Name: a direct force probe for measuring mechanical integration between the nucleus and the cytoskeleton
Uploaded: 2018-07-29T13:30:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Direct Force Probe for Measuring Mechanical Integration Between the Nucleus and the Cytoskeleton at JoVE.com

This work was supported by NIH R01 EB014869.

1. Preparing Cells for Imaging
NOTE: The direct force probe (DFP) can be used for any adherent cell type. Here, NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblasts are used as the model cell line for this protocol.
<ol>
	<li>Culture NIH 3T3 fibroblast cells in Dulbecco&#39;s Modified Eagle&#39;s Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% donor bovine serum and 1% Penicillin-Streptomycin on a 35-mm glass bottom dish until desired confluency. Maintain cells at 37 &#176;C and 5% CO2.
	<ol>
		<li>Be sure to coat all ...

<ol>
	<li>Chow, K. H., Factor, R. E., Ullman, K. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+nuclear+envelope+environment+and+its+cancer+connections.">The nuclear envelope environment and its cancer connections.</a> Nature Reviews Cancer. 12 (3), 196-209 (2012).</li><li>Zink, D., Fischer, A. H., Nickerson, J. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+structure+in+cancer+cells.">Nuclear structure in cancer cells.</a> Nature Reviews Cancer. 4 (9), 677-687 (2004).</li><li>Bank, E. M., Gruenbaum, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+nuclear+lamina+and+heterochromatin:+a+complex+relationship.">The nuclear lamina and heterochromatin: a complex relationship.</a> Biochemical Society Transactions. 39 (6), 1705-1709 (2011).</li><li>Lammerding, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lamins+A+and+C+but+not+lamin+B1+regulate+nuclear+mechanics.">Lamins A and C but not lamin B1 regulate nuclear mechanics.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 281 (35), 25768-25780 (2006).</li><li>Dahl, K. N., Engler, A. J., Pajerowski, J. D., Discher, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Power-law+rheology+of+isolated+nuclei+with+deformation+mapping+of+nuclear+substructures.">Power-law rheology of isolated nuclei with deformation mapping of nuclear substructures.</a> Biophysical Journal. 89 (4), 2855-2864 (2005).</li><li>Crisp, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Coupling+of+the+nucleus+and+cytoplasm:+role+of+the+LINC+complex.">Coupling of the nucleus and cytoplasm: role of the LINC complex.</a> Journal of Cell Biology. 172 (1), 41-53 (2006).</li><li>Sosa, B. A., Rothballer, A., Kutay, U., Schwartz, T. U. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=LINC+complexes+form+by+binding+of+three+KASH+peptides+to+domain+interfaces+of+trimeric+SUN+proteins.">LINC complexes form by binding of three KASH peptides to domain interfaces of trimeric SUN proteins.</a> Cell. 149 (5), 1035-1047 (2012).</li><li>Tapley, E. C., Starr, D. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Connecting+the+nucleus+to+the+cytoskeleton+by+SUN-KASH+bridges+across+the+nuclear+envelope.">Connecting the nucleus to the cytoskeleton by SUN-KASH bridges across the nuclear envelope.</a> Current Opinion in Cell Biology. 25 (1), 57-62 (2013).</li><li>Arsenovic, P. T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nesprin-2G,+a+Component+of+the+Nuclear+LINC+Complex,+Is+Subject+to+Myosin-Dependent+Tension.">Nesprin-2G, a Component of the Nuclear LINC Complex, Is Subject to Myosin-Dependent Tension.</a> Biophysical Journal. 110 (1), 34-43 (2016).</li><li>Rowat, A. C., Lammerding, J., Ipsen, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechanical+properties+of+the+cell+nucleus+and+the+effect+of+emerin+deficiency.">Mechanical properties of the cell nucleus and the effect of emerin deficiency.</a> Biophysical Journal. 91 (12), 4649-4664 (2006).</li><li>Rowat, A. C., Foster, L. J., Nielsen, M. M., Weiss, M., Ipsen, J. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Characterization+of+the+elastic+properties+of+the+nuclear+envelope.">Characterization of the elastic properties of the nuclear envelope.</a> Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 2 (2), 63-69 (2005).</li><li>Pagliara, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Auxetic+nuclei+in+embryonic+stem+cells+exiting+pluripotency.">Auxetic nuclei in embryonic stem cells exiting pluripotency.</a> Nature Materials. 13 (6), 638-644 (2014).</li><li>Liu, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+situ+mechanical+characterization+of+the+cell+nucleus+by+atomic+force+microscopy.">In situ mechanical characterization of the cell nucleus by atomic force microscopy.</a> ACS Nanotechnology. 8 (4), 3821-3828 (2014).</li><li>Krause, M., Te Riet, J., Wolf, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Probing+the+compressibility+of+tumor+cell+nuclei+by+combined+atomic+force-confocal+microscopy.">Probing the compressibility of tumor cell nuclei by combined atomic force-confocal microscopy.</a> Physical Biology. 10 (6), 065002 (2013).</li><li>Neelam, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Direct+force+probe+reveals+the+mechanics+of+nuclear+homeostasis+in+the+mammalian+cell.">Direct force probe reveals the mechanics of nuclear homeostasis in the mammalian cell.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 112 (18), 5720-5725 (2015).</li><li>Pajerowski, J. D., Dahl, K. N., Zhong, F. L., Sammak, P. J., Discher, D. E. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Physical+plasticity+of+the+nucleus+in+stem+cell+differentiation.">Physical plasticity of the nucleus in stem cell differentiation.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 104 (40), 15619-15624 (2007).</li><li>Lammerding, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lamin+A/C+deficiency+causes+defective+nuclear+mechanics+and+mechanotransduction.">Lamin A/C deficiency causes defective nuclear mechanics and mechanotransduction.</a> Journal of Clinical Investigation. 113 (3), 370-378 (2004).</li><li>Chancellor, T. J., Lee, J., Thodeti, C. K., Lele, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Actomyosin+tension+exerted+on+the+nucleus+through+nesprin-1+connections+influences+endothelial+cell+adhesion,+migration,+and+cyclic+strain-induced+reorientation.">Actomyosin tension exerted on the nucleus through nesprin-1 connections influences endothelial cell adhesion, migration, and cyclic strain-induced reorientation.</a> Biophysical Journal. 99 (1), 115-123 (2010).</li><li>Neelam, S., Dickinson, R. B., Lele, T. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=New+approaches+for+understanding+the+nuclear+force+balance+in+living,+adherent+cells.">New approaches for understanding the nuclear force balance in living, adherent cells.</a> Methods. 94, 27-32 (2016).</li></ol>

Measuring the mechanical integration of the nucleus with the cytoskeleton is a challenge for most current methods, such as micropipette aspiration16, because they require either isolated nuclei (where the nucleus is decoupled from the cytoskeleton) or nuclei in suspended cells (where extracellular forces, such as traction forces, are absent). Force has been applied to the nucleus by applying biaxial strain to cells adherent to a membrane17,18</s...

Pathologies such as cancer involve alterations to nuclear shape and structure1,2, which are generally accompanied by a &#39;softening&#39; of the nucleus3,4. Nuclear resistance to mechanical deformation has been generally characterized by applying a force to isolated nuclei5.
The nucleus in cells is molecularly connected to the cytoskeleton by the Linker of Nucleoskeleton and Cytoskeleton (LINC) complex6,7,8,9. As a result, the nucleus is mechanically integrated with the cytoskeleton and, through cell-substratum adhesions, the extracellular matrix. Mechanically probing the nucleus inside adherent cells can provide insight into this mechanical integration. Methods to manipulate nuclei in living cells include micropipette aspiration10,11, and atomic force microscopy12,13,14. We recently described a direct force probe (DFP) that applies mechanical forces directly on the nucleus in a living adherent cell15.
Here, we outline the procedure for using a microinjection system that is commonly available in microscopy facilities to apply a known, nano-scale mechanical force directly to the nucleus in an adherent cell. A femtotip (0.5 &#181;m diameter micropipette tip) is mounted and connected to the microinjection system by a tube. The tip, positioned at a 45&#176; angle relative to the surface of the culture dish, is lowered until adjacent to the nuclear surface. The tube is then disconnected and opened to the atmosphere, which creates a negative suction pressure on the nuclear surface and seals the micropipette tip against the nuclear surface. Through translation of the micropipette tip, the nucleus is deformed and eventually (depending on the magnitude of force applied), detached from the micropipette. This detachment occurs when the restoring (resisting) forces, exerted by the nucleus and cell, equal the suction force applied by the micropipette. Analysis can be performed by measuring the displacement of the nucleus, the length strain (Equation 1), or the area strain (Figure 1A).

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	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">FluoroDish</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">WPI</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">FD35</td>
			<td style="width:355px;"></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:299px;">SYTO 59</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">S11341</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">Femtotips&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Eppendorf</td>
			<td align="right">930000043</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">InjectMan NI2</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Eppendorf</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NA</td>
			<td>discontinued, current equivalent model: InjectMan 4</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">FemtoJet</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Eppendorf</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NA</td>
			<td>Current model FemtoJet 4i</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">Plan Fluor oil immersion 40x</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Nikon</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">Apo TIRF oil immersion 60x</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Nikon</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">NA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="63">
			<td height="63" style="height:63px;width:299px;">Donor Bovine Serum (DBS)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">ThermoFisher Scientific</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">16030074</td>
			<td>NIH 3T3 serum</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;">Dulbecco&#39;s Modification of Eagle&#39;s (DMEM)</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Mediatech cellgro</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MT10013CVRF</td>
			<td>NIH 3T3 medium</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:299px;">Penicillin-Streptomycin&#160;</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Mediatech</td>
			<td style="width:119px;">MT30004CIRF</td>
			<td>NIH 3T3 medium supplement</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:299px;">Immersion Oil Type LDF Non-Fluorescing</td>
			<td style="width:71px;">Nikon</td>
			<td align="right" style="width:119px;">77007</td>
			<td>Immersion oil for objective lens&#160;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

a direct force probe for measuring mechanical integration between the nucleus and the cytoskeleton

The mechanical properties of the nucleus determine its response to mechanical forces generated in cells. Because the nucleus is molecularly continuous with the cytoskeleton, methods are needed to probe its mechanical behavior in adherent cells. Here, we discuss the direct force probe (DFP) as a tool to apply force directly to the nucleus in a living adherent cell. We attach a narrow micropipette to the nuclear surface with suction. The micropipette is translated away from the nucleus, which causes the nucleus to deform and translate. When the restoring force is equal to the suction force, the nucleus detaches and elastically relaxes. Because the suction pressure is precisely known, the force on the nuclear surface is known. This method has revealed that nano-scale forces are sufficient to deform and translate the nucleus in adherent cells, and identified cytoskeletal elements that enable the nucleus to resist forces. The DFP can be used to dissect the contributions of cellular and nuclear components to nuclear mechanical properties in living cells.

Figure 2A shows the forcing of an NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblast nucleus. As the micropipette tip is translated to the right, the nucleus deforms and eventually detaches from the micropipette tip. The length strain of the nucleus is seen to increase with increasing suction force (Figure 2B). The front edge of the nucleus (micropipette pulling edge) forms a nuclear protrusion and the trailing edge is displaced from its original position...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about A Direct Force Probe for Measuring Mechanical Integration Between the Nucleus and the Cytoskeleton at JoVE.com

A Direct Force Probe for Measuring Mechanical Integration Between the Nucleus and the Cytoskeleton

In this protocol, we describe a micropipette method to directly apply a controlled force to the nucleus in a living cell. This assay allows interrogation of nuclear mechanical properties in the living, adherent cell.

The mechanical properties of the nucleus determine its response to mechanical forces generated in cells. Because the nucleus is molecularly continuous ...

This method can help answer key questions in the nuclear mechanics field. For example, what is the force required to deform the nucleus in a cell? What are the contributions of cellular and nuclear components to nuclear resistance to deformation?Or, does nuclear coupling with cellular structures vary with cell type? The main advantage of this technique is that it allows us to apply probing force to deform the integrating nucleo-cytoskeleton in a living adherent cell. Though this method has been used to provide insight into the nuclear mechanical properties in NIH-3T3 cells, it can also be applied to any adherent cell type, such as probing nuclear mechanical properties in Hutchinson-Gilford progerial cells.To begin this procedure, coat a 35 millimeter glass bottom dish with 5 micrograms per milliliter of fibronectin. Then, culture the NIH 3T3 fibroblast cells in DMEM supplemented with 10%donor bovine serum and 1%Penicillin-Streptomycin on the coated dish at 37 degrees Celsius until desired confluency. Immediately prior to the experiment, wash the cells twice with PBS, followed by a single wash with complete growth medium.Afterward, add three milliliters of complete growth medium to a glass bottom dish. In this procedure, turn on the microinjector. Using an immersion oil dropper, apply a drop of immersion oil on the objective lens.Then, clamp the dish tightly to the dish holder and load the dish holder onto the stage. Please note that the cells should be maintained at 37 degrees Celsius and 5%carbon dioxide throughout the experiment. Next, adjust the height of the objective to bring the cells into focus.Move the microscope stage to find a cell of interest. Using the micromanipulator, move the pipette holder to the highest position. Subsequently, load the micropipette with a 0.5 micrometer diameter tip onto the pipette holder.Then raise the objective focal plane above plane A and the top of the cell to plane B by adjusting the fine control. Next, set the micromanipulator to coarse control position. Slowly bring the micropipette down to plane B by watching for the silhouette of the micropipette until the micropipette comes fully into focus.Once the micropipette tip is in focus, set the micromanipulator to fine control. Subsequently, lower the objective to the equatorial plane of the cell and lower the micropipette to around 15 micrometers above that. Set the compensation pressure on the microinjector to the desired pressure.Wait several seconds for the pressure to stabilize. It is important to check if the pipette tip is broken or clogged, otherwise the force measurement would be inaccurate. Insure that the micropipette is not clogged by using the clean setting on the micromanipulator panel and make sure that the air bubbles emerge from the micropipette tip.Then, insert the micropipette tip into the cell until it lightly touches the nuclear surface. Create a seal between the micropipette tip and the nuclear membrane by disconnecting the pressure supply tube from the microinjection system, thereby opening the end of the micropipette to the atmosphere. This step creates a negative pressure equal to the compensation pressure on the nuclear surface.Next, open the image collection software. Set up an AVI acquisition for video or ND acquisition for images in the image collection software. Then, toggle to the corresponding fluorescent imaging channel and begin imaging.Move the micropipette tip away from the body of the cell until the nucleus detaches from the micropipette. This figure shows the forcing of an NIH 3T3 mouse fibroblast nucleus. As the micropipette tip moves to the right, the nucleus deforms and eventually detaches from the micropipette tip.The length strain of the nucleus is seen to increase with increasing suction force. The front edge of the nucleus forms a nuclear protrusion and the trailing edge is displaced from its original position. The length of the protrusion is much greater than the trailing edge displacement, suggesting a tight integration between the nucleus and the surrounding cytoplasm.The time scales are short for relaxation of the nuclear front edge and the nuclear back edge. Direct force probe was used to determine the contribution of intranuclear and cytoskeletal structures to the resistance of the nucleus to deformation. Fluorescent images showed the overlay of the nucleus before and after at the indicated condition.While no significant differences in nuclear deformation or translation were found after F-actin disruption or microtubule disruption, reducing the menten expression through siRNA-based knockdown resulted in significantly greater nuclear translation and deformation. This suggests that the menten intermediate filaments in fibroblasts are the main cytoskeletal element that helped the nucleus resist local force. After watching this video, you should have a good understanding of how to apply a controlled and known force to the nucleus in a living adherent cell.

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Research

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Biochemistry

Method for Identifying Small Molecule Inhibitors of the Protein-protein Interaction Between HCN1 and TRIP8b

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, where they function to regulate the excitability of neurons. The subcellular distribution of these channels in pyramidal neurons of hippocampal area CA1 is regulated by tetratricopeptide repeat-containing Rab8b interacting protein (TRIP8b), an auxiliary subunit. Genetic knockout of HCN pore forming subunits or TRIP8b, both lead to an increase in antidepressant-like behavior, suggesting that limiting the function of HCN channels may be useful as a treatment for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD). Despite significant therapeutic interest, HCN channels are also expressed in the heart, where they regulate rhythmicity. To circumvent off-target issues associated with blocking cardiac HCN channels, our lab has recently proposed targeting the protein-protein interaction between HCN and TRIP8b in order to specifically disrupt HCN channel function in the brain. TRIP8b binds to HCN pore forming subunits at two distinct interaction sites, although here the focus is on the interaction between the tetratricopeptide repeat (TPR) domains of TRIP8b and the C terminal tail of HCN1. In this protocol, an expanded description of a method for purifying TRIP8b and executing a high throughput screen to identify small molecule inhibitors of the interaction between HCN and TRIP8b, is described. The method for high throughput screening utilizes a Fluorescence Polarization (FP) -based assay to monitor the binding of a large TRIP8b fragment to a fluorophore-tagged eleven amino acid peptide corresponding to the HCN1 C terminal tail. This method allows &#39;hit&#39; compounds to be identified based on the change in the polarization of emitted light. Validation assays are then performed to ensure that &#39;hit&#39; compounds are not artifactual.

The interaction between HCN channels and their auxiliary subunit has been identified as a therapeutic target in Major Depressive Disorder. Here, a fluorescence polarization-based method for identifying small molecule inhibitors of this protein-protein interaction, is presented.

Hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels are expressed ubiquitously throughout the brain, where they function to regulate the ...

Time-resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Hydrogen-deuterium Exchange Mass Spectrometry for Studying Protein Structure and Dynamics

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. Hydrogen-Deuterium Exchange (HDX) measured at rapid time scales is uniquely suited to detect structures and hydrogen bonding networks that are briefly populated, allowing for the characterization of transient conformers in native ensembles. Coupling of HDX to mass spectrometry offers several key advantages, including high sensitivity, low sample consumption and no restriction on protein size. This technique has advanced greatly in the last several decades, including the ability to monitor HDX labeling times on the millisecond time scale. In addition, by incorporating the HDX workflow onto a microfluidic platform housing an acidic protease microreactor, we are able to localize dynamic properties at the peptide level. In this study, Time-Resolved ElectroSpray Ionization Mass Spectrometry (TRESI-MS) coupled to HDX was used to provide a detailed picture of residual structure in the tau protein, as well as the conformational shifts induced upon hyperphosphorylation.

Conformational flexibility plays a critical role in protein function. Herein, we describe the use of time-resolved electrospray ionization mass spectrometry coupled to hydrogen-deuterium exchange for probing the rapid structural changes that drive function in ordered and disordered proteins.

Intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) have long been a challenge to structural biologists due to their lack of stable secondary structure elements. ...

Force Spectroscopy of Single Protein Molecules Using an Atomic Force Microscope

The determination of the folding process of proteins from their amino acid sequence to their native 3D structure is an important problem in biology. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) can address this problem by enabling stretching and relaxation of single protein molecules, which gives direct evidence of specific unfolding and refolding characteristics. AFM-based single-molecule force-spectroscopy (AFM-SMFS) provides a means to consistently measure high-energy conformations in proteins that are not possible in traditional bulk (biochemical) measurements. Although numerous papers were published to show principles of AFM-SMFS, it is not easy to conduct SMFS experiments due to a lack of an exhaustively complete protocol. In this study, we briefly illustrate the principles of AFM and extensively detail the protocols, procedures, and data analysis as a guideline to achieve good results from SMFS experiments. We demonstrate representative SMFS results of single protein mechanical unfolding measurements and we provide troubleshooting strategies for some commonly encountered problems.

We describe the detailed procedures and strategies to measure the mechanical properties and mechanical unfolding pathways of single protein molecules using an atomic force microscope. We also show representative results as a reference for selection and justification of good single protein molecule recordings.

The determination of the folding process of proteins from their amino acid sequence to their native 3D structure is an important problem in biology. ...

Utilizing a Comprehensive Immunoprecipitation Enrichment System to Identify an Endogenous Post-translational Modification Profile for Target Proteins

It is now well-appreciated that post-translational modifications (PTMs) play an integral role in regulating a protein&#39;s structure and function, which may be essential for a given protein&#39;s role both physiologically and pathologically. Enrichment of PTMs is often necessary when investigating the PTM status of a target protein, because PTMs are often transient and relatively low in abundance. Many pitfalls are encountered when enriching for a PTM of a target protein, such as buffer incompatibility, the target protein antibody is not IP-compatible, loss of PTM signal, and others. The degree of difficulty is magnified when investigating multiple PTMs like acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation 2/3, and tyrosine phosphorylation for a given target protein. Studying a combination of these PTMs may be necessary, as crosstalk between PTMs is prevalent and critical for protein regulation. Often, these PTMs are studied in different lysis buffers and with unique inhibitor compositions. To simplify the process, a unique denaturing lysis system was developed that effectively isolates and preserves these four PTMs; thus, enabling investigation of potential crosstalk in a single lysis system. A unique filter system was engineered to remove contaminating genomic DNA from the lysate, which is a problematic by-product of denaturing buffers. Robust affinity matrices targeting each of the four PTMs were developed in concert with the buffer system to maximize the enrichment and detection of the endogenous states of these four PTMs. This comprehensive PTM detection toolset streamlines the process of obtaining critical information about whether a protein is modified by one or more of these PTMs.

Investigating multiple, endogenous post-translational modifications for a target protein can be extremely challenging. Techniques described here utilize an optimized lysis buffer and filter system developed with specific PTM-targeting, affinity matrices to detect the acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation 2/3, and tyrosine phosphorylation modifications for a target protein using a single, streamlined system.

It is now well-appreciated that post-translational modifications (PTMs) play an integral role in regulating a protein&#39;s structure and function, which ...

A Colorimetric Method for Measuring Iron Content in Plants

Iron, one of the most important micronutrients in living organisms, is involved in basic processes, such as respiration and photosynthesis. Iron content is rather low in all organisms, amounting in plants to about 0.009% of dry weight. To date, one of the most accurate methods for measuring iron concentration in plant tissues is flame absorption atomic spectroscopy. However, this approach is time-consuming and expensive and requires specific equipment not commonly found in plant laboratories. Therefore, a simpler, yet accurate method that can be routinely used is needed. The colorimetric Prussian Blue method is regularly used for qualitative iron staining in animal and plant histological sections. In this study, we adapted the Prussian Blue method for quantitative measurements of iron in tobacco leaves. We validated the accuracy of this method using both atomic spectroscopy and Prussian Blue staining to measure iron content in the same samples and found a linear regression (R2 = 0.988) between the two procedures. We conclude that the Prussian Blue method for quantitative iron measurement in plant tissues is precise, simple, and inexpensive. However, the linear regression presented here may not be appropriate for other plant species, due to potential interactions between the sample and the reagent. Establishment of a regression curve is thus needed for different plant species.

We present a simple and reliable protocol for measuring iron content in plant tissues using the colorimetric Prussian Blue method.

Iron, one of the most important micronutrients in living organisms, is involved in basic processes, such as respiration and photosynthesis. Iron content ...

Polysome Profiling in Leishmania, Human Cells and Mouse Testis

Proper protein expression at the right time and in the right amounts is the basis of normal cell function and survival in a fast-changing environment. For a long time, the gene expression studies were dominated by research on the transcriptional level. However, the steady-state levels of mRNAs do not correlate well with protein production, and the translatability of mRNAs varies greatly depending on the conditions. In some organisms, like the parasite Leishmania, the protein expression is regulated mostly at the translational level. Recent studies demonstrated that protein translation dysregulation is associated with cancer, metabolic, neurodegenerative and other human diseases. Polysome profiling is a powerful method to study protein translation regulation. It allows to measure the translational status of individual mRNAs or examine translation on a genome-wide scale. The basis of this technique is the separation of polysomes, ribosomes, their subunits and free mRNAs during centrifugation of a cytoplasmic lysate through a sucrose gradient. Here, we present a universal polysome profiling protocol used on three different models - parasite Leishmania major, cultured human cells and animal tissues. Leishmania cells freely grow in suspension and cultured human cells grow in adherent monolayer, while mouse testis represents an animal tissue sample. Thus, the technique is adapted to all of these sources. The protocol for the analysis of polysomal fractions includes detection of individual mRNA levels by RT-qPCR, proteins by Western blot and analysis of ribosomal RNAs by electrophoresis. The method can be further extended by examination of mRNAs association with the ribosome on a transcriptome level by deep RNA-seq and analysis of ribosome-associated proteins by mass spectroscopy of the fractions. The method can be easily adjusted to other biological models.

Polysome Profiling in Leishmania, Human Cells and Mouse Testis

The overall goal of polysome profiling technique is analysis of translational activity of individual mRNAs or transcriptome mRNAs during protein synthesis. The method is important for studies of protein synthesis regulation, translation activation and repression in health and multiple human diseases.

Proper protein expression at the right time and in the right amounts is the basis of normal cell function and survival in a fast-changing environment. For ...

Covalent Immobilization of Proteins for the Single Molecule Force Spectroscopy

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and functions. It gave us the opportunity to explore a multiplicity of biophysical mechanisms, e.g., how bacterial adhesins bind to host surface receptors in more detail. Among other factors, the success of SMFS experiments depends on the functional and native immobilization of the biomolecules of interest on solid surfaces and AFM tips. Here, we describe a straightforward protocol for the covalent coupling of proteins to silicon surfaces using silane-PEG-carboxyls and the well-established N-hydroxysuccinimid/1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethyl-aminopropyl)carbodiimid (EDC/NHS) chemistry in order to explore the interaction of pilus-1 adhesin RrgA from the Gram-positive bacterium Streptococcus pneumoniae (S. pneumoniae) with the extracellular matrix protein fibronectin (Fn). Our results show that the surface functionalization leads to a homogenous distribution of Fn on the glass surface and to an appropriate concentration of RrgA on the AFM cantilever tip, apparent by the target value of up to 20% of interaction events during SMFS measurements and revealed that RrgA binds to Fn with a mean force of 52 pN. The protocol can be adjusted to couple via site specific free thiol groups. This results in a predefined protein or molecule orientation and is suitable for other biophysical applications besides the SMFS.

This protocol describes the covalent immobilization of proteins with a heterobifunctional silane coupling agent to silicon-oxide surfaces designed for the atomic force microscopy based single molecule force spectroscopy which is exemplified by the interaction of RrgA (pilus-1 tip adhesin of S. pneumoniae) with fibronectin.

In recent years, atomic force microscopy (AFM) based single molecule force spectroscopy (SMFS) extended our understanding of molecular properties and ...

Probing The Structure And Dynamics Of Nucleosomes Using Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription to take place in eukaryotic cells. The dynamics of nucleosomes provides access to the DNA by replication and transcription machineries, and critically contributes to the molecular mechanisms underlying chromatin functions. Single-molecule studies such as atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging have contributed significantly to our current understanding of the role of nucleosome structure and dynamics. The current protocol describes the steps enabling high-resolution AFM imaging techniques to study the structural and dynamic properties of nucleosomes. The protocol is illustrated by AFM data obtained for the centromere nucleosomes in which H3 histone is replaced with its counterpart centromere protein A (CENP-A). The protocol starts with the assembly of mono-nucleosomes using a continuous dilution method. The preparation of the mica substrate functionalized with aminopropyl silatrane (APS-mica) that is used for the nucleosome imaging is critical for the AFM visualization of nucleosomes described and the procedure to prepare the substrate is provided. Nucleosomes deposited on the APS-mica surface are first imaged using static AFM, which captures a snapshot of the nucleosome population. From analyses of these images, such parameters as the size of DNA wrapped around the nucleosomes can be measured and this process is also detailed. The time-lapse AFM imaging procedure in the liquid is described for the high-speed time-lapse AFM that can capture several frames of nucleosome dynamics per second. Finally, the analysis of nucleosome dynamics enabling the quantitative characterization of the dynamic processes is described and illustrated.

Here, we present a protocol to characterize nucleosome particles at the single-molecule level using static and time-lapse atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging techniques. The surface functionalization method described allows for the capture of the structure and dynamics of nucleosomes in high-resolution at the nanoscale.

Chromatin, which is a long chain of nucleosome subunits, is a dynamic system that allows for such critical processes as DNA replication and transcription ...

Imaging of Extracellular Vesicles by Atomic Force Microscopy

Exosomes and other extracellular vesicles (EVs) are molecular complexes consisting of a lipid membrane vesicle, its surface decoration by membrane proteins and other molecules, and diverse luminal content inherited from a parent cell, which includes RNAs, proteins, and DNAs. The characterization of the hydrodynamic sizes of EVs, which depends on the size of the vesicle and its coronal layer formed by surface decorations, has become routine. For exosomes, the smallest of EVs, the relative difference between the hydrodynamic and vesicles sizes is significant. The characterization of vesicles sizes by the cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (cryo-TEM) imaging, a gold standard technique, remains a challenge due to the cost of the instrument, the expertise required to perform the sample preparation, imaging and data analysis, and a small number of particles often observed in images. A widely available and accessible alternative is the atomic force microscopy (AFM), which can produce versatile data on three-dimensional geometry, size, and other biophysical properties of extracellular vesicles. The developed protocol guides the users in utilizing this analytical tool and outlines the workflow for the analysis of EVs by the AFM, which includes the sample preparation for imaging EVs in hydrated or desiccated form, the electrostatic immobilization of vesicles on a substrate, data acquisition, its analysis, and interpretation. The representative results demonstrate that the fixation of EVs on the modified mica surface is predictable, customizable, and allows the user to obtain sizing results for a large number of vesicles. The vesicle sizing based on the AFM data was found to be consistent with the cryo-TEM imaging.&#160;

A step-by-step procedure is described for label-free immobilization of exosomes and extracellular vesicles from liquid samples and their imaging by atomic force microscopy (AFM). The AFM images are used to estimate the size of the vesicles in the solution and characterize other biophysical properties.&#160;

Exosomes and other extracellular vesicles (EVs) are molecular complexes consisting of a lipid membrane vesicle, its surface decoration by membrane ...

High-Throughput Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence and Direct Stochastic Optical Reconstruction Microscopy Using a Photonic Chip

Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) is commonly used in single molecule localization based super-resolution microscopy as it gives enhanced contrast due to optical sectioning. The conventional approach is to use high numerical aperture microscope TIRF objectives for both excitation and collection, severely limiting the field of view and throughput. We present a novel approach to generating TIRF excitation for imaging with optical waveguides, called chip-based nanoscopy. The aim of this protocol is to demonstrate how chip-based imaging is performed in an already built setup. The main advantage of chip-based nanoscopy is that the excitation and collection pathways are decoupled. Imaging can then be done with a low magnification lens, resulting in large field of view TIRF images, at the price of a small reduction in resolution. Liver sinusoidal endothelial cells (LSECs) were imaged using direct stochastic optical reconstruction microscopy (dSTORM), showing a resolution comparable to traditional super-resolution microscopes. In addition, we demonstrate the high-throughput capabilities by imaging a 500 &#181;m x 500 &#181;m region with a low magnification lens, providing a resolution of 76 nm. Through its compact character, chip-based imaging can be retrofitted into most common microscopes and can be combined with other on-chip optical techniques, such as on-chip sensing, spectroscopy, optical trapping, etc. The technique is thus ideally suited for high throughput 2D super-resolution imaging, but also offers great opportunities for multi-modal analysis.

Chip-based super-resolution optical microscopy is a novel approach to fluorescence microscopy and offers advantages in cost effectiveness and throughput. Here, the protocols for chip preparation and imaging are shown for TIRF microscopy and localization-based super-resolution microscopy.

Total internal reflection fluorescence (TIRF) is commonly used in single molecule localization based super-resolution microscopy as it gives enhanced ...