This work was supported by grants to D.K. from the Medical Research Foundation of Oregon and from NIH/NINDS (NS047663). E.S. was supported by a training grant from the NIH (T32AG023477).

1.首輪にヘッドを固定し、パラフィンに埋め込み注：固定プロセスの手順はすべて、ドラフト内で行う必要があります。安息香酸メチルは、健康上のリスクをもたらすものではないが、ドラフト内で処理されない場合は圧倒的なことができ非常に明確な臭気を持っています。 <ol><li>ハエを麻酔する前に、（クロロホルム及び酢酸を混在させないでください）99％エタノール30 mLに氷酢酸のクロロホルム5mLを15mLのを追加することにより、カルノア液の50ミリリットルを構成しています。カラーは平らでき、完全に解決策で覆われていることを確実にするために、このようなcrystalizing皿のように、平らな底部を有するガラス容器にそれを注ぎます。 </li><li> CO 2またはエーテルでハエを麻酔。 </li><li>スレッドは、ピンセットを用いてカラーに首によって（ほとんどの襟付き20まで）飛びます。 図1Aに見られるように、同じ方向に頭の全てを合わせ、損傷が頭や目に発生しないことを確実にするために穏やかであることを忘れないでください。 </li><li>ハエの順序を容易セクションで識別できるように、ランダムな位置での正弦oculisハエ （矢印、 図1A）を含みます。また、場合実験ハエが十分な顔料は、スライドを染色するために存在することを確認するために、それらの間のような野生型のようないくつかの赤い目ハエを、スレッド、光や白の目の色を持っています。複数のカラーを使用した場合はカラー番号とともにプロトコルシートにハエの順序を記録します。 </li><li> 4時間 - 襟が終了した後、3.5用に準備カルノア液に入れてください。 </li><li>適切な処分キャニスターにカルノア液をダンプし、エタノール洗浄を開始します。コンテナ内のカラーの配置を乱さないようにゆっくりと注ぐようにしてください。 </li><li>二度99％のエタノール中で30分間のカラーを洗ってください。 </li><li> 1時間100％エタノール中でカラーを洗ってください。 overdehydrationを防ぐために、時間に洗浄液を必ず変更してください。 </li><li>安息香酸メチルにカラーを入れてO / RTでN。安息香酸メチルの蒸発を防ぐためにパラフィルムで容器を密閉します。 </li><li>ヒュームフード内で適切な使い捨て容器にmethylbenozateを注ぎます。 （ - 57°C 56）パラフィンワックス、メチルベンゾ1低融点：1の以前に調製された混合物を追加します。この時点から、カラーはパラフィンが硬化しないことを確認するために、65℃のインキュベーター内に保持する必要があります。 </li><li>適切な使い捨て容器にmethylbenozateとパラフィンの混合物を注ぐ、溶融純粋パラフィンワックスを注ぐ、カラーの上に、65℃に保ちました。 </li><li> 30分後にパラフィンを変更し、この少なくとも5回繰り返します。少なくとも6から8回の洗浄を実施すべきです。 </li><li>洗浄が完了すると、約スロット襟の大きさのゴムアイスキューブトレイにカラーを配置します。完全に覆われるまで、それらの上に溶融パラフィンを注ぎ、それがO / N（気泡を回避しよう）を硬化することを可能にします。 </li><li>パラフィンブロックcontaiを削除します寧アイスキューブトレイからカラー。そっと襟を折っ、カミソリの刃を使用して、襟からパラフィンブロックを区切ります。体が襟にとどまる一方でヘッドがパラフィンブロックになります。ブロックを室温で維持することができます。 </li><li>首輪をきれいにするには、光洗浄できれいにパラフィンを、削除し、再利用する前にエタノールで洗浄するために65℃でdeparafinization剤でそれらを浸します。 </li></ol> 2.セクショニングと取り付け<ol><li> 50℃に加熱プレートを温めます。プレート上のオブジェクトの所有者（または金属マウントブロック）とかみそりの刃を配置し、それらをウォームアップしましょう。 </li><li> （簡潔に接触側のブロックを溶融）加熱された取り付けブロックに（正面セクションに対して）切片のための所望の向きに応じて、（水平部のため）のいずれかの側に向かってヘッドをパラフィンブロックを添付したり、上向きに。加熱プレートからブロックを削除し、それは少なくとも10マイルのために冷却することができますパラフィンは、取り付けブロックの上に適切なシールのために十分に硬化されることを保証するn個。不均一なセクションを防ぐために、できるだけ多くのブロックの表面に平行に整列ヘッドの行を保管してください。 </li><li>カミソリの刃を取り、埋め込まれた頭を持つ唯一の小さな行が残るように離れてハエの頭から余分なパラフィンをトリム（かみそりの刃は簡単にトリミングのためにウォームアップすることができます）。パラフィンは、（切片中に行うことができ、よりトリミング）を切片中に破損しないようにあまりにも多くをトリミングすることがないことを確認してください。 </li><li>ミクロトームのオブジェクトホルダーに取り付けブロックを配置し、ヘッドの列の整列は、ブレードのエッジにできるだけ平行であることを確認してください。 </li><li>ポリ-L-リジン（PLL）溶液の薄い層で覆うことにより、顕微鏡スライドを調製し、5分間、それらを乾燥させます。使用直前に水でそれらをカバーしています。 </li><li> 7μmのセクションをカットし、水に浮かぶスライドにセクションのリボンを転送します。&lt;BR /&gt;注：水平方向のセクションの脳全体を得るために、我々は、（脳に口吻から切断）ヘッドが完全に切断されるまで目にカットし始めたときから、リボンを集めます。複数のスライドは、ヘッド全体のために必要とされてもよいです。 </li><li> 37℃の熱板上でスライドを置き、リボンが約1分間拡大することができます。 </li><li> （それを注ぐまたは組織を使用して）過剰の水を除去し、スライドO / Nを乾燥させます。 </li><li> （完全にセクションをカバーする）deparafinization剤が充填された背の高い、縦スライド染色ジャーにスライドを配置することによって、スライドからパラフィンワックスを除去します。 60分ごと - 30分の3回の洗浄を行います。 </li><li>最終洗浄からスライドを削除してください。スライドに埋め込むメディアの2滴を置き、大きなカバースリップでそれをカバーしています。 </li></ol> 3.セクションを撮影し、分析<ol><li> 2 D - 準備されたスライドが1のために乾燥することができます。その後、蛍光microscでそれらを調べます青色光下でのOPE。 </li><li>ハエの向きを決定するために、特定の地域に焦点を当てた場合に関心領域を見つけるために、低倍率を使用してください。 注：SWSのハエ（ 図2を参照）のために、我々は偉大な交連を含むセクションを見つけて、（通常は40倍の倍率で）画像を取ります。 （ 図3のように）脳全体を分析するとき、私たちは頭からすべてのセクションをスクロールし、いずれかの最も深刻な表現型または液胞を示すすべてのセクションとセクションを撮影します。 </li><li>二重盲検分析のために、取ると数の画像遺伝子型を知らなくても、後でそれらを識別するための行のカラー番号とヘッドの位置を記録します。 </li><li>画像が撮影されると、画像処理ソフトウェアを使用して分析します。 </li><li>セクションごとや頭あたりの空胞の数をカウントします。 、液胞のサイズを測定するソフトウェアプログラムで画像を開いて、あまりにも選択で空胞を選択するにはリットル。選択された空胞内のピクセルの量を決定します。 </li><li> μmの2への変換のために、写真を取得するために使用される倍率でステージマイクロメータ用較正スライドの写真を撮ります。変換係数を計算するためには100μm2のピクセルの量を決定します。 </li><li>上記のステップで算出された変換係数によって画素数を割ることによってミクロン2に総画素数を変換します。 </li></ol>

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M., Ewertson, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=QUALITATIVE+AND+QUANTITATIVE+ANALYSES+OF+EYE+PIGMENTS+AND+PTERIDINES+IN+BACK-MUTATIONS+OF+THE+MUTANT+wa+IN+DROSOPHILA+MELANOGASTER.">QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE ANALYSES OF EYE PIGMENTS AND PTERIDINES IN BACK-MUTATIONS OF THE MUTANT wa IN DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER.</a> Hereditas. 46, 635-650 (1960).</li><li>Bettencourt da Cruz, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Disruption+of+the+MAP1B-related+protein+FUTSCH+leads+to+changes+in+the+neuronal+cytoskeleton,+axonal+transport+defects,+and+progressive+neurodegeneration+in+Drosophila.">Disruption of the MAP1B-related protein FUTSCH leads to changes in the neuronal cytoskeleton, axonal transport defects, and progressive neurodegeneration in Drosophila.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 16, 2433-2442 (2005).</li><li>Kretzschmar, D., Hasan, G., Sharma, S., Heisenberg, M., Benzer, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+swiss+cheese+mutant+causes+glial+hyperwrapping+and+brain+degeneration+in+Drosophila.">The swiss cheese mutant causes glial hyperwrapping and brain degeneration in Drosophila.</a> J Neurosci. 17, 7425-7432 (1997).</li><li>Dutta, S., Rieche, F., Eckl, N., Duch, C., Kretzschmar, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glial+expression+of+Swiss+cheese+(SWS),+the+Drosophila+orthologue+of+neuropathy+target+esterase+(NTE),+is+required+for+neuronal+ensheathment+and+function.">Glial expression of Swiss cheese (SWS), the Drosophila orthologue of neuropathy target esterase (NTE), is required for neuronal ensheathment and function.</a> Dis Model Mech. 9, 283-294 (2016).</li><li>Davis, M. Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glucocerebrosidase+Deficiency+in+Drosophila+Results+in+alpha-Synuclein-Independent+Protein+Aggregation+and+Neurodegeneration.">Glucocerebrosidase Deficiency in Drosophila Results in alpha-Synuclein-Independent Protein Aggregation and Neurodegeneration.</a> PLoS Genet. 12, e1005944 (2016).</li><li>Dias-Santagata, D., Fulga, T. A., Duttaroy, A., Feany, M. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Oxidative+stress+mediates+tau-induced+neurodegeneration+in+Drosophila.">Oxidative stress mediates tau-induced neurodegeneration in Drosophila.</a> J Clin Invest. 117, 236-245 (2007).</li><li>Kretzschmar, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Glial+and+neuronal+expression+of+polyglutamine+proteins+induce+behavioral+changes+and+aggregate+formation+in+Drosophila.">Glial and neuronal expression of polyglutamine proteins induce behavioral changes and aggregate formation in Drosophila.</a> Glia. 49, 59-72 (2005).</li><li>Li, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Drosophila+model+for+TDP-43+proteinopathy.">A Drosophila model for TDP-43 proteinopathy.</a> Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 107, 3169-3174 (2010).</li></ol>

著者らは、開示することは何もありません。

記載された方法は、 ショウジョウバエの脳における神経変性を定量化する手段を提供します。他の方法は、特定の細胞型を計数するように、神経変性を同定するために使用することができるが、この方法の利点は、より一般的に適用できることです。細胞を計数することは、これらの細胞が確実に特異的な抗体や、常に利用可能でない細胞特異的マーカーの発現、のいずれかを用いて...

平均余命の増加に伴い、アルツハイマー病やパーキンソンなどの神経変性疾患は、一般人口の増大する健康への脅威となっています。国立衛生研究所によると、115万人が世界中で、基礎となる重要な進歩は、それらの多くは、これらの疾患のうちの少なくともいくつかに関与する遺伝子および危険因子を同定することにしたが2050年に認知症により影響を受けると予測されます分子メカニズムはまだ不明かよく理解しています。 線虫（Caenorhabditis elegans）およびキイロショウジョウバエのような単純な無脊椎動物のモデル生物は、短いライフサイクル、子孫の数が多いと、十分に確立し、時にはユニークな遺伝的および分子的方法1の可用性を含む神経変性疾患のメカニズムを研究するための実験種々の利点を提供しています-12。さらに、これらの生物は、公平に適しています神経変性の表現型に対するそれらの悪化または改善効果によって、これらの疾患の要因を特定することができる相互作用の画面。 そのような遺伝的相互作用を分析し、高齢化の影響を評価することは神経変性を検出するために、その重症度を測定するための定量的なプロトコルが必要です。数値性能値13から21を提供するような嗅覚学習、負の走地性、または高速走光性ショウジョウバエにおける行動の側面を、測定するときにこの評価は、比較的容易に行うことができます。ニューロンを計数することによりニューロンの生存に対する効果を決定することも可能です。 PDに影響されるドーパミン作動性ニューロンのように、明確に識別可能である特定の集団に着目した場合ただし、これは可能であり、その後も、結果は22-24議論されています。 ここで説明するプロトコルは、パラフィン連続切片を実行するために、カラー方式を使用して、方法それは、もともとショウジョウバエ 25に解剖学的脳の突然変異体を単離するためにそれを使用しハイゼンベルクとBöhl、によって開発されました。カラー方法の使用は、その後凍結切片、ビブラトーム切片及びプラスチックセクション26-28に含むように適合されています。ここでは、この方法は、次に、神経変性表現型16,21,29-32とハエに開発空胞を測定することができる全体フライヘッドの連続切片を得るために使用されます。これらの測定は、特定の脳領域で行うことができ、または脳全体を覆うことができます。後者のアプローチは、老化中に観察されたように、1つは、弱い変性表現型を識別することができます。最後に、20ハエまで、カラーを使用している場合だけでなく、より少ない時間がかかるだけでなく、原因のわずかな変化にアーティファクトを最小化する、同じ製剤中に対照および実験ハエの分析を可能にする1つの製剤として処理することができます準備。

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of the Reagent/Equipment</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalog Number</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Collar</td>
			<td>Genesee Scientific</td>
			<td>TS 48-100</td>
			<td>We are using custom made collars that are made from one piece of metal instead of layers as the ones by Genesee. A discription to make collars can be found at http://flybrain.neurobio.arizona.edu/Flybrain/html/atlas/fluorescent/index.html&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rubber ice cube tray for embedding</td>
			<td>Household store</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>The size can be made to fit by glueing in additional walls&#160;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Crystallizing dish</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific company</td>
			<td>08-762-3</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ether</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>E138-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Ethanol</td>
			<td>Decon Laboratories Inc.</td>
			<td>2701</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Choloroform</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>C298-500</td>
			<td></td>
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			<td>Glacial Acetic Acid</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>A38-212</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Methylbenzoate</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>M205-500</td>
			<td>Distinct Odor</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Use in fume hood</td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Low Melting Point Paraffin Wax</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>T565</td>
			<td>Make sure to keep extra melted in a 65&#176;C waterbath</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microtome</td>
			<td>Leica Biosystems</td>
			<td>Reichert Jung 2040 Autocut</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Slide</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>12-550D</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Microscope Cover Glass</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>12-545-M</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>SafeClear</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>314-629</td>
			<td>Three different containers for washes</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Vertical Staining Jar with Cover</td>
			<td>Ted Pella Inc.&#160;</td>
			<td>432-1</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Permount</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific Company</td>
			<td>SP15-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Poly-L-lysine Solution</td>
			<td>Sigma Life Science</td>
			<td>P8290-500</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

mass histology to quantify neurodegeneration in drosophila

アルツハイマー病（AD）またはパーキンソン病（PD）などの進行性神経変性疾患は、世界中のヒトの健康に増加脅威です。哺乳動物のモデルは病原性の基礎となるメカニズムに重要な洞察を提供してきたが、一緒に高コストの哺乳動物系の複雑さは、その使用を制限しています。したがって、シンプルだが十分に確立されたショウジョウバエモデル・システムは、これらの疾患に影響される分子経路を調査するための代替手段を提供します。行動障害のほか、神経変性疾患は、神経細胞死と軸索障害などの組織学的表現型によって特徴付けられます。神経変性を定量化するために、それが遺伝的要因と環境要因によって影響される方法を決定するために、我々は大人のハエの脳内の空胞を測定することに基づいている組織学的アプローチを使用しています。系統誤差の影響を最小限に抑えるために、直接制御とEXPからの切片を比較します1つの製剤でerimentalハエは、我々はパラフィン切片のための「カラー」メソッドを使用します。神経変性は、その後、ハエの脳に開発した空胞のサイズ及び/又は数を測定することによって評価されます。これは、いずれかの特定の関心領域に焦点を合わせることによって、または完全長に及ぶ連続切片を得ることにより脳全体を分析することによって行うことができます。通常の老化時に起こるようなので、この方法は、1が厳しい変性だけでなく、いくつかのセクションにのみ検出され、比較的穏やかな表現型だけでなく、を測定することができます。

全体フライヘッドを包含する眼の色素33によって染色された連続切片で説明した方法の結果を使用。この部分は、個々のヘッドのセクションが上から下に表示され、図1Bに示されています。別のハエのセクションは、この例では左から右に見られます。配向およびハエの識別を容易にする、アイレスフライ（正弦oculis）が 3位（矢印、 ...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila at JoVE.com

Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

ショウジョウバエは広く神経変性を研究するためのモデル系として使用されます。このプロトコルは、脳内の空胞の形成によって決定されるように、定量化可能な変性方法を記載しています。それはまた、一つのサンプルとして処理し、切片化対照および実験ハエによる実験手順に影響を最小限に抑えることができます。

に神経変性を定量化するために、マス組織学<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em

Progressive neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimer&#39;s disease (AD) or Parkinson&#39;s disease (PD) are an increasing threat to human health ...

mass-histology-to-quantify-neurodegeneration-in-drosophila

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

10.1K ビュー.  Oregon Health & Sciences University.  ショウジョウバエは広く神経変性を研究するためのモデル系として使用されます。このプロトコルは、脳内の空胞の形成によって決定されるように、定量化可能な変性方法を記載しています。それはまた、一つのサンプルとして処理し、切片化対照および実験ハエによる実験手順に影響を最小限に抑えることができます。 

ビデオ: Mass Histology to Quantify Neurodegeneration in Drosophila

Quantifying Synapses: an Immunocytochemistry-based Assay to Quantify Synapse Number

One of the most important goals in neuroscience is to understand the molecular cues that instruct early stages of synapse formation. As such it has become imperative to develop objective approaches to quantify changes in synaptic connectivity. Starting from sample fixation, this protocol details how to quantify synapse number both in dissociated neuronal culture and in brain sections using immunocytochemistry. Using compartment-specific antibodies, we label presynaptic terminals as well as sites of postsynaptic specialization. We define synapses as points of colocalization between the signals generated by these markers. The number of these colocalizations is quantified using a plug in Puncta Analyzer (written by Bary Wark, available upon request, c.eroglu@cellbio.duke.edu) under the ImageJ analysis software platform. The synapse assay described in this protocol can be applied to any neural tissue or culture preparation for which you have selective pre- and postsynaptic markers. This synapse assay is a valuable tool that can be widely utilized in the study of synaptic development.

This protocol details how to quantify synapse number both in dissociated neuronal culture and in brain sections using immunocytochemistry. Using compartment-specific antibodies, we label presynaptic terminals as well as sites of postsynaptic specialization. We define synapses as points of colocalization between the signals generated by these markers.

定量シナプス：シナプス数を定量する免疫細胞ベースのアッセイ

One of the most important goals in neuroscience is to understand the molecular cues that instruct early stages of synapse formation. As such it has become ...

神経科学

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal. Such analysis of two or more genes needs to be complemented with in situ hybridization of other genes, or immunohistochemistry of their proteins, both in whole mounted developing organs or sections for detailed resolution of the cellular and tissue expression alterations. Combining multiple gene alterations requires the use of cre or flipase to conditionally delete genes and avoid embryonic lethality. Required breeding schemes dramatically enhance effort and cost proportional to the number of genes mutated, with an outcome of very few animals with the full repertoire of genetic modifications desired. Amortizing the vast amount of effort and time to obtain these few precious specimens that are carrying multiple mutations necessitates tissue optimization. Moreover, investigating a single animal with multiple techniques makes it easier to correlate gene deletion defects with expression profiles. We have developed a technique to obtain a more thorough analysis of a given animal; with the ability to analyze several different histologically recognizable structures as well as gene and protein expression all from the same specimen in both whole mounted organs and sections. Although mice have been utilized to demonstrate the effectiveness of this technique it can be applied to a wide array of animals. To do this we combine lipophilic dye tracing, whole mount in situ hybridization, immunohistochemistry, and histology to extract the maximal possible amount of data.

Combining Lipophilic dye, in situ Hybridization, Immunohistochemistry, and Histology

A combination of different techniques to maximize data collection from mouse tissue is presented.

親油性色素を組み合わせることで、その場でハイブリダイゼーション、免疫組織化学、および組織学

Going beyond single gene function to cut deeper into gene regulatory networks requires multiple mutations combined in a single animal.  Such analysis of ...

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of these diseases, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Huntington's disease are characterized by age-dependent deterioration in learning and memory functions and movement coordination2. Here we use behavioral assays, including the negative geotaxis assay3 and the aversive phototaxic suppression assay (APS assay)4,5, to show that some of the behavior characteristics associated with human neurodegeneration can be recapitulated in flies. In the negative geotaxis assay, the natural tendency of flies to move against gravity when agitated is utilized to study genes or conditions that may hinder locomotor capacities. In the APS assay, the learning and memory functions are tested in positively-phototactic flies trained to associate light with aversive bitter taste and hence avoid this otherwise natural tendency to move toward light. Testing these trained flies 6 hours post-training is used to assess memory functions. Using these assays, the contribution of any genetic or environmental factors toward developing neurodegeneration can be easily studied in flies.

Assaying Locomotor, Learning, and Memory Deficits in Drosophila Models of Neurodegeneration

Behavior assays for measuring locomotor functions, learning, and memory abilities in Drosophila.

でアッセイする運動、学習、記憶障害ショウジョウバエ</em神経変性の>モデル

Advances in genetic methods have enabled the study of genes involved in human neurodegenerative diseases using Drosophila as a model system1. Most of ...

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron is damaged by injury or disease, it may regenerate. Cell-intrinsic and extrinsic factors influence the ability of a neuron to regenerate and restore function. Recently, the nematode C. elegans has emerged as an excellent model organism to identify genes and signaling pathways that influence the regeneration of neurons1-6. The main way to initiate neuronal regeneration in C. elegans is laser-mediated cutting, or axotomy. During axotomy, a fluorescently-labeled neuronal process is severed using high-energy pulses. Initially, neuronal regeneration in C. elegans was examined using an amplified femtosecond laser5. However, subsequent regeneration studies have shown that a conventional pulsed laser can be used to accurately sever neurons in vivo and elicit a similar regenerative response1,3,7.
We present a protocol for performing in vivo laser axotomy in the worm using a MicroPoint pulsed laser, a turnkey system that is readily available and that has been widely used for targeted cell ablation. We describe aligning the laser, mounting the worms, cutting specific neurons, and assessing subsequent regeneration. The system provides the ability to cut large numbers of neurons in multiple worms during one experiment. Thus, laser axotomy as described herein is an efficient system for initiating and analyzing the process of regeneration.

In vivo Laser Axotomy in C. elegans

A protocol to cut neurons in C. elegans with a MicroPoint pulsed laser is presented. We describe setting up the system, immobilizing worms, and severing labeled neurons. Advantages include a relatively low-cost system and the ability to sever neuronal processes or ablate cells in vivo.

Cの生体レーザー軸索切断にエレガンス

Neurons communicate with other cells via axons and dendrites, slender membrane extensions that contain pre- or post-synaptic specializations. If a neuron ...

Methods to Assay Drosophila Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, has been used to study molecular mechanisms of a wide range of human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular disease and various neurological diseases1. We have optimized simple and robust behavioral assays for determining larval locomotion, adult climbing ability (RING assay), and courtship behaviors of Drosophila. These behavioral assays are widely applicable for studying the role of genetic and environmental factors on fly behavior. Larval crawling ability can be reliably used for determining early stage changes in the crawling abilities of Drosophila larvae and also for examining effect of drugs or human disease genes (in transgenic flies) on their locomotion. The larval crawling assay becomes more applicable if expression or abolition of a gene causes lethality in pupal or adult stages, as these flies do not survive to adulthood where they otherwise could be assessed. This basic assay can also be used in conjunction with bright light or stress to examine additional behavioral responses in Drosophila larvae. Courtship behavior has been widely used to investigate genetic basis of sexual behavior, and can also be used to examine activity and coordination, as well as learning and memory. Drosophila courtship behavior involves the exchange of various sensory stimuli including visual, auditory, and chemosensory signals between males and females that lead to a complex series of well characterized motor behaviors culminating in successful copulation. Traditional adult climbing assays (negative geotaxis) are tedious, labor intensive, and time consuming, with significant variation between different trials2-4. The rapid iterative negative geotaxis (RING) assay5 has many advantages over more widely employed protocols, providing a reproducible, sensitive, and high throughput approach to quantify adult locomotor and negative geotaxis behaviors. In the RING assay, several genotypes or drug treatments can be tested simultaneously using large number of animals, with the high-throughput approach making it more amenable for screening experiments.

Methods to Assay Drosophila Behavior

Drosophila melanogaster is a genetically and behaviorally tractable model system that has been used to understand the molecular and cellular basis of many important biological processes for over a century 1. Drosophila has been well exploited to gain insights into the genetic basis of fly behavior.

アッセイのメソッドショウジョウバエ行動

Drosophila melanogaster, the fruit fly, has been used to study molecular mechanisms of a wide range of human diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular ...

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other insects proprioception is provided by specialized sensory organs termed chordotonal organs (ChOs) 2. Like many other organs in Drosophila, ChOs develop twice during the life cycle of the fly. First, the larval ChOs develop during embryogenesis. Then, the adult ChOs start to develop in the larval imaginal discs and continue to differentiate during metamorphosis.
The development of larval ChOs during embryogenesis has been studied extensively 10,11,13,15,16. The centerpiece of each ChO is a sensory unit composed of a neuron and a scolopale cell. The sensory unit is stretched between two types of accessory cells that attach to the cuticle via specialized epidermal attachment cells 1,9,14. When a fly larva moves, the relative displacement of the epidermal attachment cells leads to stretching of the sensory unit and consequent opening of specific transient receptor potential vanilloid (TRPV) channels at the outer segment of the dendrite 8,12. The elicited signal is then transferred to the locomotor central pattern generator circuit in the central nervous system.
Multiple ChOs have been described in the adult fly 7. These are located near the joints of the adult fly appendages (legs, wings and halters) and in the thorax and abdomen. In addition, several hundreds of ChOs collectively form the Johnston's organ in the adult antenna that transduce acoustic to mechanical energy 3,5,17,4.
In contrast to the extensive knowledge about the development of ChOs in embryonic stages, very little is known about the morphology of these organs during larval stages. Moreover, with the exception of femoral ChOs 18 and Johnston's organ, our knowledge about the development and structure of ChOs in the adult fly is very fragmentary.
Here we describe a method for staining and visualizing ChOs in third instar larvae and pupae. This method can be applied together with genetic tools to better characterize the morphology and understand the development of the various ChOs in the fly.

Visualization of Proprioceptors in Drosophila Larvae and Pupae

A method to immunostain and visualize chordotonal organs in larvae and pupae of Drosophila melanogaster is described.

でProprioceptorsの可視化<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em&gt;幼虫および蛹

Proprioception is the ability to sense the motion, or position, of body parts by responding to stimuli arising within the body. In fruitflies and other ...

Utilizing 3D Printing Technology to Merge MRI with Histology: A Protocol for Brain Sectioning

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows for the delineation between normal and abnormal tissue on a macroscopic scale, sampling an entire tissue volume three-dimensionally. While MRI is an extremely sensitive tool for detecting tissue abnormalities, association of signal changes with an underlying pathological process is usually not straightforward. In the central nervous system, for example, inflammation, demyelination, axonal damage, gliosis, and neuronal death may all induce similar findings on MRI. As such, interpretation of MRI scans depends on the context, and radiological-histopathological correlation is therefore of the utmost importance. Unfortunately, traditional pathological sectioning of brain tissue is often imprecise and inconsistent, thus complicating the comparison between histology sections and MRI. This article presents novel methodology for accurately sectioning primate brain tissues and thus allowing precise matching between histology and MRI. The detailed protocol described in this article will assist investigators in applying this method, which relies on the creation of 3D printed brain slicers. Slightly modified, it can be easily implemented for brains of other species, including humans.

The overall goal of this protocol is to accurately align magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) image volumes with histology sections via the creation of customized 3D-printed brain holders and slicer boxes.

組織学でMRIをマージするために、3D印刷技術を活用：脳セクショニングのためのプロトコルを

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) allows for the delineation between normal and abnormal tissue on a macroscopic scale, sampling an entire tissue volume ...

A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is an established neurodegenerative disease that is closely associated with exposure to repetitive mild Traumatic Brain Injury (mTBI). The mechanisms responsible for its complex pathological changes remain largely elusive, despite a recent consensus to define the neuropathological criteria. Here, we describe a novel method to develop a model of CTE in Drosophila melanogaster&#160;(Drosophila&#160;)&#160;in an attempt to identify the key genes and pathways that lead to the characteristic hyperphosphorylated tau accumulation and neuronal death in the brain. Adjustable-strength impacts to inflict mild closed injury are delivered directly to the fly head, subjecting the head to rapid acceleration and deceleration. Our method eliminates the potential problems inherent with other Drosophila mTBI models (e.g.,animal death might be induced by damage to other parts of the body or to internal organs). The less labor- and cost-intensive animal care, short life span, and extensive genetic tools make the fruit fly ideal to study CTE pathogenesis and make it possible to perform large-scale, genome-wide forward genetic and pharmacological screens. We anticipate that the ongoing characterization of the model will generate important mechanistic insights on disease prevention and therapeutic approaches.

A Novel Method to Model Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Drosophila

Here, we describe a new approach to inflict closed-head traumatic brain injury in Drosophila melanogaster. Our method has the advantage of directly delivering repetitive impacts with adjustable strength to the head alone. Further exploration of the invertebrate system will help to illuminate the pathogenesis of chronic traumatic encephalopathy.

慢性外傷性脳症モデルの新しい方法<em&gt;ショウジョウバエ</em

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy (CTE) is an established neurodegenerative disease that is closely associated with exposure to repetitive mild Traumatic ...

Modeling Amyloid-&#946;42 Toxicity and Neurodegeneration in Adult Zebrafish Brain

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease in which accumulation of toxic amyloid-&#946;42 (A&#946;42) peptides leads to synaptic degeneration, inflammation, neuronal death, and learning deficits. Humans cannot regenerate lost neurons in the case of AD in part due to impaired proliferative capacity of the neural stem/progenitor cells (NSPCs) and reduced neurogenesis. Therefore, efficient regenerative therapies should also enhance the proliferation and neurogenic capacity of NSPCs. Zebrafish (Danio rerio) is a regenerative organism, and we can learn the basic molecular programs with which we could design therapeutic approaches to tackle AD. For this reason, the generation of an AD-like model in zebrafish was necessary. Using our methodology, we can introduce synthetic derivatives of A&#946;42 peptide with tissue penetrating capability into the adult zebrafish brain, and analyze the disease pathology and the regenerative response. The advantage over the existing methods or animal models is that zebrafish can teach us how a vertebrate brain can naturally regenerate, and thus help us to treat human neurodegenerative diseases better by targeting endogenous NSPCs. Therefore, the amyloid-toxicity model established in the adult zebrafish brain may open new avenues for research in the field of neuroscience and clinical medicine. Additionally, the simple execution of this method allows for cost-effective and efficient experimental assessment. This manuscript describes the synthesis and injection of A&#946;42 peptides into zebrafish brain.

This protocol describes the synthesis, characterization, and injection of monomeric amyloid-&#946;42 peptides for generating amyloid toxicity in adult zebrafish to establish an Alzheimer&#39;s disease model, followed by histological analyses and detection of aggregations.

Β42 アミロイド毒性と大人のゼブラフィッシュ脳の神経変性をモデリング

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a debilitating neurodegenerative disease in which accumulation of toxic amyloid-&#946;42 (A&#946;42) peptides leads to ...

Quantitative Analysis of Neuronal Dendritic Arborization Complexity in Drosophila

Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron, and dendritic morphology reflects synaptic organization during the development of the nervous system. Drosophila larval neuronal dendritic arborization (da) is an ideal model for studying morphogenesis of neural dendrites and gene function in the development of nervous system. There are four classes of da neurons. Class IV is the most complex with a branching pattern that covers almost the entire area of the larval body wall. We have previously characterized the effect of silencing the Drosophila ortholog of SOX5 on class IV neuronal dendritic arborization complexity (NDAC) using four parameters: the length of dendrites, the surface area of dendrite coverage, the total number of branches, and the branching structure. This protocol presents the workflow of NDAC quantitative analysis, consisting of larval dissection, confocal microscopy, and image analysis procedures using ImageJ software. Further insight into da neuronal development and its underlying mechanisms will improve the understanding of neuronal function and provide clues about the fundamental causes of neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Quantitative Analysis of Neuronal Dendritic Arborization Complexity in Drosophila

This protocol focuses on quantitative analysis of neuronal dendritic arborization complexity (NDAC) in Drosophila, which can be used for studies of dendritic morphogenesis.

ショウジョウバエのニューロン樹状分枝複雑さの定量解析

Dendrites are the branched projections of a neuron, and dendritic morphology reflects synaptic organization during the development of the nervous system. ...

に神経変性を定量化するために、マス組織学

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