We thank James Perna for the graphic illustration. This work was supported by grants from the National Institute of Mental Health to Y.Z.

Approval needs to be obtained from home institutions before commencement of the surgery and imaging study. Experiments described in this manuscript were performed in accordance with the guidelines and regulations from the University of California, Santa Cruz Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee.
1. Surgery
<ol>
	<li>Autoclave all surgical instruments and sterilize the workspace with 70% alcohol thoroughly before surgery.</li>
	<li>Anesthetize the mouse by intraperitoneal (IP) injectio...

<ol>
	<li>Holtmaat, A., Svoboda, K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experience-dependent+structural+synaptic+plasticity+in+the+mammalian+brain.">Experience-dependent structural synaptic plasticity in the mammalian brain.</a> Nature reviews. Neuroscience. 10, 647-658 (2009).</li><li>Fu, M., Zuo, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Experience-dependent+structural+plasticity+in+the+cortex.">Experience-dependent structural plasticity in the cortex.</a> Trends in neurosciences. 34, 177-187 (2011).</li><li>Yu, X., Zuo, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Spine+plasticity+in+the+motor+cortex.">Spine plasticity in the motor cortex.</a> Current opinion in neurobiology. 21, 169-174 (2011).</li><li>Harms, K. J., Dunaevsky, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dendritic+spine+plasticity:+looking+beyond+development.">Dendritic spine plasticity: looking beyond development.</a> Brain research. 1184, 65-71 (2007).</li><li>Segal, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dendritic+spines+and+long-term+plasticity.">Dendritic spines and long-term plasticity.</a> Nature reviews. Neuroscience. 6, 277-284 (2005).</li><li>Tada, T., Sheng, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+mechanisms+of+dendritic+spine+morphogenesis.">Molecular mechanisms of dendritic spine morphogenesis.</a> Current opinion in neurobiology. 16, 95-101 (2006).</li><li>Alvarez, V. A., Sabatini, B. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Anatomical+and+physiological+plasticity+of+dendritic+spines.">Anatomical and physiological plasticity of dendritic spines.</a> Annual review of neuroscience. 30, 79-97 (2007).</li><li>Denk, W., Strickler, J. H., Webb, W. W. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-photon+laser+scanning+fluorescence+microscopy.">Two-photon laser scanning fluorescence microscopy.</a> Science. 248, 73-76 (1990).</li><li>Yang, G., Pan, F., Parkhurst, C. N., Grutzendler, J., Gan, W. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thinned-skull+cranial+window+technique+for+long-term+imaging+of+the+cortex+in+live+mice.">Thinned-skull cranial window technique for long-term imaging of the cortex in live mice.</a> Nature protocols. 5, 201-208 (2010).</li><li>Holtmaat, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Long-term,+high-resolution+imaging+in+the+mouse+neocortex+through+a+chronic+cranial+window.">Long-term, high-resolution imaging in the mouse neocortex through a chronic cranial window.</a> Nature protocols. 4, 1128-1144 (2009).</li><li>Drew, P. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+optical+access+through+a+polished+and+reinforced+thinned+skull.">Chronic optical access through a polished and reinforced thinned skull.</a> Nature methods. 7, 981-984 (2010).</li><li>Szu, J. I., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Thinned-skull+cortical+window+technique+for+in+vivo+optical+coherence+tomography+imaging.">Thinned-skull cortical window technique for in vivo optical coherence tomography imaging.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2012).</li><li>Mostany, R., Portera-Cailliau, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+craniotomy+surgery+procedure+for+chronic+brain+imaging.">A craniotomy surgery procedure for chronic brain imaging.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2008).</li><li>Xu, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Rapid+formation+and+selective+stabilization+of+synapses+for+enduring+motor+memories.">Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories.</a> Nature. 462, 915-919 (2009).</li><li>Fu, M., Yu, X., Lu, J., Zuo, Y. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Repetitive+motor+learning+induces+coordinated+formation+of+clustered+dendritic+spines+in+vivo.">Repetitive motor learning induces coordinated formation of clustered dendritic spines in vivo.</a> Nature. 483, 92-95 (2012).</li><li>Davalos, D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=ATP+mediates+rapid+microglial+response+to+local+brain+injury+in+vivo.">ATP mediates rapid microglial response to local brain injury in vivo.</a> Nature neuroscience. 8, 752-758 (2005).</li><li>Tsai, J., Grutzendler, J., Duff, K., Gan, W. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fibrillar+amyloid+deposition+leads+to+local+synaptic+abnormalities+and+breakage+of+neuronal+branches.">Fibrillar amyloid deposition leads to local synaptic abnormalities and breakage of neuronal branches.</a> Nature neuroscience. 7, 1181-1183 (2004).</li><li>Pan, F., Aldridge, G. M., Greenough, W. T., Gan, W. B. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dendritic+spine+instability+and+insensitivity+to+modulation+by+sensory+experience+in+a+mouse+model+of+fragile+X+syndrome.">Dendritic spine instability and insensitivity to modulation by sensory experience in a mouse model of fragile X syndrome.</a> Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 107, 17768-17773 (2010).</li><li>Liu, Z., Condello, C., Schain, A., Harb, R., Grutzendler, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=CX3CR1+in+microglia+regulates+brain+amyloid+deposition+through+selective+protofibrillar+amyloid-beta+phagocytosis.">CX3CR1 in microglia regulates brain amyloid deposition through selective protofibrillar amyloid-beta phagocytosis.</a> J Neurosci. 30, 17091-17101 (2010).</li><li>Tremblay, M. E., Zettel, M. L., Ison, J. R., Allen, P. D., Majewska, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Effects+of+aging+and+sensory+loss+on+glial+cells+in+mouse+visual+and+auditory+cortices.">Effects of aging and sensory loss on glial cells in mouse visual and auditory cortices.</a> Glia. 60, 541-558 (2012).</li><li>Lam, C. K., Yoo, T., Hiner, B., Liu, Z., Grutzendler, J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Embolus+extravasation+is+an+alternative+mechanism+for+cerebral+microvascular+recanalization.">Embolus extravasation is an alternative mechanism for cerebral microvascular recanalization.</a> Nature. 465, 478-482 (2010).</li><li>Kelly, E. A., Majewska, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Chronic+imaging+of+mouse+visual+cortex+using+a+thinned-skull+preparation.">Chronic imaging of mouse visual cortex using a thinned-skull preparation.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2010).</li><li>Marker, D. F., Tremblay, M. E., Lu, S. M., Majewska, A. K., Gelbard, H. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+thin-skull+window+technique+for+chronic+two-photon+in+vivo+imaging+of+murine+microglia+in+models+of+neuroinflammation.">A thin-skull window technique for chronic two-photon in vivo imaging of murine microglia in models of neuroinflammation.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2010).</li><li>Svoboda, K., Yasuda, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Principles+of+two-photon+excitation+microscopy+and+its+applications+to+neuroscience.">Principles of two-photon excitation microscopy and its applications to neuroscience.</a> Neuron. 50, 823-839 (2006).</li><li>Feng, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+neuronal+subsets+in+transgenic+mice+expressing+multiple+spectral+variants+of+GFP.">Imaging neuronal subsets in transgenic mice expressing multiple spectral variants of GFP.</a> Neuron. 28, 41-51 (2000).</li><li>Shih, A. Y., Mateo, C., Drew, P. J., Tsai, P. S., Kleinfeld, D. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+polished+and+reinforced+thinned-skull+window+for+long-term+imaging+of+the+mouse+brain.">A polished and reinforced thinned-skull window for long-term imaging of the mouse brain.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2012).</li><li>Zhang, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Imaging+glioma+initiation+in+vivo+through+a+polished+and+reinforced+thin-skull+cranial+window.">Imaging glioma initiation in vivo through a polished and reinforced thin-skull cranial window.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2012).</li><li>Pacary, E., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Visualization+and+genetic+manipulation+of+dendrites+and+spines+in+the+mouse+cerebral+cortex+and+hippocampus+using+in+utero+electroporation.">Visualization and genetic manipulation of dendrites and spines in the mouse cerebral cortex and hippocampus using in utero electroporation.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2012).</li><li>Saito, T., Nakatsuji, N. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Efficient+gene+transfer+into+the+embryonic+mouse+brain+using+in+vivo+electroporation.">Efficient gene transfer into the embryonic mouse brain using in vivo electroporation.</a> Developmental biology. 240, 237-246 (2001).</li><li>Lowery, R. L., Majewska, A. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Intracranial+injection+of+adeno-associated+viral+vectors.">Intracranial injection of adeno-associated viral vectors.</a> J Vis Exp. , (2010).</li><li>Taniguchi, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+resource+of+Cre+driver+lines+for+genetic+targeting+of+GABAergic+neurons+in+cerebral+cortex.">A resource of Cre driver lines for genetic targeting of GABAergic neurons in cerebral cortex.</a> Neuron. 71, 995-1013 (2011).</li><li>Zariwala, H. A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=A+Cre-dependent+GCaMP3+reporter+mouse+for+neuronal+imaging+in+vivo.">A Cre-dependent GCaMP3 reporter mouse for neuronal imaging in vivo.</a> J Neurosci. 32, 3131-3141 (2012).</li><li>Kuhlman, S. J., Huang, Z. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=High-resolution+labeling+and+functional+manipulation+of+specific+neuron+types+in+mouse+brain+by+Cre-activated+viral+gene+expression.">High-resolution labeling and functional manipulation of specific neuron types in mouse brain by Cre-activated viral gene expression.</a> PloS one. 3, (2008).</li></ol>

To obtain a successful thinned-skull preparation, several steps in this protocol are crucial. 1) The thickness of the skull. The cranial bone has a sandwich structure, with two layers of high-density compact bone and a middle layer of low-density spongy bone. While the high-speed micro drill is suitable for removing the outer layers of compact bone and spongy bone, the microsurgical blade is ideal for thinning the inner layer of compact bone. As the thickness and stiffness of the skull increases during development, imagi...

The mammalian cortex participates in many brain functions, from sensory perception and movement control to abstract information processing and cognition. Various cortical functions build upon different neural circuits, which are made up of different types of neurons communicating and exchanging information at individual synapses. The structure and function of synapses are consistently being modified in response to experiences and pathologies. In the mature brain, synaptic plasticity takes the form of both strength changes and addition/removal of synapses, playing important roles in formation and maintenance of a functional neural circuitry. Dendritic spines are the postsynaptic components of the majority of excitatory synapses in the mammalian brain. The constant turnover and morphological changes of spines are believed to serve as a good indicator of modifications in synaptic connections1-7.
Two-photon laser scanning microscopy offers deep penetration through thick, opaque preparations and low phototoxicity, which makes it suitable for live imaging in the intact brain8. In combination with fluorescent labeling, two-photon imaging provides a powerful tool to peek into the living brain and follow structural reorganization at individual synapses with high spatial and temporal resolution. Various methods have been used to prepare mice for live imaging9-13. Here, we describe a thinned-skull preparation of in vivo two-photon imaging to investigate the structural plasticity of postsynaptic dendritic spines in the mouse cortex. Using this approach, our recent studies have depicted a dynamic picture of dendritic spine changes in response to motor skill learning With increasing availability of transgenic animals with fluorescently labeled neuronal subsets and rapid development of in vivo labeling techniques, similar procedures described here can also be applied to investigate other cell types and cortical regions, combined with other manipulations, as well as used in disease models16-23.

<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" width="1253">
	<tbody>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Ketamine</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Bioniche Pharma</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">67457-034-10</td>
			<td style="width:775px;">Mixed with xylazine for anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Xylazine</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Lloyd laboratories</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">139-236</td>
			<td>Mixed with ketamine for anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Saline</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Hospira</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">0409-7983-09</td>
			<td>0.9% NaCl for injection and imaging</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="42">
			<td height="42" style="height:42px;width:189px;">Razor blades</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Electron microscopy sciences</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">72000</td>
			<td>Double-edge stainless steel razor blades</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Alcohol pads</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">06-669-62</td>
			<td>Sterile alcohol prep pads</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Eye ointment</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Henry Schein</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">102-9470</td>
			<td>Petrolatum ophthalmic ointment sterile ocular lubricant</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">High-speed micro drill</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">18000-17</td>
			<td>The high-speed micro drill is suitable for thinning the outer layer of compact bone and targeting a small area</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Micro drill steel burrs</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Fine Science Tools</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">19007-14</td>
			<td>1.4 mm diameter</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Microsurgical blade</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Surgistar</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">6961</td>
			<td>The microsurgical blade is suitable for thinning the inner layer of compact bone and middler layer of spongy bone</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Cyanoacrylate glue</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Fisher Scientific</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">NC9062131</td>
			<td>Fix the head plate onto the skull</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Suture</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Havard Apparatus</td>
			<td style="width:108px;">510461</td>
			<td>Non-absorbale, sterile silk suture, 6-0 monofilament</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Dissecting microscope</td>
			<td>Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td>SZ61</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">CCD camera</td>
			<td>Infinity</td>
			<td style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Two-photon microscope</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Prairie Technologies</td>
			<td style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td style="width:775px;">Ultima IV</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">10X objective</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td>NA 0.30, air</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">60X objective</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Olympus</td>
			<td style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td>NA 1.1, IR permeable, water immersion</td>
		</tr>
		<tr height="21">
			<td height="21" style="height:21px;width:189px;">Ti-sapphire laser</td>
			<td style="width:181px;">Spectra-Physics</td>
			<td style="width:108px;"></td>
			<td>Mai Tai HP</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

two-photon in vivo imaging of dendritic spines in the mouse cortex using a thinned-skull preparation

In the mammalian cortex, neurons form extremely complicated networks and exchange information at synapses. Changes in synaptic strength, as well as addition/removal of synapses, occur in an experience-dependent manner, providing the structural foundation of neuronal plasticity. As postsynaptic components of the most excitatory synapses in the cortex, dendritic spines are considered to be a good proxy of synapses. Taking advantages of mouse genetics and fluorescent labeling techniques, individual neurons and their synaptic structures can be labeled in the intact brain. Here we introduce a transcranial imaging protocol using two-photon laser scanning microscopy to follow fluorescently labeled postsynaptic dendritic spines over time in vivo. This protocol utilizes a thinned-skull preparation, which keeps the skull intact and avoids inflammatory effects caused by exposure of the meninges and the cortex. Therefore, images can be acquired immediately after surgery is performed. The experimental procedure can be performed repetitively over various time intervals ranging from hours to years. The application of this preparation can also be expanded to investigate different cortical regions and layers, as well as other cell types, under physiological and pathological conditions.

In YFP-H line mice25, yellow fluorescent protein expresses in a subset of layer V pyramidal neurons, which project their apical dendrites to the superficial layers in the cortex. Through the thinned-skull preparation, the fluorescently labeled dendritic segments can be repetitively imaged under two-photon microscope over various imaging intervals, ranging from hours to months. Here we show an example of a four-time imaging of the same dendrites over 8 days in the motor cortex of a 1&#160;month old mouse, where...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Two-Photon in vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Mouse Cortex Using a Thinned-skull Preparation at JoVE.com

Two-Photon in vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Mouse Cortex Using a Thinned-skull Preparation

Time-lapse imaging in the living animal provides valuable information on structural reorganization in the intact brain. Here, we introduce a thinned-skull preparation that allows transcranial imaging of fluorescently labeled synaptic structures in the living mouse cortex by two-photon microscopy.

Two-Photon in vivo Imaging of Dendritic Spines in the Mouse Cortex Using a Thinned-skull Preparation

In the mammalian cortex, neurons form extremely complicated networks and exchange information at synapses. Changes in synaptic strength, as well as ...

two-photon-vivo-imaging-dendritic-spines-mouse-cortex-using-thinned

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

17.7K ビュー.  University of California, Santa Cruz. Time-lapse imaging in the living animal provides valuable information on structural reorganization in the intact brain. Here, we introduce a thinned-skull preparation that allows transcranial imaging of fluorescently labeled synaptic structures in the living mouse cortex by two-photon microscopy.