The authors thank Dr. Mike Ehlers and his laboratory members for originally demonstrating the protocol for subcellular fractionation of synaptic plasma membranes. We also thank Wendy Horsfall for management of the mouse colonies. This work was supported by operating grants from CIHR (AJR and AS).

以下のプロトコルは、動物管理のカナダの協議会のガイドラインに準拠し、トロント大学の医学部や薬学部動物実験委員会によって承認されています。 表1に記載のように1。必要な試薬を準備する<ol><li> 表1に概説濃度ですべてのスクロース溶液、緩衝液にプロテアーゼおよびホスファターゼ（必要な場合）阻害剤を加え、のddH 2 O。重要：実験の開始に先立って試薬や機器のすべてを、4℃でのすべての手順を実行して、事前にクール。油性マジックで超遠心管を含め、全てのチューブにラベルを付けます。 </li></ol>適切な脳領域の2解剖<ol><li>頸椎脱臼または断頭により動物を生け贄に捧げる。ハウスとは、動物のケアに関する制度や政府の方針に従って動物を安楽死させる。 </li><li>急速番目を削除チルド解剖台の頭蓋骨と場所からの電子の脳。 </li><li>新鮮な組織から適切な脳領域を解剖し、ステップ3に進みます。 </li></ol>モーター駆動ガラステフロンホモジナイザーで3組織の均質化<ol><li> 0.32 M HEPES緩衝ショ糖溶液4ml含む標識13ミリリットルポリプロピレンチューブ中で解剖組織（SPM用）50〜100 mg、または（PSD用）100〜200ミリグラムを置きます。 15ミリリットルに試料を移す先細ガラステフロン組織グラインダー/ホモジナイザー、900rpmで（設定7）にモータ駆動に設定し、30秒かけて12ストロークでサンプルを均質化する。サンプル間の異なるガラステフロンホモジナイザーを使用するか、またはサンプル間の冷蒸留水でホモジナイザーをすすぎ、キムワイプで拭いて乾かしてください。注：組織の最大4グラムを0.32 M HEPES緩衝スクロース溶液4mlに均質化することができる、しかし、それは適切な分別を保証するために少ない組織を使用することをお勧めします。 </li><li> Tバックホモジナイズサンプルを転送同じ13ミリリットルポリプロピレンチューブO。予備後続のタンパク質定量、総タンパク質画分のウェスタンブロット分析のために-80℃でホモジネートし、店舗100μlの。 </li></ol>核画分を削除する4。低速遠心（上清S1に利回り） <ol><li>遠心し、4℃で10分間、900×gで固定角ローターでホモジネート。新しい上清（S1）を移し、13ミリリットルチューブを標識し、0.32MのHEPES緩衝スクロースを500μlの核画分のペレット（P1）を懸濁します。 NOTE：（P1）画分は-80℃で保存し、核画分のウエスタンブロット分析のために使用することができる。 </li></ol>粗製シナプトソーム画分の5。エンリッチメント（利回りペレットP2） <ol><li> 4℃で15分間のを10,000×gで遠心上清（S1）。その後のタンパク質定量のために-80℃で保存するために上清（S2）、および予備マイクロチューブ内の500μlのを削除しますificationおよび細胞質/光膜画分のウエスタンブロット分析。 0.32 M HEPES緩衝スクロース溶液1ml中に残った粗シナプトソーム画分をペレット（P2）に再懸濁し、別の3ミリリットルの0.32 M HEPES緩衝スクロース溶液を添加する。 </li><li> 4℃で15分間、10,000×gで遠心する。その後のタンパク質の定量化および細胞質/光膜画分のウエスタンブロット分析のために-80℃で保存するためのマイクロ遠心チューブに上清（S2 &#39;）と予備500μlのを削除します。ポリプロピレンチューブに洗浄された粗シナプトソームペレット（P2 &#39;）を保存します。 </li></ol>粗製シナプトソーム画分の6。·ライジング（低浸透圧ショック） <ol><li>溶解のddH 2 O 1ml中に再懸濁することによりポリプロピレンチューブ中の粗シナプトソームペレット（P2 &#39;）のddH 2 Oを別の3mlをガラステフロン組織ホモジナイザーに移し、追加し、3ストロークで、手で均質化する。注：これは重要です可能な限り迅速に、この手順を実行し、すぐに6.2に進みます。 </li><li>バック同じ13ミリリットルのポリプロピレンチューブに、急速にホモジナイザーからの振替サンプル混合する反転、1M HEPES溶液の16μlのバック4のHEPESにサンプルを調整します。 </li><li>完全な溶解を確実にするために30分間、4℃でサンプルを回転させます。 </li></ol>シナプトソーム膜画分の7。エンリッチメント（P3） <ol><li> 4℃で20分間25000×gで遠心する。原油水疱分画上清（S3）を取り外し、その後のタンパク質定量およびウエスタンブロット分析のために-80℃で保存するために5ミリリットルチューブにそれを予約。 0.32 M HEPES緩衝スクロース溶液1mlにシナプトソーム膜画分（P3）を再懸濁する。 </li></ol>不連続ショ糖勾配の8。準備<ol><li>ピペットで正確に3.5ミリリットルの1.2M HEPES緩衝ショ糖溶液の正確3.0ミリリットルそれぞれ1.0 Mおよび0.8 M HEPEの独立した6ミリリットル中に、S-緩衝化ショ糖溶液はキャップチューブをはめ込みます。注：このスクロース勾配を作るために使用される緩衝液の体積を予め測定するために行われる。ボリュームの正確な測定は、得られた勾配超遠心分離のためにバランスされることを保証することが重要である。 </li><li>ガラスパスツールピペットや電球を使用して、12ミリリットルポリアロマー超遠心管に1.2MのHEPES緩衝スクロース溶液を移す。慎重に1.2MのHEPES緩衝スクロース溶液の上に1.0MのHEPES緩衝スクロース溶液をレイヤー。最後に、1.0MのHEPES緩衝スクロース溶液の上に0.8MのHEPES緩衝スクロース溶液をレイヤー。各ショ糖溶液のために、新鮮なパスツールピペットを使用し、ショ糖勾配を乱さないように注意してください。ベンチボルテックスまたはマイクロ遠心からの振動は、勾配の整合性を乱す。 </li><li>パスツールピペットを使用して、調製された不連続ショ糖勾配の上に再懸濁したシナプトソーム膜画分（P3）の層。勾配がスイングバケットローターのバケツの中にそれらの重量を測定することによってバランスされていることを確認。バケットがバランスの取れていない場合は、慎重に勾配の上部に0.32 M HEPES緩衝蔗糖を追加し、ローターバケットのバランスをとるP200ピペットを使用しています。 </li></ol>シナプス形質膜（SPM）の9分画<ol><li> 4℃で2時間150,000×gで、スイングバケットローターで超遠心分離機。慎重に超遠心バケットからショ糖勾配を削除します。 18 G針および1mlシリンジを用いて、1.0 M / 1.2 M HEPES緩衝スクロース溶液相間の下部にチューブを穿刺し、シナプス形質膜層（SPM）を引き出す。 </li><li>各SPMサンプルは1mlシリンジに占めるボリュームをメモしておいてください。各サンプルが調整された後、正確に4のHEPES、2.5容量の0.32 Mに1.2 Mからスクロース濃度を調整するために追加し、3.5ミリリットル厚肉超遠心管に集め、SPM層を配置edは0.32 Mスクロース、0.32MのHEPES緩衝ショ糖溶液で試験管のバランスをとる。 </li><li> 4℃で30分間200,000×gで固定角ローター中で超遠心機。上清を除去し、廃棄する。 50のHEPES / 2mMのEDTA溶液300μlのシナプス形質膜ペレット（SPM）を再懸濁します。 -80℃で保存サンプルは、ウェスタンブロッティングに使用するまで。 </li></ol>シナプス後肥厚画分の10。準備（PSD） <ol><li>氷上でのSPMのサンプルを解凍する。 </li><li> 50のHEPES / 2のEDTA溶液中の0.54％トリトンX-100の溶液を作る。 </li><li> 5ミリリットルポリスチレンチューブ中で、トリトンX-100 / HEPES / EDTA溶液および300μlのSPMフラクション2.7mlのを結合し、4°Cで15分間試料を回転させる</li><li> 4°Cで20分間32,000×gで3.5ミリリットル厚肉超遠心管、遠心サンプルに転送サンプル。 </li><li> -80上清（トリトンX-100可溶性画分[TS]）​​と店舗を予約;°C。注：この段階では、ペレットは「PSD-1T」割合を表す。界面活性剤による第二の治療は、「PSD-2T」部分を生成します。 PSD-1T画分が所望される場合、10.6に進む。 <ol><li> PSD-2T分画を生成するために、50mMのHEPES / 2mMのEDTA溶液中で0.5％トリトンX-100 3mlにペレットを再懸濁する。 4℃で15分間、サンプルを回転させます。 4℃で20分間、32,000×gで遠心分離した試料とは10.6に進みます。 </li></ol></li><li>上清を捨て、50のHEPES / 2のEDTA溶液中のシナプス後（PSD）ペレットを再懸濁。注：再懸濁体積はペレットのサイズに依存してもよい。 50〜75μlの容量を推奨します。 PSD画分は、界面活性剤不溶性画分であるため、タンパク質の完全な再懸濁を可能にするために0.5％SDSの1〜2μlを添加することがしばしば必要である。 -80℃で保存サンプルは、ウェスタンブロッティングに使用するまで。 </li></ol>

<ol>
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F., Maniatis, T. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=.">.</a> Molecular cloning : a Laboratory Manual. , (1989).</li><li>Eggena, M., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Identification+of+histone+H1+as+a+cognate+antigen+of+the+ulcerative+colitis-associated+marker+antibody+pANCA.">Identification of histone H1 as a cognate antigen of the ulcerative colitis-associated marker antibody pANCA.</a> J Autoimmun. 14, 83-97 (2000).</li><li>Salahpour, A., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Homodimerization+of+the+beta2-adrenergic+receptor+as+a+prerequisite+for+cell+surface+targeting.">Homodimerization of the beta2-adrenergic receptor as a prerequisite for cell surface targeting.</a> J Biol Chem. 279, 33390-33397 (2004).</li><li>Bernocco, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sequential+detergent+fractionation+of+primary+neurons+for+proteomics+studies.">Sequential detergent fractionation of primary neurons for proteomics studies.</a> Proteomics. 8, 930-938 (2008).</li><li>Grunewald, T. G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Nuclear+localization+and+cytosolic+overexpression+of+LASP-1+correlates+with+tumor+size+and+nodal-positivity+of+human+breast+carcinoma.">Nuclear localization and cytosolic overexpression of LASP-1 correlates with tumor size and nodal-positivity of human breast carcinoma.</a> BMC Cancer. 7, 198 (2007).</li><li>Heimann, K., Percival, J. M., Weinberger, R., Gunning, P., Stow, J. L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Specific+isoforms+of+actin-binding+proteins+on+distinct+populations+of+Golgi-derived+vesicles.">Specific isoforms of actin-binding proteins on distinct populations of Golgi-derived vesicles.</a> J Biol Chem. 274, 10743-10750 (1999).</li><li>Neff, R. A., Gomez-Varela, D., Fernandes, C. C., Berg, D. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Postsynaptic+scaffolds+for+nicotinic+receptors+on+neurons.">Postsynaptic scaffolds for nicotinic receptors on neurons.</a> Acta Pharmacol Sin. 30, 694-701 (2009).</li><li>Cella, N., Cornejo-Uribe, R. R., Montes, G. S., Hynes, N. E., Chammas, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+lysosomal-associated+membrane+protein+LAMP-1+is+a+novel+differentiation+marker+for+HC11+mouse+mammary+epithelial+cells.">The lysosomal-associated membrane protein LAMP-1 is a novel differentiation marker for HC11 mouse mammary epithelial cells.</a> Differentiation. 61, 113-120 (1996).</li><li>Otera, H., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Peroxisomal+targeting+signal+receptor+Pex5p+interacts+with+cargoes+and+import+machinery+components+in+a+spatiotemporally+differentiated+manner:+conserved+Pex5p+WXXXF/Y+motifs+are+critical+for+matrix+protein+import.">Peroxisomal targeting signal receptor Pex5p interacts with cargoes and import machinery components in a spatiotemporally differentiated manner: conserved Pex5p WXXXF/Y motifs are critical for matrix protein import.</a> Mol Cell Biol. 22, 1639-1655 (2002).</li><li>Goubaeva, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cardiac+mitochondrial+connexin+43+regulates+apoptosis.">Cardiac mitochondrial connexin 43 regulates apoptosis.</a> Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 352, 97-103 (2007).</li><li>Lamers, K. J., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Protein+S-100B,+neuron-specific+enolase+(NSE),+myelin+basic+protein+(MBP)+and+glial+fibrillary+acidic+protein+(GFAP)+in+cerebrospinal+fluid+(CSF)+and+blood+of+neurological+patients.">Protein S-100B, neuron-specific enolase (NSE), myelin basic protein (MBP) and glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and blood of neurological patients.</a> Brain Res Bull. 61, 261-264 (2003).</li><li>Arunachalam, L., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Munc18-1+is+critical+for+plasma+membrane+localization+of+syntaxin1+but+not+of+SNAP-25+in+PC12+cells.">Munc18-1 is critical for plasma membrane localization of syntaxin1 but not of SNAP-25 in PC12 cells.</a> Mol Biol Cell. 19, 722-734 (2008).</li><li>Brandstatter, J. H., Fletcher, E. L., Garner, C. C., Gundelfinger, E. D., Wassle, H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Differential+expression+of+the+presynaptic+cytomatrix+protein+bassoon+among+ribbon+synapses+in+the+mammalian+retina.">Differential expression of the presynaptic cytomatrix protein bassoon among ribbon synapses in the mammalian retina.</a> Eur J Neurosci. 11, 3683-3693 (1999).</li></ol>

The authors have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

成功した結果のために重要である手順にはいくつかのステップがあります。ステップ3では、均質化の一貫性の程度は、各サンプルについて達成されることが重要である。モーター駆動ホモジナイザーで組織を均質化する場合には、一定の速度を乳棒の回転のためだけでなく、ストローク数でも利用される。低張液の拡張均質化またはインキュベーションがミトコンドリアを溶解し、SPMサンプ...

ニューロンは、シナプスを介して通信しており、この通信の品質はシナプスにおけるタンパク質の組成変化によって大幅に規制されている。特に、シナプス後密度で存在するタンパク質は、そのシグナル伝達系1と密接に足場神経伝達物質受容体による神経細胞のコミュニケーションに参加しています。さらに、シナプス効力の強度の持続的な変化は、シナプス後密度1-6で追加または受容体を除去することによって制御されている。したがって、シナプスタンパク質の単離および定量化は、神経細胞がシナプス効力7を刺激し、変更するための対応方法への洞察を得るために必要かつ有用な技術である。この記事では、不連続ショ糖勾配超遠心分離によって齧歯類脳組織からシナプスのタンパク質を分離するために一般的な手法について説明します。シナプス形質膜画分を濃縮することができるとに基づいて単離さ経験的に1.2Mのショ糖に類似すると判断されたショ糖でのその密度、。 生物学的問題によっては、細胞下画分は、スクロース又はパーコールのいずれかの連続または不連続勾配によって分離することができる。連続勾配は、複数の画分へのタンパク質の分離を可能に。これは、与えられた画分8内のタンパク質の共局在を実証するために特に有用であり得る。しかし、連続的な勾配の調製は、より面倒であり、多くの用途のためには不要である。不連続勾配は調製が比較的容易であり、少数の、一般的に定義された画分にタンパク質を分離するために使用することができます。増加モル濃度の三スクロースの層から構成されている不連続勾配が広くシナプス形質膜（SPM）に関連するタンパク質を単離するために使用されてきた。このシナプス形質膜画分は、さらに、シナプス後密度fractioに加工することができる界面活性剤不溶性画分の界面活性剤処理および分離によりn（PSD）。 このプロセスは、最初に1960年代9,10に記載されたときに、電子顕微鏡は、大まかに、シナプス形質膜およびシナプス後密度画分9-14を定義細胞小器官、膜を実証した。これらの研究は、シナプス前および後膜とSPM画分中のシナプス小胞を含めることを実証した。界面活性剤処理した後、主に電子密度の高い、シナプス後密度が見えた。手順では、低張性ショックは、電池本体10からシナプスプロセスをピンチオフするために使用される。このステップは、ミトコンドリア浸透圧ショックに対してより耐性であり、無傷のままであり、従ってそれらはショ糖勾配（ 図1）の底部に沈降するという事実を利用する。 これと同じ濃縮技術を使用して、SPMとPSD画分を生化学的に最初でした主要なタンパク質成分15〜17のポリアクリルアミドゲル電気泳動および配列決定によって定義される。続いてウェスタンブロット分析（ 図2）、これらの画分を定義し、さらに検出し、シナプスのタンパク質のレベルを定量化するために使用されている。私たちは、SLC6A3遺伝子座をマウス18で重複しているときに発生するドーパミントランスポーターのシナプスレベルの変化を定量化するために私たちの研究室でこの技術を使用している。また、DISC1のインタラクトーム19の一部であるタンパク質中のシナプス特異的な減少を明らかにNMDA受容体欠損マウスでは、この技術を使用している。 これは、SPM画分を、シナプス小胞膜タンパク質、エンドソームのマーカー、ミトコンドリアタンパク質、膜結合合成酵素およびシグナル伝達分子、ならびにシナプス後密度の不可欠な構成要素とシナプス形質膜20〜23を含有し、ウェスタンブロット分析から明らかである。 EVEN PSD画分を豊富ミトコンドリアタンパク質の混入を持つことができ、それは彼ら13を除去する第二の勾配沈降または追加の精製工程を実行する必要があるかもしれない。最近では、定量的な質量分析だけでは、シナプス後密度の100以上のタンパク質のリスト、ならびにこれらの構成要素24,25の相対存在量の指標を提供してきました。

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preparation of synaptic plasma membrane and postsynaptic density proteins using a discontinuous sucrose gradient

神経細胞下分画技術がシナプスとの間で売買されているタンパク質の定量化を可能にします。もともと1960年代後半に記載されるように、シナプス形質膜に関連するタンパク質は、ショ糖密度勾配超遠心分離によって単離することができる。シナプス膜が単離されると、シナプス後密度として知られている高分子複合体は、続いて、その界面活性剤不溶性に単離することができる。シナプス形質膜およびシナプス後密度タンパク質を単離するために使用される技術は、40年後に本質的に同じままであり、広く現在の神経科学の研究で​​使用されている。この記事では、不連続ショ糖勾配を用いてシナプス形質膜とシナプス後密度に関連するタンパク質の分画について詳しく説明します。得られたタンパク質調製物は、ウェスタンブロットまたは2D DIGE分析に適している。

ショ糖密度勾配の調製は、ショ糖の3モルソリューション（0.8、1.0、1.2 Mショ糖）の明確な分離をもたらすはずである。タンパク質サンプルを添加する前勾配の例については、 図3Aを参照してください。勾配は、事前にあまり用意され、またはそれは他の機器からの振動をベンチ表面上に用意されている場合、勾配が損なわれ、適切な分離が達成されない場合。三つの溶液の明確?...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Preparation of Synaptic Plasma Membrane and Postsynaptic Density Proteins Using a Discontinuous Sucrose Gradient at JoVE.com

Preparation of Synaptic Plasma Membrane and Postsynaptic Density Proteins Using a Discontinuous Sucrose Gradient

この記事では、不連続スクロース勾配超遠心分離によってシナプス形質膜に関連するタンパク質の濃縮を詳しく説明します。シナプス後肥厚タンパク質のその後の調製も記載されている。タンパク質調製物は、ウェスタンブロットまたは2D DIGE分析に適している。

不連続ショ糖勾配を用いてシナプス形質膜とシナプス後肥厚タンパク質の調製

Neuronal subcellular fractionation techniques allow the quantification of proteins that are trafficked to and from the synapse. As originally described in ...

preparation-synaptic-plasma-membrane-postsynaptic-density-proteins

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

31.0K ビュー.  University of Toronto. この記事では、不連続スクロース勾配超遠心分離によってシナプス形質膜に関連するタンパク質の濃縮を詳しく説明します。シナプス後肥厚タンパク質のその後の調製も記載されている。タンパク質調製物は、ウェスタンブロットまたは2D DIGE分析に適している。 

ビデオ: Preparation of Synaptic Plasma Membrane and Postsynaptic Density Proteins Using a Discontinuous Sucrose Gradient

Studying Synaptic Vesicle Pools using Photoconversion of Styryl Dyes

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The vesicles are then retrieved from the plasma membrane (endocytosis) and grouped together with the general pool of vesicles within the nerve terminal, until they undergo a new exo- and endocytosis cycle (vesicle recycling). These processes have been studied using a variety of techniques such as electron microscopy, electrophysiology recordings, amperometry and capacitance measurements. Importantly, during the last two decades a number of fluorescently labeled markers emerged, allowing optical techniques to track vesicles in their recycling dynamics. One of the most commonly used markers is the styryl or FM dye 1; structurally, all FM dyes contain a hydrophilic head and a lipophilic tail connected through an aromatic ring and one or more double bonds (Fig. 1B). A classical FM dye experiment to label a pool of vesicles consists in bathing the preparation (Fig. 1Ai) with the dye during the stimulation of the nerve (electrically or with high K+). This induces vesicle recycling and the subsequent loading of the dye into recently endocytosed vesicles (Fig. 1Ai-iii). After loading the vesicles with dye, a second round of stimulation in a dye-free bath would trigger the FM release through exocytosis (Fig. 1Aiv-v), process that can be followed by monitoring the fluorescence intensity decrease (destaining).

Although FM dyes have contributed greatly to the field of vesicle recycling, it is not possible to determine the exact localization or morphology of individual vesicles by using conventional fluorescence microscopy. For that reason, we explain here how FM dyes can also be used as endocytic markers using electron microscopy, through photoconversion. The photoconversion technique exploits the property of fluorescent dyes to generate reactive oxygen species under intense illumination. Fluorescently labeled preparations are submerged in a solution containing diaminobenzidine (DAB) and illuminated. Reactive species generated by the dye molecules oxidize the DAB, which forms a stable, insoluble precipitate that has a dark appearance and can be easily distinguished in electron microscopy 2,3. As DAB is only oxidized in the immediate vicinity of fluorescent molecules (as the reactive oxygen species are short-lived), the technique ensures that only fluorescently labeled structures are going to contain the electron-dense precipitate. The technique thus allows the study of the exact location and morphology of actively recycling organelles.

FM dyes have been of invaluable help in the understanding of synaptic dynamics. FMs are normally followed under the fluorescent microscope during different stimulation conditions. However, photoconversion of FM dyes combined with electron microscopy allows the visualization of distinct synaptic vesicle pools, among other ultrastructure components, in synaptic boutons.

スチリル染料の光変換を使用して、シナプス小胞プールの勉強

The fusion of synaptic vesicles with the plasma membrane (exocytosis) is a required step in neurotransmitter release and neuronal communication. The ...

神経科学

Membrane Potentials, Synaptic Responses, Neuronal Circuitry, Neuromodulation and Muscle Histology Using the Crayfish: Student Laboratory Exercises

The purpose of this report is to help develop an understanding of the effects caused by ion gradients across a biological membrane. Two aspects that influence a cell's membrane potential and which we address in these experiments are: (1) Ion concentration of K+ on the outside of the membrane, and (2) the permeability of the membrane to specific ions. The crayfish abdominal extensor muscles are in groupings with some being tonic (slow) and others phasic (fast) in their biochemical and physiological phenotypes, as well as in their structure; the motor neurons that innervate these muscles are correspondingly different in functional characteristics. We use these muscles as well as the superficial, tonic abdominal flexor muscle to demonstrate properties in synaptic transmission. In addition, we introduce a sensory-CNS-motor neuron-muscle circuit to demonstrate the effect of cuticular sensory stimulation as well as the influence of neuromodulators on certain aspects of the circuit. With the techniques obtained in this exercise, one can begin to answer many questions remaining in other experimental preparations as well as in physiological applications related to medicine and health. We have demonstrated the usefulness of model invertebrate preparations to address fundamental questions pertinent to all animals.

The experiments demonstrate an easy approach for students to gain experience in examining muscle structure, synaptic responses, the effects of ion gradients and permeability on membrane potentials. Also, a sensory-CNS-motor-muscle circuit is presented to show a means to test effects of compounds on a neuronal circuit.

膜電位、シナプス応答、神経回路、ニューロモデュレーションとザリガニを使用して筋肉の組織学：学生研究室の演習

The purpose of this report is to help develop an understanding of the effects caused by ion gradients across a biological membrane. Two aspects that ...

Quantitative Analysis of Synaptic Vesicle Pool Replenishment in Cultured Cerebellar Granule Neurons using FM Dyes

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis. Retrieved SVs are then refilled with neurotransmitter and rejoin the recycling pool, defined as SVs that are available for exocytosis1,2. The recycling pool can generally be subdivided into two distinct pools - the readily releasable pool (RRP) and the reserve pool (RP). As their names imply, the RRP consists of SVs that are immediately available for fusion while RP SVs are released only during intense stimulation1,2. It is important to have a reliable assay that reports the differential replenishment of these SV pools in order to understand 1) how SVs traffic after different modes of endocytosis (such as clathrin-dependent endocytosis and activity-dependent bulk endocytosis) and 2) the mechanisms controlling the mobilisation of both the RRP and RP in response to different stimuli.
FM dyes are routinely employed to quantitatively report SV turnover in central nerve terminals3-8. They have a hydrophobic hydrocarbon tail that allows reversible partitioning in the lipid bilayer, and a hydrophilic head group that blocks passage across membranes. The dyes have little fluorescence in aqueous solution, but their quantum yield increases dramatically when partitioned in membrane9. Thus FM dyes are ideal fluorescent probes for tracking actively recycling SVs. The standard protocol for use of FM dye is as follows. First they are applied to neurons and are taken up during endocytosis (Figure 1). After non-internalised dye is washed away from the plasma membrane, recycled SVs redistribute within the recycling pool. These SVs are then depleted using unloading stimuli (Figure 1). Since FM dye labelling of SVs is quantal10, the resulting fluorescence drop is proportional to the amount of vesicles released. Thus, the recycling and fusion of SVs generated from the previous round of endocytosis can be reliably quantified.
Here, we present a protocol that has been modified to obtain two additional elements of information. Firstly, sequential unloading stimuli are used to differentially unload the RRP and the RP, to allow quantification of the replenishment of specific SV pools. Secondly, each nerve terminal undergoes the protocol twice. Thus, the response of the same nerve terminal at S1 can be compared against the presence of a test substance at phase S2 (Figure 2), providing an internal control. This is important, since the extent of SV recycling across different nerve terminals is highly variable11.
Any adherent primary neuronal cultures may be used for this protocol, however the plating density, solutions and stimulation conditions are optimised for cerebellar granule neurons (CGNs)12,13.

A live fluorescence imaging technique to quantify the replenishment and mobilisation of specific synaptic vesicle (SV) pools in central nerve terminals is described. Two rounds of SV recycling are monitored in the same nerve terminals providing an internal control.

FM染料を用いて培養小脳顆粒神経細胞のシナプス小胞プールの補充の定量分析

After neurotransmitter release in central nerve terminals, SVs are rapidly retrieved by endocytosis.  Retrieved SVs are then refilled with ...

Preparation of Synaptoneurosomes from Mouse Cortex using a Discontinuous Percoll-Sucrose Density Gradient

Synaptoneurosomes (SNs) are obtained after homogenization and fractionation of mouse brain cortex. They are resealed vesicles or isolated terminals that break away from axon terminals when the cortical tissue is homogenized. The SNs retain pre- and postsynaptic characteristics, which makes them useful in the study of synaptic transmission. They retain the molecular machinery used in neuronal signaling and are capable of uptake, storage, and release of neurotransmitters.
The production and isolation of active SNs can be problematic using medias like Ficoll, which can be cytotoxic and require extended centrifugation due to high density, and filtration and centrifugation methods, which can result in low activity due to mechanical damage of the SNs. However, the use of discontinuous Percoll-sucrose density gradients to isolate SNs provides a rapid method to produce good yields of translationally active SNs. The Percoll-sucrose gradient method is quick and gentle as it employs isotonic conditions, has fewer and shorter centrifugation spins and avoids centrifugation steps that pellet SNs and cause mechanical damage.

A method to prepare translationally active, intact synaptoneurosomes (SNs) from mouse brain cortex is described. The method uses a discontinuous Percoll-sucrose density gradient allowing for the quick preparation of active SNs.

不連続パーコール-ショ糖密度勾配を用いてマウスの皮質からSynaptoneurosomesの調製

Synaptoneurosomes (SNs) are obtained after homogenization and fractionation of mouse brain cortex. They are resealed vesicles or isolated terminals that ...

A General Method for Evaluating Incubation of Sucrose Craving in Rats

For someone on a food-restricted diet, food craving in response to food-paired cues may serve as a key behavioral transition point between abstinence and relapse to food taking 1. Food craving conceptualized in this way is akin to drug craving in response to drug-paired cues. A rich literature has been developed around understanding the behavioral and neurobiological determinants of drug craving; we and others have been focusing recently on translating techniques from basic addiction research to better understand addiction-like behaviors related to food 2-4.
As done in previous studies of drug craving, we examine sucrose craving behavior by utilizing a rat model of relapse. In this model, rats self-administer either drug or food in sessions over several days. In a session, lever responding delivers the reward along with a tone+light stimulus. Craving behavior is then operationally defined as responding in a subsequent session where the reward is not available. Rats will reliably respond for the tone+light stimulus, likely due to its acquired conditioned reinforcing properties 5. This behavior is sometimes referred to as sucrose seeking or cue reactivity. In the present discussion we will use the term "sucrose craving" to subsume both of these constructs.
In the past decade, we have focused on how the length of time following reward self-administration influences reward craving. Interestingly, rats increase responding for the reward-paired cue over the course of several weeks of a period of forced-abstinence. This "incubation of craving" is observed in rats that have self-administered either food or drugs of abuse 4,6. This time-dependent increase in craving we have identified in the animal model may have great potential relevance to human drug and food addiction behaviors.
Here we present a protocol for assessing incubation of sucrose craving in rats. Variants of the procedure will be indicated where craving is assessed as responding for a discrete sucrose-paired cue following extinction of lever pressing within the sucrose self-administration context (Extinction without cues) or as responding for sucrose-paired cues in a general extinction context (Extinction with cues).

Responding for food or drug-paired cues increases over the course of a period of abstinence and this may relate to an increased susceptibility to relapse behaviors. Here we detail a procedure for evaluating this "incubation of craving" in rats that have self-administered sucrose.

ラットのショ糖の渇望のインキュベーションを評価するための一般的な方法

For someone on a food-restricted diet, food craving in response to food-paired cues may serve as a key behavioral transition point between abstinence and ...

Lateral Diffusion and Exocytosis of Membrane Proteins in Cultured Neurons Assessed using Fluorescence Recovery and Fluorescence-loss Photobleaching

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This directed trafficking is of fundamental importance to deliver, maintain or remove synaptic proteins.
Super-ecliptic pHluorin (SEP) is a pH-sensitive derivative of eGFP that has been extensively used for live cell imaging of plasma membrane proteins1-2. At low pH, protonation of SEP decreases photon absorption and eliminates fluorescence emission. As most intracellular trafficking events occur in compartments with low pH, where SEP fluorescence is eclipsed, the fluorescence signal from SEP-tagged proteins is predominantly from the plasma membrane where the SEP is exposed to a neutral pH extracellular environment. When illuminated at high intensity SEP, like every fluorescent dye, is irreversibly photodamaged (photobleached)3-5. Importantly, because low pH quenches photon absorption, only surface expressed SEP can be photobleached whereas intracellular SEP is unaffected by the high intensity illumination6-10. 
FRAP (fluorescence recovery after photobleaching) of SEP-tagged proteins is a convenient and powerful technique for assessing protein dynamics at the plasma membrane. When fluorescently tagged proteins are photobleached in a region of interest (ROI) the recovery in fluorescence occurs due to the movement of unbleached SEP-tagged proteins into the bleached region. This can occur via lateral diffusion and/or from exocytosis of non-photobleached receptors supplied either by de novo synthesis or recycling (see Fig. 1). The fraction of immobile and mobile protein can be determined and the mobility and kinetics of the diffusible fraction can be interrogated under basal and stimulated conditions such as agonist application or neuronal activation stimuli such as NMDA or KCl application8,10. 
We describe photobleaching techniques designed to selectively visualize the recovery of fluorescence attributable to exocytosis. Briefly, an ROI is photobleached once as with standard FRAP protocols, followed, after a brief recovery, by repetitive bleaching of the flanking regions. This 'FRAP-FLIP' protocol, developed in our lab, has been used to characterize AMPA receptor trafficking at dendritic spines10, and is applicable to a wide range of trafficking studies to evaluate the intracellular trafficking and exocytosis.

This report describes the use of live cell imaging and photobleach techniques to determine the surface expression, transport pathways and trafficking kinetics of exogenously expressed, pH-sensitive GFP-tagged proteins at the plasma membrane of neurons.

培養神経細胞における膜タンパク質の側方拡散とエキソサイトーシスは、蛍光回復と蛍光損失光退色を用いて評価

Membrane proteins such as receptors and ion channels undergo active trafficking in neurons, which are highly polarised and morphologically complex. This ...

Post-embedding Immunogold Labeling of Synaptic Proteins in Hippocampal Slice Cultures

Immunoelectron microscopy is a powerful tool to study biological molecules at the subcellular level. Antibodies coupled to electron-dense markers such as colloidal gold can reveal the localization and distribution of specific antigens in various tissues1. The two most widely used techniques are pre-embedding and post-embedding techniques. In pre-embedding immunogold-electron microscopy (EM) techniques, the tissue must be permeabilized to allow antibody penetration before it is embedded. These techniques are ideal for preserving structures but poor penetration of the antibody (often only the first few micrometers) is a considerable drawback2. The post-embedding labeling methods can avoid this problem because labeling takes place on sections of fixed tissues where antigens are more easily accessible. Over the years, a number of modifications have improved the post-embedding methods to enhance immunoreactivity and to preserve ultrastructure3-5.
Tissue fixation is a crucial part of EM studies. Fixatives chemically crosslink the macromolecules to lock the tissue structures in place. The choice of fixative affects not only structural preservation but also antigenicity and contrast. Osmium tetroxide (OsO4), formaldehyde, and glutaraldehyde have been the standard fixatives for decades, including for central nervous system (CNS) tissues that are especially prone to structural damage during chemical and physical processing. Unfortunately, OsO4 is highly reactive and has been shown to mask antigens6, resulting in poor and insufficient labeling. Alternative approaches to avoid chemical fixation include freezing the tissues. But these techniques are difficult to perform and require expensive instrumentation. To address some of these problems and to improve CNS tissue labeling, Phend et al. replaced OsO4 with uranyl acetate (UA) and tannic acid (TA), and successfully introduced additional modifications to improve the sensitivity of antigen detection and structural preservation in brain and spinal cord tissues7. We have adopted this osmium-free post-embedding method to rat brain tissue and optimized the immunogold labeling technique to detect and study synaptic proteins.
We present here a method to determine the ultrastructural localization of synaptic proteins in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons. We use organotypic hippocampal cultured slices. These slices maintain the trisynaptic circuitry of the hippocampus, and thus are especially useful for studying synaptic plasticity, a mechanism widely thought to underlie learning and memory. Organotypic hippocampal slices from postnatal day 5 and 6 mouse/rat pups can be prepared as described previously8, and are especially useful to acutely knockdown or overexpress exogenous proteins. We have previously used this protocol to characterize neurogranin (Ng), a neuron-specific protein with a critical role in regulating synaptic function8,9 . We have also used it to characterize the ultrastructural localization of calmodulin (CaM) and Ca2+/CaM-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII)10. As illustrated in the results, this protocol allows good ultrastructural preservation of dendritic spines and efficient labeling of Ng to help characterize its distribution in the spine8. Furthermore, the procedure described here can have wide applicability in studying many other proteins involved in neuronal functions.

The localization and distribution of proteins provide important information for understanding their cellular functions. The superior spatial resolution of electron microscopy (EM) can be used to determine the subcellular localization of a given antigen following immunohistochemistry. For tissues of the central nervous system (CNS), preserving structural integrity while maintaining antigenicity has been especially difficult in EM studies. Here, we adopt a procedure that has been used to preserve structures and antigens in the CNS to study and characterize synaptic proteins in rat hippocampal CA1 pyramidal neurons.

海馬スライス培養におけるシナプス蛋白のポストエンベディング免疫金ラベリング

Immunoelectron microscopy is a powerful tool to study biological molecules at the subcellular level. Antibodies coupled to electron-dense markers such as ...

Deriving the Time Course of Glutamate Clearance with a Deconvolution Analysis of Astrocytic Transporter Currents

The highest density of glutamate transporters in the brain is found in astrocytes. Glutamate transporters couple the movement of glutamate across the membrane with the co-transport of 3 Na+ and 1 H+ and the counter-transport of 1 K+. The stoichiometric current generated by the transport process can be monitored with whole-cell patch-clamp recordings from astrocytes. The time course of the recorded current is shaped by the time course of the glutamate concentration profile to which astrocytes are exposed, the kinetics of glutamate transporters, and the passive electrotonic properties of astrocytic membranes. Here we describe the experimental and analytical methods that can be used to record glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes and isolate the time course of glutamate clearance from all other factors that shape the waveform of astrocytic transporter currents. The methods described here can be used to estimate the lifetime of flash-uncaged and synaptically-released glutamate at astrocytic membranes in any region of the central nervous system during health and disease.

We describe an analytical method to estimate the lifetime of glutamate at astrocytic membranes from electrophysiological recordings of glutamate transporter currents in astrocytes.

アストロサイトトランスポーター電流のデコンボリューション解析グルタミン酸クリアランスの時間経過の導出

The highest density of glutamate transporters in the brain is found in astrocytes. Glutamate transporters couple the movement of glutamate across the ...

The Neuromuscular Junction: Measuring Synapse Size, Fragmentation and Changes in Synaptic Protein Density Using Confocal Fluorescence Microscopy

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the large, cholinergic relay synapse through which mammalian motor neurons control voluntary muscle contraction. Structural changes at the NMJ can result in neurotransmission failure, resulting in weakness, atrophy and even death of the muscle fiber. Many studies have investigated how genetic modifications or disease can alter the structure of the mouse NMJ. Unfortunately, it can be difficult to directly compare findings from these studies because they often employed different parameters and analytical methods. Three protocols are described here. The first uses maximum intensity projection confocal images to measure the area of acetylcholine receptor (AChR)-rich postsynaptic membrane domains at the endplate and the area of synaptic vesicle staining in the overlying presynaptic nerve terminal. The second protocol compares the relative intensities of immunostaining for synaptic proteins in the postsynaptic membrane. The third protocol uses Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET) to detect changes in the packing of postsynaptic AChRs at the endplate. The protocols have been developed and refined over a series of studies. Factors that influence the quality and consistency of results are discussed and normative data are provided for NMJs in healthy young adult mice.

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is altered in a variety of conditions that can sometimes culminate in synaptic failure. This report describes fluorescence microscope-based methods to quantify such structural changes.

神経筋接合部：測定シナプスサイズ、断片化および共焦点蛍光顕微鏡を用いてシナプスタンパク質の密度の変化

The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the large, cholinergic relay synapse through which mammalian motor neurons control voluntary muscle contraction. ...

Simultaneous Two-photon In Vivo Imaging of Synaptic Inputs and Postsynaptic Targets in the Mouse Retrosplenial Cortex

This video shows the craniotomy procedure that allows chronic imaging of neurons in the mouse retrosplenial cortex (RSC) using in vivo two-photon microscopy in Thy1-GFP transgenic mouse line. This approach creates a possibility to investigate the correlation of behavioural manipulations with changes in neuronal morphology in vivo.
The cranial window implantation procedure was considered to be limited only to the easily accessible cortex regions such as the barrel field. Our approach allows visualization of neurons in the highly vascularized RSC. RSC is an important element of the brain circuit responsible for spatial memory, previously deemed to be problematic for in vivo two-photon imaging.
The cranial window implantation over the RSC is combined with an injection of mCherry-expressing recombinant adeno-associated virus (rAAVmCherry) into the dorsal hippocampus. The expressed mCherry spreads out to axonal projections from the hippocampus to RSC, enabling the visualization of changes in both presynaptic axonal boutons and postsynaptic dendritic spines in the cortex. 
This technique allows long-term monitoring of experience-dependent structural plasticity in RSC.

Simultaneous Two-photon In Vivo Imaging of Synaptic Inputs and Postsynaptic Targets in the Mouse Retrosplenial Cortex

This video shows the craniotomy procedure that allows chronic imaging of neurons in mouse retrosplenial cortex using in vivo two photon microscopy in Thy1-GFP transgenic line. This approach is combined with injection of mCherry-expressing adeno-associated virus into dorsal hippocampus. These techniques allow long-term monitoring of experience-dependent structural plasticity in RSC.