti sulla sopravvivenza neuronale contando neuroni. Tuttavia, questo è possibile solo quando concentrandosi su una specifica popolazione che è chiaramente identificabile, come i neuroni dopaminergici che sono interessati nel PD, e anche allora, i risultati sono stati controversi 22-24. Il protocollo qui descritto utilizza il metodo collare per eseguire sezioni seriali paraffina, un metodoche è stato originariamente sviluppato da Heisenberg e Böhl, che lo utilizzò per isolare i mutanti cerebrali anatomiche in Drosophila 25. L&#39;utilizzo del metodo collare è stato successivamente adattato, anche in criosezioni, vibratome sezioni e profilati in plastica 26-28. Ecco, questo metodo viene utilizzato per ottenere sezioni seriali di tutta la testa mosca, che può quindi essere utilizzato per misurare i vacuoli che si sviluppano in mosche con fenotipi neurodegenerative 16,21,29-32. Queste misurazioni possono essere eseguite in specifiche aree cerebrali o in grado di coprire l&#39;intero cervello; il secondo approccio permette di identificare anche fenotipi degenerative deboli, come osservato durante l&#39;invecchiamento. Infine, quando si utilizzano i collari, fino a 20 in linea può essere elaborato come una preparazione, che è non solo meno tempo, ma consente anche per l&#39;analisi di controllo e mosche sperimentali nella stessa preparazione, minimizzando artefatti da lievi variazioni la preparazione.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
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		<tr>
			<td>Name of the Reagent/Equipment</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collar</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>TS 48-100</td>
			<td>We are using custom made collars that are made from one piece of metal instead of layers as the ones by Genesee. A discription to make collars can be found at http://flybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu/Flybrain/html/atlas/fluorescent/index.html&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rubber ice cube tray for embedding</td>
			<td>Household store</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>The size can be made to fit by glueing in additional walls&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crystallizing dish</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific company</td>
			<td>08-762-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ether</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>E138-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Decon Laboratories Inc.</td>
			<td>2701</td>
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			<td>Choloroform</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>C298-500</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Glacial Acetic Acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>A38-212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methylbenzoate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>M205-500</td>
			<td>Distinct Odor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Use in fume hood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low Melting Point Paraffin Wax</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>T565</td>
			<td>Make sure to keep extra melted in a 65&#176;C waterbath</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>Reichert Jung 2040 Autocut</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Slide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>12-550D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Cover Glass</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>12-545-M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SafeClear</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>314-629</td>
			<td>Three different containers for washes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vertical Staining Jar with Cover</td>
			<td>Ted Pella Inc.&#160;</td>
			<td>432-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Permount</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>SP15-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-L-lysine Solution</td>
			<td>Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td>P8290-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

mass histology to quantify neurodegeneration in drosophila

malattie neurodegenerative progressive come la malattia di Alzheimer (AD) o malattia di Parkinson (PD) è una crescente minaccia per la salute umana in tutto il mondo. Sebbene i modelli di mammiferi hanno fornito importanti informazioni sui meccanismi alla base della patogenicità, la complessità dei sistemi di mammiferi insieme con i loro alti costi stanno limitando il loro utilizzo. Pertanto, il semplice ma ben consolidata modello di sistema Drosophila fornisce un&#39;alternativa per lo studio dei meccanismi molecolari che sono colpite in queste malattie. Oltre a deficit comportamentali, malattie neurodegenerative sono caratterizzate da fenotipi istologici come la morte neuronale e assonopatia. Per quantificare la degenerazione neuronale e per determinare come esso è influenzato da fattori genetici e ambientali, usiamo un approccio istologico che si basa sulla misurazione dei vacuoli nel cervello mosca adulta. Per ridurre al minimo gli effetti di errore sistematico e di confrontare direttamente le sezioni di controllo e expmosche erimental in una preparazione, si usa il metodo &#39;collare&#39; per le sezioni di paraffina. Neurodegeneration viene valutata misurando la dimensione e / o il numero di vacuoli che si sono sviluppate nel cervello mosca. Questo può essere fatto sia concentrandosi su una specifica regione di interesse o analizzando l&#39;intero cervello ottenendo sezioni seriali che attraversano la testa completa. Pertanto, questo metodo permette di misurare non solo la degenerazione grave, ma anche fenotipi relativamente lievi che sono rilevabili solo in alcune sezioni, come avviene durante il normale invecchiamento.

Utilizzando i risultati metodo descritto in sezioni seriali colorati con l&#39;occhio del pigmento 33 che comprendono l&#39;intera testa mosca. Una parte di questo è mostrato in Figura 1B, dove le sezioni da una testa individuo sono mostrati dall&#39;alto verso il basso. Le sezioni di diverse mosche sono visti da sinistra a destra in questo esempio. Per facilitare l&#39;orientamento e l&#39;identificazione delle mosche, una mosca senza occhi (Oculis sinus...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila at JoVE.com

Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Drosophila è ampiamente usato come sistema modello per studiare neurodegenerazione. Questo protocollo descrive un metodo con cui la degenerazione, come determinato dalla formazione vacuolo nel cervello, può essere quantificato. Si riduce anche effetti dovuti alla procedura sperimentale di elaborazione e controllo sezionamento e mosche sperimentali come un campione.

Messa Istologia per quantificare neurodegenerazione in<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Progressive neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) or Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD) are an increasing threat to human health ...

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Neuroscience

Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

10.1K Views.  Oregon Health & Sciences University.  Drosophila è ampiamente usato come sistema modello per studiare neurodegenerazione. Questo protocollo descrive un metodo con cui la degenerazione, come determinato dalla formazione vacuolo nel cervello, può essere quantificato. Si riduce anche effetti dovuti alla procedura sperimentale di elaborazione e controllo sezionamento e mosche sperimentali come un campione. 

Video: Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Quantifying Synapses: an Immunocytochemistry-based Assay to Quantify Synapse Number

One of the most important goals in neuroscience is to understand the molecular cues that instruct early stages of synapse formation. As such it has become imperative to develop objective approaches to quantify changes in synaptic connectivity. Starting from sample fixation, this protocol details how to quantify synapse number both in dissociated neuronal culture and in brain sections using immunocytochemistry. Using compartment-specific antibodies, we label presynaptic terminals as well as sites of postsynaptic specialization. We define synapses as points of colocalization between the signals generated by these markers. The number of these colocalizations is quantified using a plug in Puncta Analyzer (written by Bary Wark, available upon request, c.eroglu@cellbio.duke.edu) under the ImageJ analysis software platform. The synapse assay described in this protocol can be applied to any neural tissue or culture preparation for which you have selective pre- and postsynaptic markers. This synapse assay is a valuable tool that can be widely utilized in the study of synaptic development.

This protocol details how to quantify synapse number both in dissociated neuronal culture and in brain sections using immunocytochemistry. Using compartment-specific antibodies, we label presynaptic terminals as well as sites of postsynaptic specialization. We define synapses as points of colocalization between the signals generated by these markers.

Sinapsi quantificare: un Immunocitochimica basato su analisi per quantificare Numero Synapse

One of the most important goals in neuroscience is to understand the molecular cues that instruct early stages of synapse formation. As such it has become ...

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Neuroscienze

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal. Such analysis of two or more genes needs to be complemented with in situ hybridization of other genes, or immunohistochemistry of their proteins, both in whole mounted developing organs or sections for detailed resolution of the cellular and tissue expression alterations. Combining multiple gene alterations requires the use of cre or flipase to conditionally delete genes and avoid embryonic lethality. Required breeding schemes dramatically enhance effort and cost proportional to the number of genes mutated, with an outcome of very few animals with the full repertoire of genetic modifications desired. Amortizing the vast amount of effort and time to obtain these few precious specimens that are carrying multiple mutations necessitates tissue optimization. Moreover, investigating a single animal with multiple techniques makes it easier to correlate gene deletion defects with expression profiles. We have developed a technique to obtain a more thorough analysis of a given animal; with the ability to analyze several different histologically recognizable structures as well as gene and protein expression all from the same specimen in both whole mounted organs and sections. Although mice have been utilized to demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique it can be applied to a wide array of animals. To do this we combine lipophilic dye tracing, whole mount in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and histology to extract the maximal possible amount of data.

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

A combination of different techniques to maximize data collection from mouse tissue is presented.

La combinazione di coloranti lipofili, In situ Ibridazione, Immunoistochimica e Istologia

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal.  Such analysis of ...

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of these diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease are characterized by age-dependent deterioration in learning and memory functions and movement coordination2. Here we use behavioral assays, including the negative geotaxis assay3 and the aversive phototaxic suppression assay (APS assay)4,5, to show that some of the behavior characteristics associated with human neurodegeneration can be recapitulated in flies. In the negative geotaxis assay, the natural tendency of flies to move against gravity when agitated is utilized to study genes or conditions that may hinder locomotor capacities. In the APS assay, the learning and memory functions are tested in positively-phototactic flies trained to associate light with aversive bitter taste and hence avoid this otherwise natural tendency to move toward light. Testing these trained flies 6 hours post-training is used to assess memory functions. Using these assays, the contribution of any genetic or environmental factors toward developing neurodegeneration can be easily studied in flies.

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Behavior assays for measuring locomotor functions, learning, and memory abilities in Drosophila.

Deficit Locomotore dosaggio, apprendimento e memoria in Drosophila Modelli di neurodegenerazione

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron is damaged by injury or disease, it may regenerate. Cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the ability of a neuron to regenerate and restore function. Recently, the nematode C. elegans has emerged as an excellent model organism to identify genes and signaling pathways that influence the regeneration of neurons1-6. The main way to initiate neuronal regeneration in C. elegans is laser-mediated cutting, or axotomy. During axotomy, a fluorescently-labeled neuronal process is severed using high-energy pulses. Initially, neuronal regeneration in C. elegans was examined using an amplified femtosecond laser5. However, subsequent regeneration studies have shown that a conventional pulsed laser can be used to accurately sever neurons in vivo and elicit a similar regenerative response1,3,7.
We present a protocol for performing in vivo laser axotomy in the worm using a MicroPoint pulsed laser, a turnkey system that is readily available and that has been widely used for targeted cell ablation. We describe aligning the laser, mounting the worms, cutting specific neurons, and assessing subsequent regeneration. The system provides the ability to cut large numbers of neurons in multiple worms during one experiment. Thus, laser axotomy as described herein is an efficient system for initiating and analyzing the process of regeneration.

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

A protocol to cut neurons in C. elegans with a MicroPoint pulsed laser is presented. We describe setting up the system, immobilizing worms, and severing labeled neurons. Advantages include a relatively low-cost system and the ability to sever neuronal processes or ablate cells in vivo.

In vivo Laser assotomia in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron ...

Methods to Assay Drosophila Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, has been used to study molecular mechanisms of a wide range of human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and various neurological diseases1. We have optimized simple and robust behavioral assays for determining larval locomotion, adult climbing ability (RING assay), and courtship behaviors of Drosophila. These behavioral assays are widely applicable for studying the role of genetic and environmental factors on fly behavior. Larval crawling ability can be reliably used for determining early stage changes in the crawling abilities of Drosophila larvae and also for examining effect of drugs or human disease genes (in transgenic flies) on their locomotion. The larval crawling assay becomes more applicable if expression or abolition of a gene causes lethality in pupal or adult stages, as these flies do not survive to adulthood where they otherwise could be assessed. This basic assay can also be used in conjunction with bright light or stress to examine additional behavioral responses in Drosophila larvae. Courtship behavior has been widely used to investigate genetic basis of sexual behavior, and can also be used to examine activity and coordination, as well as learning and memory. Drosophila courtship behavior involves the exchange of various sensory stimuli including visual, auditory, and chemosensory signals between males and females that lead to a complex series of well characterized motor behaviors culminating in successful copulation. Traditional adult climbing assays (negative geotaxis) are tedious, labor intensive, and time consuming, with significant variation between different trials2-4. The rapid iterative negative geotaxis (RING) assay5 has many advantages over more widely employed protocols, providing a reproducible, sensitive, and high throughput approach to quantify adult locomotor and negative geotaxis behaviors. In the RING assay, several genotypes or drug treatments can be tested simultaneously using large number of animals, with the high-throughput approach making it more amenable for screening experiments.

Methods to Assay Drosophila Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster is a genetically and behaviorally tractable model system that has been used to understand the molecular and cellular basis of many important biological processes for over a century 1. Drosophila has been well exploited to gain insights into the genetic basis of fly behavior.

Metodi per test Drosophila Comportamento

Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, has been used to study molecular mechanisms of a wide range of human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular ...

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

Visualizzazione dei Propriorecettori in<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Larve e pupe

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Utilizing 3D Printing Technology to Merge MRI with Histology: A Protocol for Brain Sectioning

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows for the delineation between normal and abnormal tissue on a macroscopic scale, sampling an entire tissue volume three-dimensionally. While MRI is an extremely sensitive tool for detecting tissue abnormalities, association of signal changes with an underlying pathological process is usually not straightforward. In the central nervous system, for example, inflammation, demyelination, axonal damage, gliosis, and neuronal death may all induce similar findings on MRI. As such, interpretation of MRI scans depends on the context, and radiological-histopathological correlation is therefore of the utmost importance. Unfortunately, traditional pathological sectioning of brain tissue is often imprecise and inconsistent, thus complicating the comparison between histology sections and MRI. This article presents novel methodology for accurately sectioning primate brain tissues and thus allowing precise matching between histology and MRI. The detailed protocol described in this article will assist investigators in applying this method, which relies on the creation of 3D printed brain slicers. Slightly modified, it can be easily implemented for brains of other species, including humans.

The overall goal of this protocol is to accurately align magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) image volumes with histology sections via the creation of customized 3D-printed brain holders and slicer boxes.

Utilizzando la tecnologia di stampa 3D per unire RM con Istologia: Un protocollo per Brain Sezioni

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows for the delineation between normal and abnormal tissue on a macroscopic scale, sampling an entire tissue volume ...

A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is an established neurodegenerative disease that is closely associated with exposure to repetitive mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI). The mechanisms responsible for its complex pathological changes remain largely elusive, despite a recent consensus to define the neuropathological criteria. Here, we describe a novel method to develop a model of CTE in Drosophila melanogaster&#160;(Drosophila&#160;)&#160;in an attempt to identify the key genes and pathways that lead to the characteristic hyperphosphorylated tau accumulation and neuronal death in the brain. Adjustable-strength impacts to inflict mild closed injury are delivered directly to the fly head, subjecting the head to rapid acceleration and deceleration. Our method eliminates the potential problems inherent with other Drosophila mTBI models (e.g.,animal death might be induced by damage to other parts of the body or to internal organs). The less labor- and cost-intensive animal care, short life span, and extensive genetic tools make the fruit fly ideal to study CTE pathogenesis and make it possible to perform large-scale, genome-wide forward genetic and pharmacological screens. We anticipate that the ongoing characterization of the model will generate important mechanistic insights on disease prevention and therapeutic approaches.

A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila

Here, we describe a new approach to inflict closed-head traumatic brain injury in Drosophila melanogaster. Our method has the advantage of directly delivering repetitive impacts with adjustable strength to the head alone. Further exploration of the invertebrate system will help to illuminate the pathogenesis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy.

Un nuovo metodo per modellare l&#39;encefalopatia traumatica cronica in<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is an established neurodegenerative disease that is closely associated with exposure to repetitive mild Traumatic ...

Modeling Amyloid-&#946;42 Toxicity and Neurodegeneration in Adult Zebrafish Brain

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease in which accumulation of toxic amyloid-&#946;42 (A&#946;42) peptides leads to synaptic degeneration, inflammation, neuronal death, and learning deficits. Humans cannot regenerate lost neurons in the case of AD in part due to impaired proliferative capacity of the neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) and reduced neurogenesis. Therefore, efficient regenerative therapies should also enhance the proliferation and neurogenic capacity of NSPCs. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a regenerative organism, and we can learn the basic molecular programs with which we could design therapeutic approaches to tackle AD. For this reason, the generation of an AD-like model in zebrafish was necessary. Using our methodology, we can introduce synthetic derivatives of A&#946;42 peptide with tissue penetrating capability into the adult zebrafish brain, and analyze the disease pathology and the regenerative response. The advantage over the existing methods or animal models is that zebrafish can teach us how a vertebrate brain can naturally regenerate, and thus help us to treat human neurodegenerative diseases better by targeting endogenous NSPCs. Therefore, the amyloid-toxicity model established in the adult zebrafish brain may open new avenues for research in the field of neuroscience and clinical medicine. Additionally, the simple execution of this method allows for cost-effective and efficient experimental assessment. This manuscript describes the synthesis and injection of A&#946;42 peptides into zebrafish brain.

This protocol describes the synthesis, characterization, and injection of monomeric amyloid-&#946;42 peptides for generating amyloid toxicity in adult zebrafish to establish an Alzheimer&#39;s disease model, followed by histological analyses and detection of aggregations.

Modellazione dell'amiloide-β42 tossicità e neurodegenerazione nel cervello adulto di Zebrafish

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease in which accumulation of toxic amyloid-&#946;42 (A&#946;42) peptides leads to ...

Quantitative Analysis of Neuronal Dendritic Arborization Complexity in Drosophila

Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron, and dendritic morphology reflects synaptic organization during the development of the nervous system. Drosophila larval neuronal dendritic arborization (da) is an ideal model for studying morphogenesis of neural dendrites and gene function in the development of nervous system. There are four classes of da neurons. Class IV is the most complex with a branching pattern that covers almost the entire area of the larval body wall. We have previously characterized the effect of silencing the Drosophila ortholog of SOX5 on class IV neuronal dendritic arborization complexity (NDAC) using four parameters: the length of dendrites, the surface area of dendrite coverage, the total number of branches, and the branching structure. This protocol presents the workflow of NDAC quantitative analysis, consisting of larval dissection, confocal microscopy, and image analysis procedures using ImageJ software. Further insight into da neuronal development and its underlying mechanisms will improve the understanding of neuronal function and provide clues about the fundamental causes of neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Quantitative Analysis of Neuronal Dendritic Arborization Complexity in Drosophila

This protocol focuses on quantitative analysis of neuronal dendritic arborization complexity (NDAC) in Drosophila, which can be used for studies of dendritic morphogenesis.

Analisi quantitativa di un neurone Arborization dentritico complessità in Drosophila

Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron, and dendritic morphology reflects synaptic organization during the development of the nervous system. ...