We thank Bryan Venema and Eric Martinson for constructing the electroformation apparatus. This work was funded by grants from the National Institutes of General Medical Sciences of the National Institutes of Health (R01GM100718 to SEG) and the National Eye Institute of the National Institutes of Health (R01EY017564 to SEG).

1. Deposition of Lipids from Organic Solvents: Classical Protocol
<ol>
	<li>Remove lipids from storage at -20 &deg;C or -80 &deg;C; warm to RT. Caution: lipids are extremely hygroscopic, and many are sensitive to oxygen. Cover lipids in dry Argon or Nitrogen gas and in all steps minimize exposure to air.</li>
	<li>If necessary, suspend the lipids in chloroform or cyclohexane at 1-10 mg/ml; note that manufacturer's stated concentrations are typically nominal only. CAUTION: Wear appropriate ...

<ol>
	<li>Dimova, R., Aranda, S., Bezlyepkina, N., Nikolov, V., Riske, K. A., Lipowsky, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+practical+guide+to+giant+vesicles.+Probing+the+membrane+nanoregime+via+optical+microscopy.">A practical guide to giant vesicles. Probing the membrane nanoregime via optical microscopy.</a> Journal of Physics-Condensed Matter. 18 (28), S1151-S1176 (2006).</li><li>Luisi, P. L., Walde, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Giant Vesicles. , (2000).</li><li>Riquelme, G., Lopez, E., Garcia-Segura, L. M., Ferragut, J. A., Gonzalez-Ros, J. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Giant+liposomes:+a+model+system+in+which+to+obtain+patch-clamp+recordings+of+ionic+channels.">Giant liposomes: a model system in which to obtain patch-clamp recordings of ionic channels.</a> Biochemistry. 29 (51), 11215-11222 (1990).</li><li>Walde, P., Cosentino, K., Engel, H., Stano, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Giant+vesicles:+preparations+and+applications.">Giant vesicles: preparations and applications.</a> Chembiochem. 11 (7), 848-865 (2010).</li><li>Aimon, S., Manzi, J., Schmidt, D., Poveda Larrosa, J. A., Bassereau, P., Toombes, G. E. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+reconstitution+of+a+voltage-gated+potassium+channel+in+giant+unilamellar+vesicles.">Functional reconstitution of a voltage-gated potassium channel in giant unilamellar vesicles.</a> PLoS. One. 6 (10), e25529 (2011).</li><li>Girard, P., Pecreaux, J., Lenoir, G., Falson, P., Rigaud, J. L., Bassereau, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+new+method+for+the+reconstitution+of+membrane+proteins+into+giant+unilamellar+vesicles.">A new method for the reconstitution of membrane proteins into giant unilamellar vesicles.</a> Biophys. J. 87 (1), 419-429 (2004).</li><li>Manley, S., Gordon, V. D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Making+giant+unilamellar+vesicles+via+hydration+of+a+lipid+film.">Making giant unilamellar vesicles via hydration of a lipid film.</a> Curr. Protoc. Cell. Biol. 24, 1-13 (2008).</li><li>Rodriguez, N., Pincet, F., Cribier, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Giant+vesicles+formed+by+gentle+hydration+and+electroformation:+a+comparison+by+fluorescence+microscopy.">Giant vesicles formed by gentle hydration and electroformation: a comparison by fluorescence microscopy.</a> Colloids. Surf. B. Biointerfaces. 42 (2), 125-130 (2005).</li><li>Angelova, M. I., Soleau, S., Meleard, P., Faucon, J. F., Bothorel, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+giant+vesicles+by+external+AC+electric+fields.+Kinetics+and+applications.">Preparation of giant vesicles by external AC electric fields. Kinetics and applications.</a> Progressin Colloid &amp; Polymer Science. 89, 127-131 (1992).</li><li>Politano, T. J., Froude, V. E., Jing, B., Zhu, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=AC-electric+field+dependent+electroformation+of+giant+lipid+vesicles.">AC-electric field dependent electroformation of giant lipid vesicles.</a> Colloids. Surf. B. 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G., Ramos, A., Gonz&#225;lez, A., Morgan, H., Castellanos, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluid+flow+induced+by+nonuniform+ac+electric+fields+in+electrolytes+on+microelectrodes.+I.+Experimental+measurements.">Fluid flow induced by nonuniform ac electric fields in electrolytes on microelectrodes. I. Experimental measurements.</a> Phys. Rev. E. 61 (4), 4011-4018 (2000).</li><li>Baykal-Caglar, E., Hassan-Zadeh, E., Saremi, B., Huang, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Preparation+of+giant+unilamellar+vesicles+from+damp+lipid+film+for+better+lipid+compositional+uniformity.">Preparation of giant unilamellar vesicles from damp lipid film for better lipid compositional uniformity.</a> Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1818 (11), 2598-2604 (2012).</li><li>Bakalyar, S. R., Bradley, M. P. 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Neurochem. 101 (1), 57-76 (2007).</li><li>Greenspan, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Humidity+fixed+points+of+binary+saturated+aqueous+solutions.">Humidity fixed points of binary saturated aqueous solutions.</a> J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand. 81 (1), 89-96 (1977).</li><li>Rockland, L. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Saturated+Salt+Solutions+for+Static+Control+of+Relative+Humidity+between+5+&#176;+and+40+&#176;C.">Saturated Salt Solutions for Static Control of Relative Humidity between 5 &#176; and 40 &#176;C.</a> Anal. Chem. 32 (10), 1375-1376 (1960).</li><li>Washburn, E. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> International Critical Tables of Numerical Data, Physics, Chemistry and Technology (1st Electronic Edition). , 216-249 (2003).</li><li>Estes, D. J., Mayer, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Giant+liposomes+in+physiological+buffer+using+electroformation+in+a+flow+chamber.">Giant liposomes in physiological buffer using electroformation in a flow chamber.</a> Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1712 (2), 152-160 (2005).</li><li>Ayuyan, A. G., Cohen, F. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Lipid+Peroxides+Promote+Large+Rafts:+Effects+of+Excitation+of+Probes+in+Fluorescence+Microscopy+and+Electrochemical+Reactions+during+Vesicle+Formation.">Lipid Peroxides Promote Large Rafts: Effects of Excitation of Probes in Fluorescence Microscopy and Electrochemical Reactions during Vesicle Formation.</a> Biophys. J. 91 (6), 2172-2183 (2006).</li><li>Morales-Penningston, N. F., Wu, J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=GUV+preparation+and+imaging:+minimizing+artifacts.">GUV preparation and imaging: minimizing artifacts.</a> Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1798 (7), 1324-1332 (2010).</li><li>Grit, M., de Smidt, J. H., Struijke, A., Crommelin, D. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Hydrolysis+of+phosphatidylcholine+in+aqueous+liposome+dispersions.">Hydrolysis of phosphatidylcholine in aqueous liposome dispersions.</a> Int. J. Pharm. 50 (1), 1-6 (1989).</li><li>Zhou, Y., Berry, C. K., Storer, P. A., Raphael, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peroxidation+of+polyunsaturated+phosphatidyl-choline+lipids+during+electroformation.">Peroxidation of polyunsaturated phosphatidyl-choline lipids during electroformation.</a> Biomaterials. 28 (6), 1298-1306 (2007).</li><li>Farkas, E. R., Webb, W. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Multiphoton+polarization+imaging+of+steady-state+molecular+order+in+ternary+lipid+vesicles+for+the+purpose+of+lipid+phase+assignment.">Multiphoton polarization imaging of steady-state molecular order in ternary lipid vesicles for the purpose of lipid phase assignment.</a> J. Phys. Chem. B. 114 (47), 15512-15522 (2010).</li><li>Hauser, H. O. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+effect+of+ultrasonic+irradiation+on+the+chemical+structure+of+egg+lecithin.">The effect of ultrasonic irradiation on the chemical structure of egg lecithin.</a> Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 45 (4), 1049-1055 (1971).</li><li>Hauser, H., Cevc, G. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Phospholipid+vesicles.">Phospholipid vesicles.</a> Phospholipids Handbook. , (1993).</li><li>Veatch, S. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Electro-formation+and+fluorescence+microscopy+of+giant+vesicles+with+coexisting+liquid+phases.">Electro-formation and fluorescence microscopy of giant vesicles with coexisting liquid phases.</a> Meth. Mol. Biol. 398, 59-72 (2007).</li><li>Kim, R. S., LaBella, F. 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J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescent+probe+partitioning+in+GUVs+of+binary+phospholipid+mixtures:+implications+for+interpreting+phase+behavior.">Fluorescent probe partitioning in GUVs of binary phospholipid mixtures: implications for interpreting phase behavior.</a> Biochim. Biophys. Acta. 1818 (1), 19-26 (2012).</li><li>Herold, C., Chwastek, G., Schwille, P., Petrov, E. P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficient+electroformation+of+supergiant+unilamellar+vesicles+containing+cationic+lipids+on+ITO-coated+electrodes.">Efficient electroformation of supergiant unilamellar vesicles containing cationic lipids on ITO-coated electrodes.</a> Langmuir. 28 (13), 5518-5521 (2012).</li></ol>

Electroformation of giant liposomes has developed into a flexible technique compatible with diverse lipids, preparations, and buffers. Careful control of the lipid deposition process is most critical to success. We have presented simple tools to make controlled deposition of lipids from small liposome preparations a straightforward process. The relative humidity is critical to proper dehydration of the initial liposomes, and the optimum value will vary with the initial concentration of solutes in the liposome suspension....

Giant liposomes (often called giant unilamellar vesicles, or GUVs) have primarily been used to study the physics and physical chemistry of lipid bilayers, including studies of bilayer deformation, lateral phase coexistence ("rafts"), membrane fusion, etc1-4. They have a grossly cell-like structure: spherical shell of membrane surrounding an aqueous interior which can easily be made different than the surrounding aqueous buffer. They are, by definition, &asymp;1-100 &mu;m in diameter, so they can be imaged using a variety of light microscopy approaches. They can be made taut using osmotic gradients or mechanically applied tension, so that while generally soft, their properties can be manipulated for easy handling. In particular, controlling the "stiffness" of the liposome makes it straightforward to form "liposome-attached" or excised patches for electrophysiology. In the past, ion channel reconstitution was largely performed in planar lipid bilayers. Now, the ability to form patches from giant liposomes and use the considerable quiver of tools developed for conventional electrophysiology (fluorescence microscopy, micropipette aspiration, rapid perfusion and temperature control, etc.) makes giant liposomes increasingly attractive for reconstitution studies5,6.
Giant liposomes have been made by many strategies. In fact, giant liposomes form spontaneously by a swelling process when a dried lipid film is rehydrated4,7,8. The desire to more rapidly prepare larger, more uniform liposomes led researchers to other approaches, chief among them electroformation1,9. Electroformation also relies on hydration of a dried lipid film, but speeds the process through the application of an oscillating electric field across the lipid film. The field is applied through two electrodes, either platinum wires or Indium-Tin-Oxide (ITO) coated glass slides, separated by water or buffer and onto which the lipids are deposited. By speeding the swelling of liposomes, one achieves a higher yield of larger liposomes. Thus, electroformation has become the default method to produce giant liposomes4.
The mechanism of electroformation is not fully understood, and most of the protocols are developed empirically (e.g. 10,11). Nonetheless, we can learn a little about what to expect by considering the theory and some empirical results. It is widely believed that electroformation occurs by driving electro-osmotic flow of buffer between individual lipid bilayers stacked in the deposited lipid film10,11. Electrostatic coupling to thermal fluctuations of the lipid bilayers is probably also involved12. These hypotheses qualitatively predict upper limits for the electric field frequency and strength that can be used10,12. In particular, it is predicted that high conductivity solutions (i.e. physiological salt solutions) reduce the electrohydrodynamic forces that may initiate the liposome electroformation12. Electroosmotic flow rates generally decrease with increasing salt concentration and are frequently peaked at some electric field oscillation frequency (e.g. albeit in a different geometry, Green et al.13). Thus, higher field strengths and higher frequencies are reasonable for high conductivity solutions, within limits10.
However, membrane proteins are likely to be incompatible with the usual method of depositing lipids onto electrodes for the electroswelling procedure, namely in organic solvents which are then evaporated off to leave a thin lipid film. There are two principal paths around this difficulty: to incorporate proteins after giant liposome formation, or to adapt how the lipids are deposited. Our approach builds on others5,11 to deposit the lipids and reconstituted membrane protein together from a suspension of small or large "proteoliposomes". We describe the lengthy and more challenging process of producing proteoliposomes from purified protein and lipids elsewhere (Collins and Gordon, in review). Here we describe the protocol in the absence of any protein, but it is the same when protein is incorporated; we include results showing that proteoliposomes containing the ion channel TRPV1 can be transformed into GUVs and used for patch-clamp electrophysiology. In any electroformation approach, visual inspection of the lipid sample during the lipid deposition process is critical to success.
Our approach may be relevant beyond the specialized application to ion channel reconstitution. In the time since we first developed this protocol and now, it has also been shown how the way in which lipids are deposited on electrodes for electroformation affects the compositional heterogeneity of the resulting GUVs. Baykal-Caglar et al.14 showed that GUVs formed from carefully dehydrated liposomes had a 2.5 times smaller variation in the miscibility transition temperature of GUVs formed from mixtures of various phospholipids and cholesterol. Their work indicates that lipids, and especially cholesterol, may precipitate from the lipid mixture when deposited from organic solvents, resulting in large spatial variation in composition of the deposited lipid film. This is especially important for studies of lipid membrane phase behavior, but may also be critical to quantitative experiments on ion channel function. Baykal-Caglar et al.'s protocol is similar but not identical to our own, and readers are encouraged to study it as well.
This protocol (see overview, Figure 1) is one of many that could be used. In principle electroformation success depends on the lipid mixture, hydration, temperature, other solutes (especially ions), and of course the voltage and frequency used in formation. As electroformation becomes better understood, we expect to refine our protocol more.
Finally, there is often a steep learning curve in electroforming giant liposomes. We suggest mastering the conventional protocol (Sections 1 and 4, and, if necessary, Section 5) before learning to deposit lipids from liposomal suspensions (Sections 2-5).

<table border="1">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>Name of the reagent</td>
			<td>Company</td>
			<td>Catalogue number</td>
			<td>Comments (optional)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Digital Multimeter</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies, <a href="http://www.agilent.com" target="_blank">www.agilent.com</a></td>
			<td>U1232A or similar</td>
			<td>Any multimeter will do, but avoid old style analog ohmmeters which apply much more current to the resistance under test.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
			<td>Fluke</td>
			<td>117 or 177</td>
			<td>Any multimeter will do, but avoid old style analog ohmmeters which apply much more current to the resistance under test.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Function Generator</td>
			<td>Agilent Technologies, <a href="http://www.agilent.com" target="_blank">www.agilent.com</a></td>
			<td>33210A or similar</td>
			<td>Most function generators work for simple protocols. This programmable model is useful for advanced electroformation protocols. Make sure the generator can drive 10 V peak-to-peak into a 50 &Omega; load</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ITO coated glass slides</td>
			<td>Delta Technologies, Loveland, CO <a href="http://www.delta-technologies.com" target="_blank">www.delta-technologies.com</a></td>
			<td>CB-90IN-S107 or similar</td>
			<td>Break these in half to make two slides, 25 mm x 37 mm</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Temperature controller</td>
			<td>Omega Engineering Stamford, CT <a href="http://www.omega.com" target="_blank">www.omega.com</a></td>
			<td>CNi3233 or similar</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hygrometer</td>
			<td>Extech, Nashua, NH, <a href="http://www.extech.com" target="_blank">www.extech.com</a></td>
			<td>445815</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Silicone rubber sheet</td>
			<td>McMaster-Carr Elmhurst, IL <a href="http://www.mcmaster.com" target="_blank">www.mcmaster.com</a></td>
			<td><a href="http://www.mcmaster.com/#87315K64" target="_blank">87315K64</a></td>
			<td>Use USP Grade VI silicone for its high purity</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>EMI gasket</td>
			<td>Laird Technologies <a href="http://www.lairdtech.com" target="_blank">www.lairdtech.com</a></td>
			<td>4202-PA-51H-01800 or similar</td>
			<td>Distributed by Mouser <a href="http://www.mouser.com" target="_blank">www.mouser.com</a></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>TxR-DHPE</td>
			<td>Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA <a href="http://www.lifetechnologies.com" target="_blank">www.lifetechnologies.com</a></td>
			<td>T1395MP</td>
			<td>Other fluorescently labeled lipids are available, but TxR-DHPE is one of the brightest and most photostable.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>POPC</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids, Alabaster, AL <a href="http://www.avantilipids.com" target="_blank">www.avantilipids.com</a></td>
			<td>850457P or 850457C</td>
			<td>Lipids can be ordered as powders (P) or in chloroform (C)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>POPS</td>
			<td>Avanti Polar Lipids</td>
			<td>840034P/C</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cholesterol</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>C8667</td>
			<td>&nbsp;</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

giant liposome preparation for imaging and patch-clamp electrophysiology

The reconstitution of ion channels into chemically defined lipid membranes for electrophysiological recording has been a powerful technique to identify and explore the function of these important proteins. However, classical preparations, such as planar bilayers, limit the manipulations and experiments that can be performed on the reconstituted channel and its membrane environment. The more cell-like structure of giant liposomes permits traditional patch-clamp experiments without sacrificing control of the lipid environment.
Electroformation is an efficient mean to produce giant liposomes &gt;10 &mu;m in diameter which relies on the application of alternating voltage to a thin, ordered lipid film deposited on an electrode surface. However, since the classical protocol calls for the lipids to be deposited from organic solvents, it is not compatible with less robust membrane proteins like ion channels and must be modified. Recently, protocols have been developed to electroform giant liposomes from partially dehydrated small liposomes, which we have adapted to protein-containing liposomes in our laboratory.
We present here the background, equipment, techniques, and pitfalls of electroformation of giant liposomes from small liposome dispersions. We begin with the classic protocol, which should be mastered first before attempting the more challenging protocols that follow. We demonstrate the process of controlled partial dehydration of small liposomes using vapor equilibrium with saturated salt solutions. Finally, we demonstrate the process of electroformation itself. We will describe simple, inexpensive equipment that can be made in-house to produce high-quality liposomes, and describe visual inspection of the preparation at each stage to ensure the best results.

In our examples, we prepare liposomes from a mixture of approximately 55 mol% POPC (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-phosphocholine), 15 mol% POPS (1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-phosphoserine, 30 mol% cholesterol, and 0.1 mol% Texas Red-labeled 1,2-dipalmitoyl-sn-phosphoethanolamine (TxR-DPPE). This composition was chosen as approximately representative of dorsal root ganglion lipids18. We note that 15 mol% charged lipid (here POPS) is near the limit of what can be used in electrofo...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Giant Liposome Preparation for Imaging and Patch-Clamp Electrophysiology at JoVE.com

Giant Liposome Preparation for Imaging and Patch-Clamp Electrophysiology

Reconstituting functional membrane proteins into giant liposomes of defined composition is a powerful approach when combined with patch-clamp electrophysiology. However, conventional giant liposome production may be incompatible with protein stability. We describe protocols for producing giant liposomes from pure lipids or small liposomes containing ion channels.

The reconstitution of ion channels into chemically defined lipid membranes for electrophysiological recording has been a powerful technique to identify ...

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Research

JoVE Journal

Biology

22.0K ビュー.  University of Washington. 定義されている物の巨大リポソームに機能的な膜タンパク質を再構成すると、パッチクランプ電気生理学と組み合わせた強力なアプローチである。しかし、従来の巨大リポソーム生産は、タンパク質の安定性と互換性がないかもしれません。私たちは純粋な脂質やイオンチャネルを含む小さなリポソームから巨大リポソームを製造するためのプロトコル?...

ビデオ: Giant Liposome Preparation for Imaging and Patch-Clamp Electrophysiology

Reconstituting functional membrane proteins into giant liposomes of defined composition is a powerful approach when combined with patch-clamp electrophysiology. However, conventional giant liposome production may be incompatible with protein stability.  We describe protocols for producing giant liposomes from pure lipids or small liposomes containing ion...

application of automated image-guided patch clamp for the study of neurons in brain slices

Application of Automated Image-guided Patch Clamp for the Study of Neurons in Brain Slices

This protocol describes how to conduct automatic image-guided patch-clamp experiments using a system recently developed for standard in vitro electrophysiology...

pulling membrane nanotubes from giant unilamellar vesicles

Pulling Membrane Nanotubes from Giant Unilamellar Vesicles

Many proteins in the cell sense and induce membrane curvature. We describe a method to pull membrane nanotubes from lipid vesicles to study the interaction of proteins or any curvature-active molecule with curved membranes in...

culturing and electrophysiology of cells on nrcc patch-clamp chips

Culturing and Electrophysiology of Cells on NRCC Patch-clamp Chips

We show how planar patch-clamp chips fabricated at the National Research Council of Canada are sterilized, primed, loaded with medium, plated with cells, and used for electrophysiological...

evaluation of synaptic multiplicity using whole-cell patch-clamp electrophysiology

Evaluation of Synaptic Multiplicity Using Whole-cell Patch-clamp Electrophysiology

Here, we present a protocol for evaluating the functional synaptic multiplicity using whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology in acute brain...

whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology: a method to study electrical properties of neurons

This protocol describes a technique called whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology, which is a method to study electrical properties of Mauthner neurons and other reticulospinal cells in zebrafish...

Whole-Cell Patch Clamp Electrophysiology: A Method to Study Electrical Properties of Neurons

reconstitution of a transmembrane protein, the voltage-gated ion channel, kvap, into giant unilamellar vesicles for microscopy and patch clamp studies

Reconstitution of a Transmembrane Protein, the Voltage-gated Ion Channel, KvAP, into Giant Unilamellar Vesicles for Microscopy and Patch Clamp Studies

The reconstitution of the transmembrane protein, KvAP, into giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) is demonstrated for two dehydration-rehydration methods &#8212; electroformation, and gel-assisted swelling. In both methods, small unilamellar vesicles containing the protein are fused together to form GUVs that can then be studied by fluorescence microscopy and patch-clamp...

exploring arterial smooth muscle kv7 potassium channel function using patch clamp electrophysiology and pressure myography

Exploring Arterial Smooth Muscle Kv7 Potassium Channel Function using Patch Clamp Electrophysiology and Pressure Myography

Measurements of Kv7 (KCNQ) potassium channel activity in isolated arterial myocytes (using patch clamp electrophysiological techniques) in parallel with measurements of constrictor/dilator responses (using pressure myography) can reveal important information about the roles of Kv7 channels in vascular smooth muscle physiology and...

the ex vivo preparation of spinal cord slice for the whole-cell patch-clamp recording in motor neurons during spinal cord stimulation

Author Spotlight: Advancing Spinal Cord Stimulation - Exploring the Cellular Responses of Motor Neurons Through Patch-Clamp Electrophysiology 

This protocol describes a method using a patch-clamp to study the electrical responses of motor neurons to spinal cord stimulation (SCS) with high spatiotemporal resolution, which can help researchers improve their skills in separating the spinal cord and maintaining cell viability...

Understanding Motor Neuron Responses to Spinal Cord Stimulation

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pressure-polishing pipettes for improved patch-clamp recording

Pressure-polishing Pipettes for Improved Patch-clamp Recording

This is a guide to modifying the shape of glass micropipettes.  Specifically, by using heat and air pressure the taper is widened without increasing the tip opening, leading to lower pipette resistance.  This is critical to obtain low noise recordings of small cells but is useful in many...

slice patch clamp technique for analyzing learning-induced plasticity

Slice Patch Clamp Technique for Analyzing Learning-Induced Plasticity

The slice patch clamp technique is an effective method for analyzing learning-induced changes in the intrinsic properties and plasticity of excitatory or inhibitory...

f1fo atpase vesicle preparation and technique for performing patch clamp recordings of submitochondrial vesicle membranes

F1FO ATPase Vesicle Preparation and Technique for Performing Patch Clamp Recordings of Submitochondrial Vesicle Membranes

A method to isolate submitochondrial vesicles enriched in F1FO ATP synthase complexes from rat brain is described. These vesicles allow the study of the activity of  F1FO ATPase complex and its modulation using the technique of patch clamp...

F1FO ATPase Vesicle Preparation and Technique for Performing Patch Clamp Recordings of Submitochondrial Vesicle Membranes

isolating and culturing vestibular and spiral ganglion somata from neonatal rodents for patch-clamp recordings

Isolating and Culturing Vestibular and Spiral Ganglion Somata from Neonatal Rodents for Patch-Clamp Recordings

Presented here are methods providing detailed instructions for dissecting, dissociating, culturing, and patch-clamp recording from vestibular ganglion and spiral ganglion neurons of the inner...

patch-clamp capacitance measurements and ca2+ imaging at single nerve terminals in retinal slices

Patch-clamp Capacitance Measurements and Ca2+ Imaging at Single Nerve Terminals in Retinal Slices

Here we describe a protocol for the preparation of agar-embedded retinal slices that are suitable for electrophysiology and Ca2+ imaging. This method allows one to study ribbon-type synapses in retinal microcircuits using direct patch-clamp recordings of single presynaptic nerve...

Patch-clamp Capacitance Measurements and Ca2+ Imaging at Single Nerve Terminals in Retinal Slices

whole-cell patch-clamp recordings in brain slices

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings in Brain Slices

This protocol describes basic procedural steps for performing whole-cell patch-clamp recordings. This technique allows the study of&#160;the electrical behavior of neurons, and when performed in brain slices, allows the assessment of various neuronal functions from neurons that are still integrated in relatively well preserved brain...

methods for patch clamp capacitance recordings from the calyx

Methods for Patch Clamp Capacitance Recordings from the Calyx

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve...

one-channel cell-attached patch-clamp recording

One-channel Cell-attached Patch-clamp Recording

Described here is a procedure for obtaining long stretches of current recording from one ion channel with the cell-attached patch-clamp technique. This method allows for observing, in real time, the pattern of open-close channel conformations that underlie the biological signal. These data inform about channel properties in undisturbed biological...

preparation of spinal cord slice for the whole-cell patch-clamp recording in motor neurons

Preparation of Spinal Cord Slice for the Whole-Cell Patch-Clamp Recording in Motor Neurons  

patch clamp recording of starburst amacrine cells in a flat-mount preparation of deafferentated mouse retina

Patch Clamp Recording of Starburst Amacrine Cells in a Flat-mount Preparation of Deafferentated Mouse Retina

This protocol demonstrates how to perform whole-cell patch clamp recording on retinal neurons from a flat-mount...

whole-cell patch-clamp recordings for electrophysiological determination of ion selectivity in channelrhodopsins

Whole-cell Patch-clamp Recordings for Electrophysiological Determination of Ion Selectivity in Channelrhodopsins

This article describes how the ion selectivity of channelrhodopsin is determined with electrophysiological whole-cell patch-clamp recordings using HEK293 cells. Here, the experimental procedure for investigating chloride selectivity of an anion-selective channelrhodopsin is demonstrated. However, the procedure is transferable to other channelrhodopsins of distinct...

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal. Electrical recordings from the presynaptic terminal allow the measurement of action potentials, calcium channel currents, vesicle fusion (exocytosis) and subsequent membrane uptake (endocytosis). The fusion of vesicles containing neurotransmitter causes the vesicle membrane to be added to the cell membrane of the calyx. This increase in the amount of cell membrane is measured as an increase in capacitance. The subsequent reduction in capacitance indicates endocytosis, the process of membrane uptake or removal from the calyx membrane. Endocytosis, is necessary to maintain the structure of the calyx and it is also necessary to form vesicles that will be filled with neurotransmitter for future exocytosis events. Capacitance recordings at the calyx of Held have made it possible to directly and rapidly measure vesicular release and subsequent endocytosis in a mammalian CNS nerve terminal. In addition, the corresponding postsynaptic activity can be simultaneously measured by using paired recordings. Thus a complete picture of the presynaptic and postsynaptic electrical activity at a central nervous system synapse is achievable using this preparation. Here, the methods for slice preparation, morphological features for identification of calyces of Held, basic patch clamping techniques, and examples of capacitance recordings to measure exocytosis and endocytosis are presented.

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal.

We demonstrate the basic techniques for presynaptic patch clamp recording at the calyx of Held, a mammalian central nervous system nerve terminal. ...

Patch Clamp Recording of Ion Channels Expressed in  Xenopus Oocytes

Since its development by Sakmann and Neher 1, 2, the patch clamp has become established as an extremely useful technique for electrophysiological measurement of single or multiple ion channels in cells. This technique can be applied to ion channels in both their native environment and expressed in heterologous cells, such as oocytes harvested from the African clawed frog, Xenopus laevis. Here, we describe the well-established technique of patch clamp recording from Xenopus oocytes. This technique is used to measure the properties of expressed ion channels either in populations (macropatch) or individually (single-channel recording). We focus on techniques to maximize the quality of oocyte preparation and seal generation. With all factors optimized, this technique gives a probability of successful seal generation over 90 percent. The process may be optimized differently by every researcher based on the factors he or she finds most important, and we present the approach that have lead to the greatest success in our hands.

This is intended as an introduction to patch clamp recording from Xenopus laevis oocytes. It covers vitelline membrane removal, formation of a gigaohm seal (gigaseal), and the optional conversion of the patch to the outside-out topology.

Since its development by Sakmann and Neher 1, 2, the patch clamp has become established as an extremely useful technique for electrophysiological ...

Pressure-polishing is a method for shaping glass pipettes for patch-clamp recording. We first developed this method for fabricating pipettes suitable for recording from small (&lt;3 m) neuronal cell bodies. The basic principal is similar to glass-blowing and combines air pressure and heat to modify the shape of patch pipettes prepared by a conventional micropipette puller. It can be applied to so-called soft (soda lime) and hard (borosilicate) glasses. Generally speaking, pressure polishing can reduce pipette resistance by 25% without decreasing the diameter of the tip opening (Goodman and Lockery, 2000). It can be applied to virtually any type of glass and requires only the addition of a high-pressure valve and fitting to a microforge. This technique is essential for recording from ultrasmall cells (&lt;5 m) and can also improve single-channel recording by minimizing pipette resistance. The blunt shape is also useful for perforated-patch clamp recording since this tip shape results in a larger membrane bleb available for perforation.

This is a guide to modifying the shape of glass micropipettes. Specifically, by using heat and air pressure the taper is widened without increasing the tip opening, leading to lower pipette resistance. This is critical to obtain low noise recordings of small cells but is useful in many applications.

Pressure-polishing is a method for shaping glass pipettes for patch-clamp recording.  We first developed this method for fabricating pipettes suitable for ...

Preparation of Artificial Bilayers for Electrophysiology Experiments

Planar lipid bilayers, also called artificial lipid bilayers, allow you to study ion-conducting channels in a well-defined environment. These bilayers can be used for many different studies, such as the characterization of membrane-active peptides, the reconstitution of ion channels or investigations on how changes in lipid bilayer properties alter the function of bilayer-spanning channels.  Here, we show how to form a planar bilayer and how to isolate small patches from the bilayer, and in a second video  will also demonstrate a procedure for using gramicidin channels to determine changes in lipid bilayer elastic properties.   We also demonstrate the individual steps needed to prepare the bilayer chamber, the electrodes and how to test that the bilayer is suitable for single-channel measurements.

Planar lipid bilayers, also called artificial lipid bilayers, allow you to study ion-conducting channels in a well-defined environment. Here, we demonstrate the individual steps needed to prepare the bilayer chamber, the electrodes and how to test that the bilayer is suitable for single-channel measurements.

Planar lipid bilayers, also called artificial lipid bilayers, allow you to study ion-conducting channels in a well-defined environment. These bilayers can ...

Spinal Cord Electrophysiology

The neonatal mouse spinal cord is a model for studying the development of neural circuitries and locomotor movement. We demonstrate the spinal cord dissection and preparation of recording bath artificial cerebrospinal fluid used for locomotor studies. Once dissected, the spinal cord ventral nerve roots can be attached to a recording electrode to record the electrophysiologic signals of the central pattern generating circuitry within the lumbar cord.

A demonstration of the isolation of neonatal mouse spinal cord for electrophysiologic studies.

The neonatal mouse spinal cord is a model for studying the development of neural circuitries and locomotor movement. We demonstrate the spinal cord ...

Patch Clamp and Perfusion Techniques for Studying Ion Channels Expressed in Xenopus oocytes

The protocol presented here is designed to study the activation of the large conductance, voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. The protocol may also be used to study the structure-function relationship for other ion channels and neurotransmitter receptors1. BK channels are widely expressed in different tissues and have been implicated in many physiological functions, including regulation of smooth muscle contraction, frequency tuning of inner hair cells and regulation of neurotransmitter release2-6. BK channels are activated by membrane depolarization and by intracellular Ca2+ and Mg2+ 6-9. Therefore, the protocol is designed to control both the membrane voltage and the intracellular solution. In this protocol, messenger RNA of BK channels is injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes (stage V-VI) followed by 2-5 days of incubation at 18&deg;C10-13. Membrane patches that contain single or multiple BK channels are excised with the inside-out configuration using patch clamp techniques10-13. The intracellular side of the patch is perfused with desired solutions during recording so that the channel activation under different conditions can be examined. To summarize, the mRNA of BK channels is injected into Xenopus laevis oocytes to express channel proteins on the oocyte membrane; patch clamp techniques are used to record currents flowing through the channels under controlled voltage and intracellular solutions.

Patch Clamp and Perfusion Techniques for Studying Ion Channels Expressed in Xenopus oocytes

Ionic current of BK channels is recorded using patch clamp techniques. BK channels are expressed in Xenopus oocytes by injecting messenger RNA. The intracellular solution during patch clamp recordings is controlled by a perfusion system.

The protocol presented here is designed to study the activation of the large conductance, voltage- and Ca2+-activated K+ (BK) channels. The protocol may ...

Contraction or relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the walls of resistance arteries determines the artery diameter and thereby controls flow of blood through the vessel and contributes to systemic blood pressure. The contraction process is regulated primarily by cytosolic calcium concentration ([Ca2+]cyt), which is in turn controlled by a variety of ion transporters and channels. Ion channels are common intermediates in signal transduction pathways activated by vasoactive hormones to effect vasoconstriction or vasodilation. And ion channels are often targeted by therapeutic agents either intentionally (e.g. calcium channel blockers used to induce vasodilation and lower blood pressure) or unintentionally (e.g. to induce unwanted cardiovascular side effects).
Kv7 (KCNQ) voltage-activated potassium channels have recently been implicated as important physiological and therapeutic targets for regulation of smooth muscle contraction. To elucidate the specific roles of Kv7 channels in both physiological signal transduction and in the actions of therapeutic agents, we need to study how their activity is modulated at the cellular level as well as evaluate their contribution in the context of the intact artery.
The rat mesenteric arteries provide a useful model system. The arteries can be easily dissected, cleaned of connective tissue, and used to prepare isolated arterial myocytes for patch clamp electrophysiology, or cannulated and pressurized for measurements of vasoconstrictor/vasodilator responses under relatively physiological conditions. Here we describe the methods used for both types of measurements and provide some examples of how the experimental design can be integrated to provide a clearer understanding of the roles of these ion channels in the regulation of vascular tone.

Measurements of Kv7 (KCNQ) potassium channel activity in isolated arterial myocytes (using patch clamp electrophysiological techniques) in parallel with measurements of constrictor/dilator responses (using pressure myography) can reveal important information about the roles of Kv7 channels in vascular smooth muscle physiology and pharmacology.

Contraction  or relaxation of smooth muscle cells within the walls of resistance arteries  determines the artery diameter and thereby controls flow of ...

Optimized Protocol for Retinal Wholemount Preparation for Imaging and Immunohistochemistry

Working with delicate tissue can be a complicating factor when performing immunohistochemical assessment. Here, we present a method that utilizes a ring-supported hydrophilized PTFE membrane to provide structural support to both living and fixed tissue during immunohistochemical processing, which allows for the use of a variety of protocols that would otherwise cause damage to the tissue. First, this is demonstrated with bolus loading of fluorescent markers into living retinal tissue. This method allows for quick visualization of targeted structures, while the membrane support maintains tissue integrity during the injection and allows for easy transfer of the preparation for further imaging or processing.
Second, a procedure for antibody staining in tissue fixed with carbodiimide is described. Though paraformaldehyde fixation is more common, carbodiimide fixation provides a superior substrate for the visualization of synaptic proteins. A limitation of carbodiimide is that the resulting fixed tissue is relatively fragile; however, this is overcome with the use of the supporting membrane. Retinal tissue is used to demonstrate these techniques, but they may be applied to any fragile tissue.

The protocol described here is for structural assessment of a wholemount retinal preparation. This includes descriptions of tissue dissection, mounting onto a hydrophilized polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) membrane insert, bolus loading with fluorescent markers, and a comparison of fixation with carbodiimide and paraformaldehyde for immunohistochemical analysis of cellular and synaptic components.

Working with delicate tissue can be a complicating factor when performing immunohistochemical assessment. Here, we present a method that utilizes a ...

Ion channel proteins are universal devices for fast communication across biological membranes. The temporal signature of the ionic flux they generate depends on properties intrinsic to each channel protein as well as the mechanism by which it is generated and controlled and represents an important area of current research. Information about the operational dynamics of ion channel proteins can be obtained by observing long stretches of current produced by a single molecule. Described here is a protocol for obtaining one-channel cell-attached patch-clamp current recordings for a ligand gated ion channel, the NMDA receptor, expressed heterologously in HEK293 cells or natively in cortical neurons. Also provided are instructions on how to adapt the method to other ion channels of interest by presenting the example of the mechano-sensitive channel PIEZO1. This method can provide data regarding the channel&#8217;s conductance properties and the temporal sequence of open-closed conformations that make up the channel&#8217;s activation mechanism, thus helping to understand their functions in health and disease.

Described here is a procedure for obtaining long stretches of current recording from one ion channel with the cell-attached patch-clamp technique. This method allows for observing, in real time, the pattern of open-close channel conformations that underlie the biological signal. These data inform about channel properties in undisturbed biological membranes.

Ion channel proteins are universal devices for fast communication across biological membranes. The temporal signature of the ionic flux they generate ...

Giant Unilamellar Vesicles (GUVs) are a popular biomimetic system for studying membrane associated phenomena. However, commonly used protocols to grow GUVs must be modified in order to form GUVs containing functional transmembrane proteins. This article describes two dehydration-rehydration methods &#8212; electroformation and gel-assisted swelling &#8212; to form GUVs containing the voltage-gated potassium channel, KvAP. In both methods, a solution of protein-containing small unilamellar vesicles is partially dehydrated to form a stack of membranes, which is then allowed to swell in a rehydration buffer. For the electroformation method, the film is deposited on platinum electrodes so that an AC field can be applied during film rehydration. In contrast, the gel-assisted swelling method uses an agarose gel substrate to enhance film rehydration. Both methods can produce GUVs in low (e.g., 5 mM) and physiological (e.g., 100 mM) salt concentrations. The resulting GUVs are characterized via fluorescence microscopy, and the function of reconstituted channels measured using the inside-out patch-clamp configuration. While swelling in the presence of an alternating electric field (electroformation) gives a high yield of defect-free GUVs, the gel-assisted swelling method produces a more homogeneous protein distribution and requires no special equipment.

The reconstitution of the transmembrane protein, KvAP, into giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) is demonstrated for two dehydration-rehydration methods &#8212; electroformation, and gel-assisted swelling. In both methods, small unilamellar vesicles containing the protein are fused together to form GUVs that can then be studied by fluorescence microscopy and patch-clamp electrophysiology.

Giant Unilamellar Vesicles (GUVs) are a popular biomimetic system for studying membrane associated phenomena. However, commonly used protocols to grow ...