This work was supported by grants to D.K. from the Medical Research Foundation of Oregon and from NIH/NINDS (NS047663). E.S. was supported by a training grant from the NIH (T32AG023477).

1. La fijación de la cabeza sobre los cuellos y inclusión en parafina Nota: Todos los pasos en el proceso de fijación debe hacerse en una campana de humos. Metilbenzoato, mientras que no plantean un riesgo para la salud, tiene un olor muy distinto, que puede ser abrumador si no se manejan en una campana de humos. <ol><li> Antes de anestesiar las moscas, conforman 50 ml de solución de Carnoy mediante la adición de 15 ml de cloroformo y 5 ml de ácido acético glacial y 30 ml de etanol al 99% (no mezcle el cloroformo y ácido acético). Se vierte en un recipiente de vidrio con un fondo plano, como por ejemplo un plato de cristalizar, para asegurar que los collares pueden quedar plano y están completamente cubiertas por la solución. </li><li> Anestesiar las moscas con CO 2 o éter. </li><li> moscas de rosca (hasta 20 con la mayoría de los collares) por sus cuellos en los cuellos utilizando fórceps. Recuerde que debe alinear todas las cabezas en la misma orientación, como se ve en la figura 1A, y ser suave para asegurar que no se produzcan daños en la cabeza o los ojos. </li><li> Incluir moscas seno oculis (flechas, Figura 1A) en posiciones aleatorias por lo que el orden de las moscas pueden ser fácilmente identificados en las secciones. Además, si las moscas experimentales tienen un color de ojos claros o blancos, enhebrar algunas moscas de ojos rojos, como el tipo salvaje, entre ellos para garantizar que el pigmento está presente suficiente para teñir la diapositiva. Registrar el orden de las moscas en una hoja de protocolo junto con el número de cuello si se utiliza más de un collar. </li><li> Una vez que un collar se ha terminado, colocarlo en la solución de Carnoy preparado durante 3,5 - 4 h. </li><li> Volcar la solución de Carnoy en el recipiente eliminación adecuada y comenzar los lavados de etanol. Asegúrese de verter lentamente a fin de no perturbar la colocación de los collares en el contenedor. </li><li> Lavar los cuellos de 30 min en 99% de etanol dos veces. </li><li> Lavar los collares en 100% de etanol durante 1 h. Asegúrese de cambiar los lavados a tiempo para evitar overdehydration. </li><li> Poner los collares en metilbenzoatoO / N a temperatura ambiente. Sellar el recipiente con parafilm para evitar la evaporación de la metilbenzoato de metilo. </li><li> Verter la methylbenozate en el recipiente desechable adecuado en la campana de humos. Añadir una mezcla previamente preparada de 1: 1 punto de fusión bajo (56 - 57ºC) cera de parafina y benzoato de metilo. A partir de ahora, los collares necesitan ser mantenidos en una incubadora a 65 ° C para asegurarse de que la parafina no se endurece. </li><li> Vierte el methylbenozate y la mezcla de parafina en el recipiente desechable adecuada, y se vierte cera fundida de parafina pura, se mantiene a 65 ° C, en los cuellos. </li><li> Cambiar la parafina después de 30 minutos y repetir esto por lo menos 5 veces. Al menos 6 - 8 lavados deben realizarse. </li><li> Una vez que los lavados son completos, colocar los collares en una bandeja de cubitos de hielo de goma con ranuras aproximadamente del tamaño de los collares. Verter la parafina fundida sobre ellos hasta que esté completamente cubierto y deje que se endurezca O / N (tratar de evitar burbujas de aire). </li><li> Retire los bloques de parafina contaiNing los collares de la bandeja de cubitos de hielo. Separar el bloque de parafina desde el collar usando una hoja de afeitar, rompiendo suavemente del collar. Las cabezas estarán en el bloque de parafina, mientras que los cuerpos permanecerán en el cuello. Los bloques se pueden mantener a temperatura ambiente. </li><li> Para limpiar los collares, remojar en un agente deparafinization a 65 ° C para eliminar la parafina, limpio, con luz de lavado, y se lava en etanol antes de reutilizar. </li></ol> 2. seccionamiento y de montaje <ol><li> Calentar una placa de calentamiento a 50 ° C. Colocar los portaobjetos (o bloques de montaje de metal) y hojas de afeitar en la placa y dejar que se caliente. </li><li> Dependiendo de la orientación deseada para seccionar, sujetar el bloque de parafina, ya sea con las cabezas hacia el lado (por secciones horizontales) o hacia arriba (para secciones frontales) a un bloque de montaje calentada (fusión brevemente el bloque en el lado de contacto). Retire el bloque de la placa de calentamiento y dejar que se enfríe durante al menos 10 millasn de asegurar que la parafina se ha endurecido lo suficiente para un sellado adecuado en el bloque de montaje. Mantenga la fila de cabezas alineadas en paralelo con la superficie del bloque tanto como sea posible para evitar que las secciones irregulares. </li><li> Tome una hoja de afeitar y recortar el exceso de parafina lejos de las cabezas de la mosca de modo que sólo una pequeña fila con las cabezas incrustadas permanece (la hoja de afeitar puede ser calentado por el recorte más fácil). Asegúrese de no recortar demasiado para que la parafina no se rompa durante el corte (más ajuste se puede hacer durante el corte). </li><li> Coloque el bloque de montaje en el soporte objeto de la microtomo y asegurarse de que la alineación de la fila de cabezas es lo más paralelo posible al borde de la hoja. </li><li> Preparar portaobjetos de microscopio cubriéndolos con una capa delgada de solución de poli-L-lisina (PLL) y dejarlos secar durante 5 minutos. Cubrirlos con agua poco antes de su uso. </li><li> Cortar 7 micras secciones y transferir la cinta de las secciones a la diapositiva flotando en el agua. &lt;br /&gt; NOTA: Para obtener todo el cerebro para las secciones horizontales, recogemos la cinta desde el momento de iniciar el corte en el ojo hasta que la cabeza ha sido completamente cortada (corte de la trompa en el cerebro). Más de una diapositiva puede ser necesario para toda la cabeza. </li><li> Colocar el portaobjetos en una placa de calor a 37 ° C y deje que la cinta se expanda durante aproximadamente 1 minuto. </li><li> Eliminar el exceso de agua (mediante el vertido de su alimentación o el uso de un pañuelo de papel) y secar el portaobjetos S / N. </li><li> Quitar la cera de parafina de la diapositiva mediante la colocación de las diapositivas en una, vertical tarro deslizable tinción alto lleno de un agente deparafinization (cubriendo completamente las secciones). Realizar 3 lavados de 30 min - 60 min cada uno. </li><li> Retire el porta del lavado final. Colocar 2 gotas de medios de incrustación sobre el portaobjetos y se cubre con un cubreobjetos grande. </li></ol> 3. Fotografiar y análisis de las Secciones <ol><li> Dejar que las muestras preparadas se sequen durante 1 - 2 d. Entonces, examinarlas en un microsc de fluorescenciaope bajo luz azul. </li><li> Use un aumento menor para determinar la orientación de las moscas y para encontrar la región de interés si se centra en una región específica. NOTA: Para los moscas SWS (ver Figura 2), nos encontramos con la sección que contiene el gran comisura y tomar una imagen (por lo general a un aumento de 40X). Al analizar el cerebro entero (como en la figura 3), que desplazarse por todas las secciones de una cabeza y, o bien fotografiar la sección con el fenotipo más grave o todas las secciones que muestran vacuolas. </li><li> Para un análisis doble ciego, tomar y número de imágenes sin conocer el genotipo y registrar el número de cuello y la posición de la cabeza de la fila para identificarlos más tarde. </li><li> Una vez que se han tomado las imágenes, analizarlos utilizando un software de imágenes. </li><li> Contar el número de vacuolas por sección o por cabeza. Para medir el tamaño vacuola, abrir las imágenes en un programa de software y seleccione las vacuolas con una selección demasiadol. Determinar la cantidad de píxeles en las vacuolas seleccionados. </li><li> Para la conversión a 2 micras, tomar una foto de una diapositiva de calibración micrómetro en el aumento que se usa para la adquisición de fotos. Determinar la cantidad de píxeles de 100 micras 2 para calcular un factor de conversión. </li><li> Convertir el número total de píxeles en micras 2 dividiendo el número de píxeles por el factor de conversión calculada en el paso anterior. </li></ol>

<ol>
	<li>Alexander, A. G., Marfil, V., Li, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Use+of+Caenorhabditis+elegans+as+a+model+to+study+Alzheimer's+disease+and+other+neurodegenerative+diseases.">Use of Caenorhabditis elegans as a model to study Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative diseases.</a> Front Genet. 5, 279 (2014).</li><li>Bonini, N. M., Fortini, M. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Human+neurodegenerative+disease+modeling+using+Drosophila.">Human neurodegenerative disease modeling using Drosophila.</a> Annu Rev Neurosci. 26, 627-656 (2003).</li><li>Calahorro, F., Ruiz-Rubio, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Caenorhabditis+elegans+as+an+experimental+tool+for+the+study+of+complex+neurological+diseases:+Parkinson's+disease,+Alzheimer's+disease+and+autism+spectrum+disorder.">Caenorhabditis elegans as an experimental tool for the study of complex neurological diseases: Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease and autism spectrum disorder.</a> Invert Neurosci. 11, 73-83 (2011).</li><li>Chen, X., Barclay, J. W., Burgoyne, R. D., Morgan, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Using+C.+elegans+to+discover+therapeutic+compounds+for+ageing-associated+neurodegenerative+diseases.">Using C. elegans to discover therapeutic compounds for ageing-associated neurodegenerative diseases.</a> Chemistry Central Journal. 9, 65 (2015).</li><li>Gama Sosa, M. A., De Gasperi, R., Elder, G. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+human+neurodegenerative+diseases+in+transgenic+systems.">Modeling human neurodegenerative diseases in transgenic systems.</a> Hum Genet. 131, 535-563 (2012).</li><li>Jaiswal, M., Sandoval, H., Zhang, K., Bayat, V., Bellen, H. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+mechanisms+that+underlie+human+neurodegenerative+diseases+in+Drosophila.">Probing mechanisms that underlie human neurodegenerative diseases in Drosophila.</a> Annu Rev Genet. 46, 371-396 (2012).</li><li>Konsolaki, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fruitful+research:+drug+target+discovery+for+neurodegenerative+diseases+in+Drosophila.">Fruitful research: drug target discovery for neurodegenerative diseases in Drosophila.</a> Expert Opin Drug Discov. 8, 1503-1513 (2013).</li><li>Kretzschmar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neurodegenerative+mutants+in+Drosophila:+a+means+to+identify+genes+and+mechanisms+involved+in+human+diseases.">Neurodegenerative mutants in Drosophila: a means to identify genes and mechanisms involved in human diseases.</a> Invert Neurosci. 5, 97-109 (2005).</li><li>Kretzschmar, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Swiss+cheese+et+allii,+some+of+the+first+neurodegenerative+mutants+isolated+in+Drosophila.">Swiss cheese et allii, some of the first neurodegenerative mutants isolated in Drosophila.</a> J Neurogenet. 23, 34-41 (2009).</li><li>Li, J., Le, W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Modeling+neurodegenerative+diseases+in+Caenorhabditis+elegans.">Modeling neurodegenerative diseases in Caenorhabditis elegans.</a> Exp Neurol. 250, 94-103 (2013).</li><li>Prussing, K., Voigt, A., Schulz, J. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Drosophila+melanogaster+as+a+model+organism+for+Alzheimer's+disease.">Drosophila melanogaster as a model organism for Alzheimer's disease.</a> Mol Neurodegener. 8, (2013).</li><li>Wentzell, J., Kretzschmar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Alzheimer's+disease+and+tauopathy+studies+in+flies+and+worms.">Alzheimer's disease and tauopathy studies in flies and worms.</a> Neurobiol Dis. 40, 21-28 (2010).</li><li>Ali, Y. O., Escala, W., Ruan, K., Zhai, R. G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assaying+locomotor,+learning,+and+memory+deficits+in+Drosophila+models+of+neurodegeneration.">Assaying locomotor, learning, and memory deficits in Drosophila models of neurodegeneration.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2011).</li><li>Barone, M. C., Bohmann, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Assessing+neurodegenerative+phenotypes+in+Drosophila+dopaminergic+neurons+by+climbing+assays+and+whole+brain+immunostaining.">Assessing neurodegenerative phenotypes in Drosophila dopaminergic neurons by climbing assays and whole brain immunostaining.</a> J Vis Exp. , e50339 (2013).</li><li>Dutta, S., Rieche, F., Eckl, N., Duch, C., Kretzschmar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glial+expression+of+Swiss-cheese+(SWS),+the+Drosophila+orthologue+of+Neuropathy+Target+Esterase,+is+required+for+neuronal+ensheathment+and+function.">Glial expression of Swiss-cheese (SWS), the Drosophila orthologue of Neuropathy Target Esterase, is required for neuronal ensheathment and function.</a> Dis Model Mech. , (2015).</li><li>Iijima, K., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Abeta42+mutants+with+different+aggregation+profiles+induce+distinct+pathologies+in+Drosophila.">Abeta42 mutants with different aggregation profiles induce distinct pathologies in Drosophila.</a> PLoS One. 3, e1703 (2008).</li><li>Krishnan, N., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Loss+of+circadian+clock+accelerates+aging+in+neurodegeneration-prone+mutants.">Loss of circadian clock accelerates aging in neurodegeneration-prone mutants.</a> Neurobiol Dis. 45, 1129-1135 (2012).</li><li>Liu, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+rapid+iterative+negative+geotaxis+assay+and+its+use+in+a+genetic+screen+for+modifiers+of+Abeta(42)-induced+locomotor+decline+in+Drosophila.">Automated rapid iterative negative geotaxis assay and its use in a genetic screen for modifiers of Abeta(42)-induced locomotor decline in Drosophila.</a> Neurosci Bull. 31, 541-549 (2015).</li><li>Papanikolopoulou, K., Skoulakis, E. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Temporally+distinct+phosphorylations+differentiate+Tau-dependent+learning+deficits+and+premature+mortality+in+Drosophila.">Temporally distinct phosphorylations differentiate Tau-dependent learning deficits and premature mortality in Drosophila.</a> Hum Mol Genet. 24, 2065-2077 (2015).</li><li>Ping, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Linking+abeta42-induced+hyperexcitability+to+neurodegeneration,+learning+and+motor+deficits,+and+a+shorter+lifespan+in+an+Alzheimer's+model.">Linking abeta42-induced hyperexcitability to neurodegeneration, learning and motor deficits, and a shorter lifespan in an Alzheimer's model.</a> PLoS Genet. 11, e1005025 (2015).</li><li>Sujkowski, A., Rainier, S., Fink, J. K., Wessells, R. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Delayed+Induction+of+Human+NTE+(PNPLA6)+Rescues+Neurodegeneration+and+Mobility+Defects+of+Drosophila+swiss+cheese+(sws)+Mutants.">Delayed Induction of Human NTE (PNPLA6) Rescues Neurodegeneration and Mobility Defects of Drosophila swiss cheese (sws) Mutants.</a> PLoS One. 10, e0145356 (2015).</li><li>Barone, M. C., Sykiotis, G. P., Bohmann, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Genetic+activation+of+Nrf2+signaling+is+sufficient+to+ameliorate+neurodegenerative+phenotypes+in+a+Drosophila+model+of+Parkinson's+disease.">Genetic activation of Nrf2 signaling is sufficient to ameliorate neurodegenerative phenotypes in a Drosophila model of Parkinson's disease.</a> Dis Model Mech. 4, 701-707 (2011).</li><li>Coulom, H., Birman, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+exposure+to+rotenone+models+sporadic+Parkinson's+disease+in+Drosophila+melanogaster.">Chronic exposure to rotenone models sporadic Parkinson's disease in Drosophila melanogaster.</a> J Neurosci. 24, 10993-10998 (2004).</li><li>Navarro, J. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Analysis+of+dopaminergic+neuronal+dysfunction+in+genetic+and+toxin-induced+models+of+Parkinson's+disease+in+Drosophila.">Analysis of dopaminergic neuronal dysfunction in genetic and toxin-induced models of Parkinson's disease in Drosophila.</a> J Neurochem. 131, 369-382 (2014).</li><li>Heisenberg, M., B&#246;hl, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Isolation+of+anatomical+brain+mutants+of+Drosophila+by+histological+means.">Isolation of anatomical brain mutants of Drosophila by histological means.</a> Zeitschrift f&#252;r Naturforschung C. 34, 143 (1979).</li><li>Han, P. L., Meller, V., Davis, R. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+Drosophila+brain+revisited+by+enhancer+detection.">The Drosophila brain revisited by enhancer detection.</a> J Neurobiol. 31, 88-102 (1996).</li><li>Lin, C. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Automated+in+situ+brain+imaging+for+mapping+the+Drosophila+connectome.">Automated in situ brain imaging for mapping the Drosophila connectome.</a> J Neurogenet. 29, 157-168 (2015).</li><li>Strausfeld, N. J., Sinakevitch, I., Vilinsky, I. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+mushroom+bodies+of+Drosophila+melanogaster:+an+immunocytological+and+golgi+study+of+Kenyon+cell+organization+in+the+calyces+and+lobes.">The mushroom bodies of Drosophila melanogaster: an immunocytological and golgi study of Kenyon cell organization in the calyces and lobes.</a> Microsc Res Tech. 62, 151-169 (2003).</li><li>Bettencourt da Cruz, A., Wentzell, J., Kretzschmar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Swiss+Cheese,+a+protein+involved+in+progressive+neurodegeneration,+acts+as+a+noncanonical+regulatory+subunit+for+PKA-C3.">Swiss Cheese, a protein involved in progressive neurodegeneration, acts as a noncanonical regulatory subunit for PKA-C3.</a> J Neurosci. 28, 10885-10892 (2008).</li><li>Bolkan, B. J., Kretzschmar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Loss+of+Tau+results+in+defects+in+photoreceptor+development+and+progressive+neuronal+degeneration+in+Drosophila.">Loss of Tau results in defects in photoreceptor development and progressive neuronal degeneration in Drosophila.</a> Dev Neurobiol. 74, 1210-1225 (2014).</li><li>Cook, M., Mani, P., Wentzell, J. S., Kretzschmar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Increased+RhoA+prenylation+in+the+loechrig+(loe)+mutant+leads+to+progressive+neurodegeneration.">Increased RhoA prenylation in the loechrig (loe) mutant leads to progressive neurodegeneration.</a> PLoS One. 7, e44440 (2012).</li><li>Wittmann, C. W., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Tauopathy+in+Drosophila:+neurodegeneration+without+neurofibrillary+tangles.">Tauopathy in Drosophila: neurodegeneration without neurofibrillary tangles.</a> Science. 293, 711-714 (2001).</li><li>Rasmuson, B., Green, M. M., Ewertson, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=QUALITATIVE+AND+QUANTITATIVE+ANALYSES+OF+EYE+PIGMENTS+AND+PTERIDINES+IN+BACK-MUTATIONS+OF+THE+MUTANT+wa+IN+DROSOPHILA+MELANOGASTER.">QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSES OF EYE PIGMENTS AND PTERIDINES IN BACK-MUTATIONS OF THE MUTANT wa IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER.</a> Hereditas. 46, 635-650 (1960).</li><li>Bettencourt da Cruz, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disruption+of+the+MAP1B-related+protein+FUTSCH+leads+to+changes+in+the+neuronal+cytoskeleton,+axonal+transport+defects,+and+progressive+neurodegeneration+in+Drosophila.">Disruption of the MAP1B-related protein FUTSCH leads to changes in the neuronal cytoskeleton, axonal transport defects, and progressive neurodegeneration in Drosophila.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 16, 2433-2442 (2005).</li><li>Kretzschmar, D., Hasan, G., Sharma, S., Heisenberg, M., Benzer, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+swiss+cheese+mutant+causes+glial+hyperwrapping+and+brain+degeneration+in+Drosophila.">The swiss cheese mutant causes glial hyperwrapping and brain degeneration in Drosophila.</a> J Neurosci. 17, 7425-7432 (1997).</li><li>Dutta, S., Rieche, F., Eckl, N., Duch, C., Kretzschmar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glial+expression+of+Swiss+cheese+(SWS),+the+Drosophila+orthologue+of+neuropathy+target+esterase+(NTE),+is+required+for+neuronal+ensheathment+and+function.">Glial expression of Swiss cheese (SWS), the Drosophila orthologue of neuropathy target esterase (NTE), is required for neuronal ensheathment and function.</a> Dis Model Mech. 9, 283-294 (2016).</li><li>Davis, M. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glucocerebrosidase+Deficiency+in+Drosophila+Results+in+alpha-Synuclein-Independent+Protein+Aggregation+and+Neurodegeneration.">Glucocerebrosidase Deficiency in Drosophila Results in alpha-Synuclein-Independent Protein Aggregation and Neurodegeneration.</a> PLoS Genet. 12, e1005944 (2016).</li><li>Dias-Santagata, D., Fulga, T. A., Duttaroy, A., Feany, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidative+stress+mediates+tau-induced+neurodegeneration+in+Drosophila.">Oxidative stress mediates tau-induced neurodegeneration in Drosophila.</a> J Clin Invest. 117, 236-245 (2007).</li><li>Kretzschmar, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glial+and+neuronal+expression+of+polyglutamine+proteins+induce+behavioral+changes+and+aggregate+formation+in+Drosophila.">Glial and neuronal expression of polyglutamine proteins induce behavioral changes and aggregate formation in Drosophila.</a> Glia. 49, 59-72 (2005).</li><li>Li, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Drosophila+model+for+TDP-43+proteinopathy.">A Drosophila model for TDP-43 proteinopathy.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 107, 3169-3174 (2010).</li></ol>

Los autores no tienen nada que revelar.

El método descrito proporciona un medio para cuantificar la neurodegeneración en el cerebro de Drosophila. Mientras que otros métodos, como contar un tipo celular específico, se pueden utilizar para identificar la neurodegeneración, la ventaja de este método es que se puede aplicar de forma más general. Contando las células requiere que estas células pueden ser identificados de forma fiable utilizando un anticuerpo específico o la expresión de un marcador específico de célula, lo que no siempre est...

Con el aumento de la esperanza de vida, las enfermedades neurodegenerativas como el Alzheimer o el Parkinson se han convertido en una amenaza creciente para la salud de la población en general. De acuerdo con los Institutos Nacionales de la Salud, 115 millones de personas en todo el mundo se prevé que se afectados por la demencia en 2050. Aunque se han hecho progresos significativos en la identificación de los genes y los factores de riesgo implicados en al menos algunas de estas enfermedades, para muchos de ellos, el subyacente mecanismos moleculares aún no se conocen o no se entiende bien. Simples organismos modelo de invertebrados como Caenorhabditis elegans y Drosophila melanogaster ofrecen una variedad de ventajas experimentales para estudiar los mecanismos de las enfermedades neurodegenerativas, incluyendo un ciclo de corta vida, gran número de progenie, y la disponibilidad de métodos genéticos y moleculares bien establecidos y, a veces únicos 1 -12. Además, estos organismos son susceptibles de imparcialpantallas de interacción que pueden identificar los factores que contribuyen a estas enfermedades por sus efectos agravantes o mejorar en fenotipos neurodegenerativos. El análisis de estas interacciones genéticas y la evaluación de los efectos del envejecimiento requiere protocolos cuantitativos para detectar la neurodegeneración y para medir su gravedad. Esta evaluación puede hacerse con relativa facilidad en la medición de los aspectos de comportamiento en Drosophila, como el aprendizaje olfativo, geotaxis negativos, o fototaxis rápido, que proporcionan un valor numérico rendimiento 13-21. También es posible determinar los efectos sobre la supervivencia neuronal contando las neuronas. Sin embargo, esto sólo es posible cuando se centra en una población específica que se pueda identificar claramente, al igual que las neuronas dopaminérgicas que se ven afectados en la enfermedad, e incluso entonces, los resultados han sido controvertidos 22-24. El protocolo descrito aquí utiliza el método de cuello para realizar secciones en serie de parafina, un métodoque fue desarrollado originalmente por Heisenberg y Böhl, que lo utilizó para aislar mutantes anatómicas cerebrales en Drosophila 25. El uso del método de cuello posteriormente se ha adaptado, incluso en criosecciones, vibratome secciones y secciones de plástico de 26-28. Aquí, se emplea este método para obtener secciones en serie de toda la cabeza de la mosca, que luego se puede utilizar para medir las vacuolas que se desarrollan en las moscas con fenotipos neurodegenerativas 16,21,29-32. Estas mediciones se pueden hacer en áreas específicas del cerebro o pueden cubrir todo el cerebro; el último enfoque permite identificar incluso débiles fenotipos degenerativas, como se observa durante el envejecimiento. Por último, cuando se utilizan los collares, hasta 20 moscas pueden ser procesados ​​como una preparación, que no sólo es menos tiempo, sino que también permite el análisis de control y las moscas experimentales en la misma preparación, minimizando artefactos debido a ligeros cambios en la preparación.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of the Reagent/Equipment</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collar</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>TS 48-100</td>
			<td>We are using custom made collars that are made from one piece of metal instead of layers as the ones by Genesee. A discription to make collars can be found at http://flybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu/Flybrain/html/atlas/fluorescent/index.html&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rubber ice cube tray for embedding</td>
			<td>Household store</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>The size can be made to fit by glueing in additional walls&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crystallizing dish</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific company</td>
			<td>08-762-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ether</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>E138-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Decon Laboratories Inc.</td>
			<td>2701</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Choloroform</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>C298-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glacial Acetic Acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>A38-212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methylbenzoate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>M205-500</td>
			<td>Distinct Odor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Use in fume hood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low Melting Point Paraffin Wax</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>T565</td>
			<td>Make sure to keep extra melted in a 65&#176;C waterbath</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>Reichert Jung 2040 Autocut</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Slide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>12-550D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Cover Glass</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>12-545-M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SafeClear</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>314-629</td>
			<td>Three different containers for washes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vertical Staining Jar with Cover</td>
			<td>Ted Pella Inc.&#160;</td>
			<td>432-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Permount</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>SP15-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-L-lysine Solution</td>
			<td>Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td>P8290-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

mass histology to quantify neurodegeneration in drosophila

enfermedades neurodegenerativas progresivas, como la enfermedad de Alzheimer (EA) o la enfermedad de Parkinson (EP) son una amenaza creciente para la salud humana en todo el mundo. Aunque los modelos de mamíferos han aportado importantes conocimientos sobre los mecanismos subyacentes de la patogenicidad, la complejidad de los sistemas de mamíferos, junto con sus altos costos están limitando su uso. Por lo tanto, la simple pero bien establecido modelo de sistema de Drosophila ofrece una alternativa para la investigación de las vías moleculares que se ven afectados en estas enfermedades. Además de anomalías de comportamiento, enfermedades neurodegenerativas se caracterizan por fenotipos histológicos tales como la muerte neuronal y axonopatía. Para cuantificar la degeneración neuronal y para determinar cómo se ve afectada por factores genéticos y ambientales, usamos un enfoque histológico que se basa en la medición de las vacuolas en el cerebro de moscas adultas. Para minimizar los efectos del error sistemático y la comparación directa de las secciones de control y experimental moscas en una preparación, que utilizan el método de &quot;cuello&quot; de las secciones de parafina. La neurodegeneración se evalúa a continuación, midiendo el tamaño y / o número de vacuolas que se han desarrollado en el cerebro de la mosca. Esto se puede hacer ya sea centrándose en una región específica de interés o mediante el análisis de todo el cerebro mediante la obtención de secciones en serie que abarcan la cabeza completa. Por lo tanto, este método permite medir no sólo la degeneración severa, pero también fenotipos relativamente suaves que sólo son detectables en algunas secciones, como ocurre durante el envejecimiento normal.

Utilizando los resultados método descrito en secciones seriadas teñidas por el pigmento del ojo 33 que abarcan toda la cabeza de la mosca. A parte de esto se muestra en la Figura 1B, donde las secciones de una cabeza individuales se muestran de arriba a abajo. Las secciones de diferentes moscas son vistos de izquierda a derecha en este ejemplo. Para facilitar la orientación y la identificación de las moscas, una mosca sin ojos (oculis sinusoidales)</em...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila at JoVE.com

Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Drosophila se utiliza ampliamente como un sistema modelo para estudiar la neurodegeneración. Este protocolo describe un método por el cual la degeneración, como se determina por la formación de vacuolas en el cerebro, se puede cuantificar. También minimiza los efectos debido al procedimiento experimental por el procesamiento y control de seccionamiento y moscas experimentales como una muestra.

La histología de masas para cuantificar la neurodegeneración en<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Progressive neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) or Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD) are an increasing threat to human health ...

mass-histology-to-quantify-neurodegeneration-in-drosophila

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

10.1K vistas.  Oregon Health & Sciences University.  Drosophila se utiliza ampliamente como un sistema modelo para estudiar la neurodegeneración. Este protocolo describe un método por el cual la degeneración, como se determina por la formación de vacuolas en el cerebro, se puede cuantificar. También minimiza los efectos debido al procedimiento experimental por el procesamiento y control de seccionamiento y moscas experimentales como una muestra. 

Video: Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Quantifying Synapses: an Immunocytochemistry-based Assay to Quantify Synapse Number

One of the most important goals in neuroscience is to understand the molecular cues that instruct early stages of synapse formation. As such it has become imperative to develop objective approaches to quantify changes in synaptic connectivity. Starting from sample fixation, this protocol details how to quantify synapse number both in dissociated neuronal culture and in brain sections using immunocytochemistry. Using compartment-specific antibodies, we label presynaptic terminals as well as sites of postsynaptic specialization. We define synapses as points of colocalization between the signals generated by these markers. The number of these colocalizations is quantified using a plug in Puncta Analyzer (written by Bary Wark, available upon request, c.eroglu@cellbio.duke.edu) under the ImageJ analysis software platform. The synapse assay described in this protocol can be applied to any neural tissue or culture preparation for which you have selective pre- and postsynaptic markers. This synapse assay is a valuable tool that can be widely utilized in the study of synaptic development.

This protocol details how to quantify synapse number both in dissociated neuronal culture and in brain sections using immunocytochemistry. Using compartment-specific antibodies, we label presynaptic terminals as well as sites of postsynaptic specialization. We define synapses as points of colocalization between the signals generated by these markers.

Las sinapsis cuantificar: un ensayo basado en inmunocitoquímica para cuantificar número de sinapsis

One of the most important goals in neuroscience is to understand the molecular cues that instruct early stages of synapse formation. As such it has become ...

Investigación

Neurociencias

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal. Such analysis of two or more genes needs to be complemented with in situ hybridization of other genes, or immunohistochemistry of their proteins, both in whole mounted developing organs or sections for detailed resolution of the cellular and tissue expression alterations. Combining multiple gene alterations requires the use of cre or flipase to conditionally delete genes and avoid embryonic lethality. Required breeding schemes dramatically enhance effort and cost proportional to the number of genes mutated, with an outcome of very few animals with the full repertoire of genetic modifications desired. Amortizing the vast amount of effort and time to obtain these few precious specimens that are carrying multiple mutations necessitates tissue optimization. Moreover, investigating a single animal with multiple techniques makes it easier to correlate gene deletion defects with expression profiles. We have developed a technique to obtain a more thorough analysis of a given animal; with the ability to analyze several different histologically recognizable structures as well as gene and protein expression all from the same specimen in both whole mounted organs and sections. Although mice have been utilized to demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique it can be applied to a wide array of animals. To do this we combine lipophilic dye tracing, whole mount in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and histology to extract the maximal possible amount of data.

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

A combination of different techniques to maximize data collection from mouse tissue is presented.

La combinación de colorantes lipofílicos, In situ</emHibridación>, inmunohistoquímica y la histología

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal.  Such analysis of ...

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of these diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease are characterized by age-dependent deterioration in learning and memory functions and movement coordination2. Here we use behavioral assays, including the negative geotaxis assay3 and the aversive phototaxic suppression assay (APS assay)4,5, to show that some of the behavior characteristics associated with human neurodegeneration can be recapitulated in flies. In the negative geotaxis assay, the natural tendency of flies to move against gravity when agitated is utilized to study genes or conditions that may hinder locomotor capacities. In the APS assay, the learning and memory functions are tested in positively-phototactic flies trained to associate light with aversive bitter taste and hence avoid this otherwise natural tendency to move toward light. Testing these trained flies 6 hours post-training is used to assess memory functions. Using these assays, the contribution of any genetic or environmental factors toward developing neurodegeneration can be easily studied in flies.

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Behavior assays for measuring locomotor functions, learning, and memory abilities in Drosophila.

Locomotor ensayo, aprendizaje, memoria y déficit en Drosophila Los modelos de neurodegeneración

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron is damaged by injury or disease, it may regenerate. Cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the ability of a neuron to regenerate and restore function. Recently, the nematode C. elegans has emerged as an excellent model organism to identify genes and signaling pathways that influence the regeneration of neurons1-6. The main way to initiate neuronal regeneration in C. elegans is laser-mediated cutting, or axotomy. During axotomy, a fluorescently-labeled neuronal process is severed using high-energy pulses. Initially, neuronal regeneration in C. elegans was examined using an amplified femtosecond laser5. However, subsequent regeneration studies have shown that a conventional pulsed laser can be used to accurately sever neurons in vivo and elicit a similar regenerative response1,3,7.
We present a protocol for performing in vivo laser axotomy in the worm using a MicroPoint pulsed laser, a turnkey system that is readily available and that has been widely used for targeted cell ablation. We describe aligning the laser, mounting the worms, cutting specific neurons, and assessing subsequent regeneration. The system provides the ability to cut large numbers of neurons in multiple worms during one experiment. Thus, laser axotomy as described herein is an efficient system for initiating and analyzing the process of regeneration.

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

A protocol to cut neurons in C. elegans with a MicroPoint pulsed laser is presented. We describe setting up the system, immobilizing worms, and severing labeled neurons. Advantages include a relatively low-cost system and the ability to sever neuronal processes or ablate cells in vivo.

En vivo láser axotomía en C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron ...

Methods to Assay Drosophila Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, has been used to study molecular mechanisms of a wide range of human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and various neurological diseases1. We have optimized simple and robust behavioral assays for determining larval locomotion, adult climbing ability (RING assay), and courtship behaviors of Drosophila. These behavioral assays are widely applicable for studying the role of genetic and environmental factors on fly behavior. Larval crawling ability can be reliably used for determining early stage changes in the crawling abilities of Drosophila larvae and also for examining effect of drugs or human disease genes (in transgenic flies) on their locomotion. The larval crawling assay becomes more applicable if expression or abolition of a gene causes lethality in pupal or adult stages, as these flies do not survive to adulthood where they otherwise could be assessed. This basic assay can also be used in conjunction with bright light or stress to examine additional behavioral responses in Drosophila larvae. Courtship behavior has been widely used to investigate genetic basis of sexual behavior, and can also be used to examine activity and coordination, as well as learning and memory. Drosophila courtship behavior involves the exchange of various sensory stimuli including visual, auditory, and chemosensory signals between males and females that lead to a complex series of well characterized motor behaviors culminating in successful copulation. Traditional adult climbing assays (negative geotaxis) are tedious, labor intensive, and time consuming, with significant variation between different trials2-4. The rapid iterative negative geotaxis (RING) assay5 has many advantages over more widely employed protocols, providing a reproducible, sensitive, and high throughput approach to quantify adult locomotor and negative geotaxis behaviors. In the RING assay, several genotypes or drug treatments can be tested simultaneously using large number of animals, with the high-throughput approach making it more amenable for screening experiments.

Methods to Assay Drosophila Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster is a genetically and behaviorally tractable model system that has been used to understand the molecular and cellular basis of many important biological processes for over a century 1. Drosophila has been well exploited to gain insights into the genetic basis of fly behavior.

Métodos de ensayo a Drosophila Comportamiento

Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, has been used to study molecular mechanisms of a wide range of human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular ...

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

Visualización de los propioceptores<em&gt; Drosophila</em&gt; Las larvas y pupas

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Utilizing 3D Printing Technology to Merge MRI with Histology: A Protocol for Brain Sectioning

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows for the delineation between normal and abnormal tissue on a macroscopic scale, sampling an entire tissue volume three-dimensionally. While MRI is an extremely sensitive tool for detecting tissue abnormalities, association of signal changes with an underlying pathological process is usually not straightforward. In the central nervous system, for example, inflammation, demyelination, axonal damage, gliosis, and neuronal death may all induce similar findings on MRI. As such, interpretation of MRI scans depends on the context, and radiological-histopathological correlation is therefore of the utmost importance. Unfortunately, traditional pathological sectioning of brain tissue is often imprecise and inconsistent, thus complicating the comparison between histology sections and MRI. This article presents novel methodology for accurately sectioning primate brain tissues and thus allowing precise matching between histology and MRI. The detailed protocol described in this article will assist investigators in applying this method, which relies on the creation of 3D printed brain slicers. Slightly modified, it can be easily implemented for brains of other species, including humans.

The overall goal of this protocol is to accurately align magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) image volumes with histology sections via the creation of customized 3D-printed brain holders and slicer boxes.

Utilizando tecnología de impresión 3D se fusiona con la RM Histología: Un protocolo para el Cerebro de seccionamiento

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows for the delineation between normal and abnormal tissue on a macroscopic scale, sampling an entire tissue volume ...

A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is an established neurodegenerative disease that is closely associated with exposure to repetitive mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI). The mechanisms responsible for its complex pathological changes remain largely elusive, despite a recent consensus to define the neuropathological criteria. Here, we describe a novel method to develop a model of CTE in Drosophila melanogaster&#160;(Drosophila&#160;)&#160;in an attempt to identify the key genes and pathways that lead to the characteristic hyperphosphorylated tau accumulation and neuronal death in the brain. Adjustable-strength impacts to inflict mild closed injury are delivered directly to the fly head, subjecting the head to rapid acceleration and deceleration. Our method eliminates the potential problems inherent with other Drosophila mTBI models (e.g.,animal death might be induced by damage to other parts of the body or to internal organs). The less labor- and cost-intensive animal care, short life span, and extensive genetic tools make the fruit fly ideal to study CTE pathogenesis and make it possible to perform large-scale, genome-wide forward genetic and pharmacological screens. We anticipate that the ongoing characterization of the model will generate important mechanistic insights on disease prevention and therapeutic approaches.

A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila

Here, we describe a new approach to inflict closed-head traumatic brain injury in Drosophila melanogaster. Our method has the advantage of directly delivering repetitive impacts with adjustable strength to the head alone. Further exploration of the invertebrate system will help to illuminate the pathogenesis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy.

Un nuevo método para modelar la encefalopatía traumática crónica<em&gt; Drosophila</em

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is an established neurodegenerative disease that is closely associated with exposure to repetitive mild Traumatic ...

Modeling Amyloid-&#946;42 Toxicity and Neurodegeneration in Adult Zebrafish Brain

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease in which accumulation of toxic amyloid-&#946;42 (A&#946;42) peptides leads to synaptic degeneration, inflammation, neuronal death, and learning deficits. Humans cannot regenerate lost neurons in the case of AD in part due to impaired proliferative capacity of the neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) and reduced neurogenesis. Therefore, efficient regenerative therapies should also enhance the proliferation and neurogenic capacity of NSPCs. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a regenerative organism, and we can learn the basic molecular programs with which we could design therapeutic approaches to tackle AD. For this reason, the generation of an AD-like model in zebrafish was necessary. Using our methodology, we can introduce synthetic derivatives of A&#946;42 peptide with tissue penetrating capability into the adult zebrafish brain, and analyze the disease pathology and the regenerative response. The advantage over the existing methods or animal models is that zebrafish can teach us how a vertebrate brain can naturally regenerate, and thus help us to treat human neurodegenerative diseases better by targeting endogenous NSPCs. Therefore, the amyloid-toxicity model established in the adult zebrafish brain may open new avenues for research in the field of neuroscience and clinical medicine. Additionally, the simple execution of this method allows for cost-effective and efficient experimental assessment. This manuscript describes the synthesis and injection of A&#946;42 peptides into zebrafish brain.

This protocol describes the synthesis, characterization, and injection of monomeric amyloid-&#946;42 peptides for generating amyloid toxicity in adult zebrafish to establish an Alzheimer&#39;s disease model, followed by histological analyses and detection of aggregations.

Toxicidad del amiloide β42 de modelado y la neurodegeneración en cerebro de pez cebra adulto

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease in which accumulation of toxic amyloid-&#946;42 (A&#946;42) peptides leads to ...

Quantitative Analysis of Neuronal Dendritic Arborization Complexity in Drosophila

Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron, and dendritic morphology reflects synaptic organization during the development of the nervous system. Drosophila larval neuronal dendritic arborization (da) is an ideal model for studying morphogenesis of neural dendrites and gene function in the development of nervous system. There are four classes of da neurons. Class IV is the most complex with a branching pattern that covers almost the entire area of the larval body wall. We have previously characterized the effect of silencing the Drosophila ortholog of SOX5 on class IV neuronal dendritic arborization complexity (NDAC) using four parameters: the length of dendrites, the surface area of dendrite coverage, the total number of branches, and the branching structure. This protocol presents the workflow of NDAC quantitative analysis, consisting of larval dissection, confocal microscopy, and image analysis procedures using ImageJ software. Further insight into da neuronal development and its underlying mechanisms will improve the understanding of neuronal function and provide clues about the fundamental causes of neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Quantitative Analysis of Neuronal Dendritic Arborization Complexity in Drosophila

This protocol focuses on quantitative analysis of neuronal dendritic arborization complexity (NDAC) in Drosophila, which can be used for studies of dendritic morphogenesis.

Análisis cuantitativo de la complejidad de la arborización dendrítica Neuronal en Drosophila

Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron, and dendritic morphology reflects synaptic organization during the development of the nervous system. ...

La histología de masas para cuantificar la neurodegeneración en

Resumen

Explorar más videos

Capítulos en este video