We thank the Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute of the University of Utah for use of FluoRender software (R01GM09815). This work was supported by grants from the Glaucoma Research Foundation, Melsa M. and Frank Theodore Barr Foundation and the US National Institute of Health, (R01EY020878 and R01EY023621) to M.L.V., and (R01EY017182 and R01EY017950) to B.K.A.

In vivo imaging is performed in pathogen-free facilities using protocols approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at the University of Utah. 
NOTE: This imaging protocol is used for reporter mice in which retinal microglia and infiltrating monocytes/macrophages express green-fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of the fractalkine receptor locus (CX3CR1).
1. In Vivo Imaging of Retinal GFP+ Microglia by Confocal Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy (cSLO)<...

Live monitoring of microglial cell number and morphological activation during a neurodegenerative disease requires the use of non-invasive imaging methods that allow the detailed visualization of cell features. After imaging, microglial cells must be isolated (segmented) for morphometric analysis by use of multiple threshold steps to assess somal size and/or process complexity as readouts for microglia activation. In this protocol, we describe methods for live image acquisition using cSLO, and quantitative analysis of mi...

Microglia are neuroimmune cells that exclusively reside in the central nervous system (CNS) since early embryonic development and throughout adulthood. Equipped with a complex repertoire of receptors, microglial activity and regional heterogeneity are regulated by their bidirectional interplay with neighboring neurons, glia, blood-brain barrier and infiltrating neuroinflammatory cells1,2. Basal microglial functions contribute to physiological maintenance and repair, as they sample their territory for perturbations in homeostasis3,4. During CNS injury or disease, microglia are the first responders to neuronal signals that then trigger their transition to a reactive phenotype, termed &#8220;activated microglia2,5-7. Microglia activation involves an intricate cycle of gene and protein expression, which are coupled to cell soma and process resizing and remodeling6-9. Microglia activation, as well as cell redistribution and clustering, can be accompanied the local overall increase in the number of cells (termed microgliosis). This can result from cell proliferation and self-renewal, with or without recruitment of blood-derived monocytes3,4,7,10-14. In a broad range of age-dependent, chronic CNS diseases, sustained microgliosis and microglia activation parallel disease progression15-19. How microglia impact neurodegeneration remains unclear, mainly because they play both neuroprotective and deleterious roles that may have diverse contributions to disease onset and progression. Live imaging studies aimed at understanding chronic CNS disease have monitored microglial behavior in the damaged CNS of animal models and humans, and demonstrated that microglial alterations are detectable beginning at early disease stages15-17,19,20. Thus, it is critical to develop approaches to detect and monitor microglial activation in vivo.
Non-invasive detection of regional changes in brain microglia activation was established as an important in vivo indicator of neurodegenerative disease progression, using molecular imaging or bioluminescence and positron emission tomography or magnetic resonance imaging18,21,22. These highly quantitative and non-invasive molecular and nuclear imaging methods detect gliosis with regional resolution. Alternatively, two-photon confocal imaging in CX3CR1GFP/+ mice has allowed the observation of brain microglia with cellular resolution3,4,9,20,23-28. However, this approach limits long-term and repeated observation of chronic microglial alterations, given the potential risk of disturbing their behavior by even minimally invasive brain imaging procedures29. Alternatively, the retina offers optimal conditions for direct, in vivo visualization and repeated monitoring of microglia in their intact CNS niche throughout aging, following acute injury, and potentially during chronic neurodegenerative diseases. Thus, recent studies have proved the feasibility of high-resolution imaging of retinal microglia expressing GFP by adapting the confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (cSLO) to image live CX3CR1GFP/+ mice. This has been used to track weekly changes in GFP+ cell numbers in individual mice for up to 10 weeks following acutely induced injury or ocular hypertension30-36.
We have extended this approach to perform long-term imaging over several months, and quantitatively track changes in microglia activation based on soma size using morphometric analysis. Somal size was defined as a useful metric of microglia activation in live imaging studies using two-photon confocal microscopy in cortical slices to perform in vivo imaging of CX3CR1-GFP+ microglia9. These and other studies also demonstrated the correlation between somal size and levels of Iba1 protein expression, which also increases with activation9,37. Thus, activated microglia can be identified in live mice, and their numbers and distribution monitored over time during CNS health and disease.
This protocol describes methods for cSLO live image acquisition and analysis to monitor microglial cell numbers, distribution and morphological activation during retinal ganglion cell (RGC) degeneration (Figure 1). Thus, this study uses: 1) a mouse model of inherited glaucoma (DBA/2J) that undergoes age-dependent optic nerve and retinal neurodegeneration and shows remarkable variability in disease progression between 5 and 10 months of age38,39, 2) monthly cSLO in vivo imaging for long-term visualization of GFP+ cells in the retina and unmyelinated optic nerve of heterozygous Cx3cr1GFP/+ DBA/2J mice aged 3-5 months, 3) live imaging analysis by segmentation and thresholding to isolate cell somata and measure their area. These strategies are applied to assess the kinetics of retinal microglial activation states during early stages of chronic glaucoma.

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			<td height="60" style="height:60px;width:617px;">DBA/2J and 
			CX3CR1-GFP/+ mice</td>
			<td>The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, ME</td>
			<td>000671 and 00582</td>
			<td>Mice are breed in-house, introducing new breeders every 3 to 4 generations to prevent genetic drift.</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">301/2G needle and 1 ml tuberculin slip-tip syringe</td>
			<td>BD, East Rutherford, NJ</td>
			<td>305106 and 309659</td>
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			<td height="40" style="height:40px;width:617px;">2,2,2-tribromoethanol, tert-Amyl alcohol 99% and phosphate buffer saline tablets</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO</td>
			<td>T48402, 152463 and P4417</td>
			<td>Avertin solution (pH 7.3, sterile filtered) must be freshly made solution or stored at 4&#186;C for up to 1 week.</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Heat therapy T/Pump</td>
			<td>Gaymar Industries, Orchard Park, NY</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Cotton-tipped applicators</td>
			<td>Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA</td>
			<td>23-400-100</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">Tropicamide 1%&#160;</td>
			<td>Bausch &#38; Lomb, Rochester, NY</td>
			<td>NDC 24208-585-64</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PMMA contact lenses, 1.70-base curve, 3.2 mm total diameter, 0.40 mm-thick center</td>
			<td>Cantor &#38; Nissel Ltd., Northamptonshire, UK</td>
			<td>G003709</td>
			<td>Lenses are rinsed with sterile PBS and stored in polypropylene boxes.</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">HRA/Spectralis confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope and Eye Explorer software</td>
			<td>Heidelberg Engineering GmbH, Carlsbad, CA</td>
			<td>Version 1.7.1.0</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">PowerPoint</td>
			<td>Microsoft, Redmond, WA</td>
			<td>Version 14.4.3</td>
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			<td>Adobe, San Jose, CA</td>
			<td>Version CS3</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">FluoRender</td>
			<td>Scientific Computing and Imaging Institute, University of Utah</td>
			<td>Version 2.13</td>
			<td>Freeware. http://www.sci.utah.edu/software/13-software/127-fluorender.html</td>
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			<td height="20" style="height:20px;">NIS-Elements C</td>
			<td>Nikon, Melville, NY</td>
			<td>Version 4.30.01</td>
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in vivo dynamics of retinal microglial activation during neurodegeneration: confocal ophthalmoscopic imaging and cell morphometry in mouse glaucoma

Microglia, which are CNS-resident neuroimmune cells, transform their morphology and size in response to CNS damage, switching to an activated state with distinct functions and gene expression profiles. The roles of microglial activation in health, injury and disease remain incompletely understood due to their dynamic and complex regulation in response to changes in their microenvironment. Thus, it is critical to non-invasively monitor and analyze changes in microglial activation over time in the intact organism. In vivo studies of microglial activation have been delayed by technical limitations to tracking microglial behavior without altering the CNS environment. This has been particularly challenging during chronic neurodegeneration, where long-term changes must be tracked. The retina, a CNS organ amenable to non-invasive live imaging, offers a powerful system to visualize and characterize the dynamics of microglia activation during chronic disorders.
This protocol outlines methods for long-term, in vivo imaging of retinal microglia, using confocal ophthalmoscopy (cSLO) and CX3CR1GFP/+ reporter mice, to visualize microglia with cellular resolution. Also, we describe methods to quantify monthly changes in cell activation and density in large cell subsets (200-300 cells per retina). We confirm the use of somal area as a useful metric for live tracking of microglial activation in the retina by applying automated threshold-based morphometric analysis of in vivo images. We use these live image acquisition and analyses strategies to monitor the dynamic changes in microglial activation and microgliosis during early stages of retinal neurodegeneration in a mouse model of chronic glaucoma. This approach should be useful to investigate the contributions of microglia to neuronal and axonal decline in chronic CNS disorders that affect the retina and optic nerve.

Our recent in vivo studies used these live image acquisition and analysis methods to visualize and track the kinetics and patterns of ONH and retinal microglial changes during early stages of chronic glaucoma and their relationship to late neurodegeneration59. Here we illustrate a cSLO image acquisition protocol to visualize microglial cells across a large area of the central retina in individual young heterozygous Cx3CR1-GFP DBA/2J retinas (Figure 5). Based on the high cell resolutio...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about In Vivo Dynamics of Retinal Microglial Activation During Neurodegeneration: Confocal Ophthalmoscopic Imaging and Cell Morphometry in Mouse Glaucoma at JoVE.co

In Vivo Dynamics of Retinal Microglial Activation During Neurodegeneration: Confocal Ophthalmoscopic Imaging and Cell Morphometry in Mouse Glaucoma

Microglia activation and microgliosis are key responses to chronic neurodegeneration. Here, we present methods for in vivo, long-term visualization of retinal CX3CR1-GFP+ microglial cells by confocal ophthalmoscopy, and for threshold and morphometric analyses to identify and quantify their activation. We monitor microglial changes during early stages of age-related glaucoma.

In Vivo Dynamics of Retinal Microglial Activation During Neurodegeneration: Confocal Ophthalmoscopic Imaging and Cell Morphometry in Mouse Glaucoma

Microglia, which are CNS-resident neuroimmune cells, transform their morphology and size in response to CNS damage, switching to an activated state with ...

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10.5K ビュー.  University of Utah. ミクログリアの活性化および小膠は、慢性神経変性に重要な応答です。ここでは、in vivoで 、共焦点検眼鏡による網膜CX3CR1-GFP +ミクログリア細胞の長期的な可視化のための方法を提示し、閾値と形態計測のために識別し、それらの活性化を定量化するために分析します。我々は、年齢関連の緑内障の早期の段階でミクログリアの変化を監視します。...

ビデオ: In Vivo Dynamics of Retinal Microglial Activation During Neurodegeneration: Confocal Ophthalmoscopic Imaging and Cell Morphometry in Mouse Glaucoma

Microglia activation and microgliosis are key responses to chronic neurodegeneration. Here, we present methods for in vivo, long-term visualization of retinal CX3CR1-GFP+ microglial cells by confocal ophthalmoscopy, and for threshold and morphometric analyses to identify and quantify their activation. We monitor microglial changes during early stages of age-related...

transpupillary two-photon in vivo imaging of the mouse retina

Transpupillary Two-Photon In Vivo Imaging of the Mouse Retina

In vivo imaging is a powerful tool for the study of biology in health and disease. This protocol describes transpupillary imaging of the mouse retina with a standard two-photon microscope. It also demonstrates different in vivoimaging methods to fluorescently label multiple cellular cohorts of the...

longitudinal in vivo imaging of retinal cells with tailored adeno-associated virus serotypes via confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscopy

This protocol describes the use of adeno-associated virus (AAV) vectors for cell-specific labeling and in vivo imaging using a confocal scanning laser ophthalmoscope (CSLO). This method enables the investigation of different retinal cell types and their contributions to retinal function and...

Longitudinal In Vivo Imaging of Retinal Cells with Tailored Adeno-Associated Virus Serotypes via Confocal Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy

in vivo imaging of cx3cr1gfp/gfp reporter mice with spectral-domain optical coherence tomography and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy

In Vivo Imaging of Cx3cr1gfp/gfp Reporter Mice with Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy

This protocol describes how high-resolution imaging techniques such as spectral domain optical coherence tomography and scanning laser ophthalmoscopy can be utilized in small rodents, using an ophthalmic imaging platform system, to obtain information on retinal thickness and microglial cell distribution,...

In Vivo Imaging of Cx3cr1gfp/gfp Reporter Mice with Spectral-domain Optical Coherence Tomography and Scanning Laser Ophthalmoscopy

alignment of visible-light optical coherence tomography fibergrams with confocal images of the same mouse retina

Author Spotlight: Advancements in In Vivo and Ex Vivo Retinal Imaging for Improved Glaucoma Diagnosis and Treatment 

The present protocol outlines the steps for aligning in vivo visible-light optical coherence tomography fibergraphy (vis-OCTF) images with ex vivo confocal images of the same mouse retina for the purpose of verifying the observed retinal ganglion cell axon bundle morphology in the in vivo images.

Mouse Retina OCT Fibergram Alignment with Confocal Images

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confocal imaging and tracking analysis of microglial dynamics in zebrafish embryos

Confocal Imaging and Tracking Analysis of Microglial Dynamics in Zebrafish Embryos

live imaging and characterization of microglia dynamics in the zebrafish embryo

Author Spotlight: Using Zebrafish to Explore Microglia Migration During Brain Development

We demonstrate a method that takes advantage of fast scanning confocal microscopy to perform live imaging of microglia cells in the developing zebrafish optic tectum, allowing for the analysis of the dynamics of these cells in...

Elucidating Microglia Behavior in Zebrafish Optic Tectum Development

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simultaneous imaging of microglial dynamics and neuronal activity in awake mice

Simultaneous Imaging of Microglial Dynamics and Neuronal Activity in Awake Mice

Here, we describe a protocol combining adeno-associated virus injection with cranial window implantation for simultaneous imaging of microglial dynamics and neuronal activity in awake...

whole-mount immunostaining and automatic counting of mouse retinal ganglion cells

Author Spotlight: Efficient Retinal Ganglion Cell Counting in Mouse Models of Glaucoma for Treatment Evaluation

This protocol describes the procedure for isolating the whole-mount mouse retina and performing immunostaining to label all retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). The process is followed by imaging and automatically counting RGCs using AI-based software, providing a simple, fast, and accurate method for quantifying RGCs in the entire mouse...

Immunostaining and AI-Based Counting of RGCs in Mouse Whole-Mount Retina

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assessing retinal microglial phagocytic function in vivo using a flow cytometry-based assay

Assessing Retinal Microglial Phagocytic Function In Vivo Using a Flow Cytometry-based Assay

Microglial phagocytosis is critical for the maintenance of tissue homeostasis and inadequate phagocytic function has been implicated in pathology. However, assessing microglia function in vivo is technically challenging. We have developed a simple but robust technique for precisely monitoring and quantifying the phagocytic potential of microglia in a physiological...

Assessing Retinal Microglial Phagocytic Function In Vivo Using a Flow Cytometry-based Assay

optical coherence tomography: imaging mouse retinal ganglion cells in vivo

Optical Coherence Tomography: Imaging Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells In Vivo

This manuscript describes a protocol for the in vivo imaging of the mouse retina with high-resolution spectral domain optical coherence tomography (SD-OCT). It focuses on retinal ganglion cells (RGC) in the peripapillary region, with several scanning and quantifying approaches...

Optical Coherence Tomography: Imaging Mouse Retinal Ganglion Cells In Vivo

glaucoma-inducing procedure in an in vivo rat model and whole-mount retina preparation

Glaucoma-inducing Procedure in an In Vivo Rat Model and Whole-mount Retina Preparation

Glaucoma is characterized by damage to retinal ganglion cells. Inducing glaucoma in animal models can provide insight into the study of this disease. Here, we outline a procedure that induces loss of RGCs in an in vivo rat model and demonstrates the preparation of whole-mount retinas for analysis.

Glaucoma-inducing Procedure in an In Vivo Rat Model and Whole-mount Retina Preparation

fluorescent dye labeling of erythrocytes and leukocytes for studying the flow dynamics in mouse retinal circulation

Fluorescent Dye Labeling of Erythrocytes and Leukocytes for Studying the Flow Dynamics in Mouse Retinal Circulation

Live-cell imaging of the labeled blood cells in ocular circulation can provide information about inflammation and ischemia in diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. A protocol to label blood cells and image the labeled cells in the retinal circulation is...

ex vivo confocal imaging of mouse retina

Ex Vivo Confocal Imaging of Mouse Retina  

m&#252;ller glia cell activation in a laser-induced retinal degeneration and regeneration model in zebrafish

M&amp;#252;ller Glia Cell Activation in a Laser-induced Retinal Degeneration and Regeneration Model in Zebrafish

The zebrafish is a popular animal model to study mechanisms of retinal degeneration/regeneration in vertebrates. This protocol describes a method to induce localized injury disrupting the outer retina with minimal damage to the inner retina. Subsequently, we monitor in vivo the retinal morphology and the M&#252;ller glia response throughout retinal...

M&#252;ller Glia Cell Activation in a Laser-induced Retinal Degeneration and Regeneration Model in Zebrafish

alignment of in vivo and ex vivo mouse retinal images

Alignment of In Vivo and Ex Vivo Mouse Retinal Images  

in vivo visible light optical coherence tomography (oct) mouse retinal imaging

In Vivo Visible Light Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) Mouse Retinal Imaging  

live cell imaging and analysis of nuclear dynamics in mouse oocytes

Live Cell Imaging and Analysis of Nuclear Dynamics in Mouse Oocytes

live animal imaging and cell sorting methods for investigating neurodegeneration in a c. elegans excitotoxic necrosis model

Live Animal Imaging and Cell Sorting Methods for Investigating Neurodegeneration in a C. elegans Excitotoxic Necrosis Model

In a C. elegans excitotoxicity model, this protocol employs in vivo imaging to analyze the regulation of necrotic neurodegeneration, the effect of genes encoding candidate mediators, and involvement of mitochondria. Cell dissociation and sorting is used to specifically obtain at-risk neurons for cell-specific transcriptomic analysis of neurodegeneration and neuroprotection mechanisms.

Live Animal Imaging and Cell Sorting Methods for Investigating Neurodegeneration in a C. elegans Excitotoxic Necrosis Model

using ex vivo live imaging to investigate cell divisions and movements during mouse dental renewal

Author Spotlight: Understanding Dynamic Cellular Behaviors in Adult Mouse Dental Tissue Renewal and Repairment 

Ex vivo live imaging is a powerful technique for studying the dynamic processes of cellular movements and interactions in living tissues. Here, we present a protocol that implements two-photon microscopy to live track dental epithelial cells in cultured whole adult mouse...

Using Ex Vivo Live Imaging to Investigate Cell Divisions and Movements During Mouse Dental Renewal

Multi-photon Imaging of Tumor Cell Invasion in an Orthotopic Mouse Model of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient management strategies. Orthotopic mouse models of oral cancer have been developed to facilitate the study of factors that impact invasion and serve as model system for evaluating anti-tumor therapeutics. In these systems, visualization of disseminated tumor cells within oral cavity tissues has typically been conducted by either conventional histology or with in vivo bioluminescent methods. A primary drawback of these techniques is the inherent inability to accurately visualize and quantify early tumor cell invasion arising from the primary site in three dimensions. Here we describe a protocol that combines an established model for squamous cell carcinoma of the tongue (SCOT) with two-photon imaging to allow multi-vectorial visualization of lingual tumor spread. The OSC-19 head and neck tumor cell line was stably engineered to express the F-actin binding peptide LifeAct fused to the mCherry fluorescent protein (LifeAct-mCherry). Fox1nu/nu mice injected with these cells reliably form tumors that allow the tongue to be visualized by ex-vivo application of two-photon microscopy. This technique allows for the orthotopic visualization of the tumor mass and locally invading cells in excised tongues without disruption of the regional tumor microenvironment. In addition, this system allows for the quantification of tumor cell invasion by calculating distances that invaded cells move from the primary tumor site. Overall this procedure provides an enhanced model system for analyzing factors that contribute to SCOT invasion and therapeutic treatments tailored to prevent local invasion and distant metastatic spread. This method also has the potential to be ultimately combined with other imaging modalities in an in vivo setting.

A comprehensive overview of the techniques involved in generating a mouse model of oral cancer and quantitative monitoring of tumor invasion within the tongue through multi-photon microscopy of labeled cells is presented. This system can serve as a useful platform for the molecular assessment and drug efficacy of anti-invasive compounds.

Loco-regional invasion of head and neck cancer is linked to metastatic risk and presents a difficult challenge in designing and implementing patient ...

In vivo Bioluminescence Imaging of Tumor Hypoxia Dynamics of Breast Cancer Brain Metastasis in a Mouse Model

It is well recognized that tumor hypoxia plays an important role in promoting malignant progression and affecting therapeutic response negatively. There is little knowledge about in situ, in vivo, tumor hypoxia during intracranial development of malignant brain tumors because of lack of efficient means to monitor it in these deep-seated orthotopic tumors. Bioluminescence imaging (BLI), based on the detection of light emitted by living cells expressing a luciferase gene, has been rapidly adopted for cancer research, in particular, to evaluate tumor growth or tumor size changes in response to treatment in preclinical animal studies. Moreover, by expressing a reporter gene under the control of a promoter sequence, the specific gene expression can be monitored non-invasively by BLI. Under hypoxic stress, signaling responses are mediated mainly via the hypoxia inducible factor-1&alpha; (HIF-1&alpha;) to drive transcription of various genes. Therefore, we have used a HIF-1&alpha; reporter construct, 5HRE-ODD-luc, stably transfected into human breast cancer MDA-MB231 cells (MDA-MB231/5HRE-ODD-luc). In vitro HIF-1&alpha; bioluminescence assay is performed by incubating the transfected cells in a hypoxic chamber (0.1% O2) for 24 hr before BLI, while the cells in normoxia (21% O2) serve as a control. Significantly higher photon flux observed for the cells under hypoxia suggests an increased HIF-1&alpha; binding to its promoter (HRE elements), as compared to those in normoxia. Cells are injected directly into the mouse brain to establish a breast cancer brain metastasis model. In vivo bioluminescence imaging of tumor hypoxia dynamics is initiated 2 wks after implantation and repeated once a week. BLI reveals increasing light signals from the brain as the tumor progresses, indicating increased intracranial tumor hypoxia. Histological and immunohistochemical studies are used to confirm the in vivo imaging results. Here, we will introduce approaches of in vitro HIF-1&alpha; bioluminescence assay, surgical establishment of a breast cancer brain metastasis in a nude mouse and application of in vivo bioluminescence imaging to monitor intracranial tumor hypoxia.

In vivo Bioluminescence Imaging of Tumor Hypoxia Dynamics of Breast Cancer Brain Metastasis in a Mouse Model

Bioluminescence imaging of hypoxia inducible factor-1&alpha; activity is applied to monitor intracranial tumor hypoxia development in a breast cancer brain metastasis mouse model.

It is well recognized that tumor hypoxia plays an important role in promoting malignant progression and affecting therapeutic response negatively. There ...

In vivo Imaging of Tumor Angiogenesis using Fluorescence Confocal Videomicroscopy

Fibered confocal fluorescence in vivo imaging with a fiber optic bundle uses the same principle as fluorescent confocal microscopy. It can excite fluorescent in situ elements through the optical fibers, and then record some of the emitted photons, via the same optical fibers. The light source is a laser that sends the exciting light through an element within the fiber bundle and as it scans over the sample, recreates an image pixel by pixel. As this scan is very fast, by combining it with dedicated image processing software, images in real time with a frequency of 12 frames/sec can be obtained.
We developed a technique to quantitatively characterize capillary morphology and function, using a confocal fluorescence videomicroscopy device. The first step in our experiment was to record 5 sec movies in the four quadrants of the tumor to visualize the capillary network. All movies were processed using software (ImageCell, Mauna Kea Technology, Paris France) that performs an automated segmentation of vessels around a chosen diameter (10 &mu;m in our case). Thus, we could quantify the 'functional capillary density', which is the ratio between the total vessel area and the total area of the image. This parameter was a surrogate marker for microvascular density, usually measured using pathology tools.
The second step was to record movies of the tumor over 20 min to quantify leakage of the macromolecular contrast agent through the capillary wall into the interstitium. By measuring the ratio of signal intensity in the interstitium over that in the vessels, an 'index leakage' was obtained, acting as a surrogate marker for capillary permeability.

In vivo Imaging of Tumor Angiogenesis using Fluorescence Confocal Videomicroscopy

In this paper, we present a method to analyze tumor microvessels in vivo using dynamic contrast-enhanced fluorescence videomicroscopy. Two quantitative parameters were acquired: functional capillary density reflecting the vascularity of the tumor, and index leakage reflecting the leakiness of the endothelial wall.

Fibered confocal fluorescence in vivo imaging with a fiber optic bundle uses the same principle as fluorescent confocal microscopy. It can excite ...

In vivo 19F MRI for Cell Tracking

In vivo 19F MRI allows quantitative cell tracking without the use of ionizing radiation. It is a noninvasive technique that can be applied to humans. Here, we describe a general protocol for cell labeling, imaging, and image processing. The technique is applicable to various cell types and animal models, although here we focus on a typical mouse model for tracking murine immune cells. The most important issues for cell labeling are described, as these are relevant to all models. Similarly, key imaging parameters are listed, although the details will vary depending on the MRI system and the individual setup. Finally, we include an image processing protocol for quantification. Variations for this, and other parts of the protocol, are assessed in the Discussion section. Based on the detailed procedure described here, the user will need to adapt the protocol for each specific cell type, cell label, animal model, and imaging setup. Note that the protocol can also be adapted for human use, as long as clinical restrictions are met.

In vivo 19F MRI for Cell Tracking

We describe a general protocol for in vivo cell tracking using MRI in a mouse model with ex vivo labeled cells. A typical protocol for cell labeling, image acquisition processing and quantification is included.

In vivo 19F MRI allows quantitative cell tracking without the use of ionizing radiation. It is a noninvasive technique that can be applied to humans. ...

Sequential In vivo Imaging of Osteogenic Stem/Progenitor Cells During Fracture Repair

Bone turns over continuously and is highly regenerative following injury. Osteogenic stem/progenitor cells have long been hypothesized to exist, but in vivo demonstration of such cells has only recently been attained. Here, in vivo imaging techniques to investigate the role of endogenous osteogenic stem/progenitor cells (OSPCs) and their progeny in bone repair are provided. Using osteo-lineage cell tracing models and intravital imaging of induced microfractures in calvarial bone, OSPCs can be directly observed during the first few days after injury, in which critical events in the early repair process occur. Injury sites can be sequentially imaged revealing that OSPCs relocate to the injury, increase in number and differentiate into bone forming osteoblasts. These methods offer a means of investigating the role of stem cell-intrinsic and extrinsic molecular regulators for bone regeneration and repair.

Sequential In vivo Imaging of Osteogenic Stem/Progenitor Cells During Fracture Repair

Quantitative measurement of bone progenitor function in fracture healing requires high resolution serial imaging technology. Here, protocols are provided for using intravital microscopy and osteo-lineage tracking to sequentially image and quantify the migration, proliferation and differentiation of endogenous osteogenic stem/progenitor cells in the process of repairing bone fracture.

Bone turns over continuously and is highly regenerative following injury. Osteogenic stem/progenitor cells have long been hypothesized to exist, but in ...

Intrauterine Telemetry to Measure Mouse Contractile Pressure In Vivo

A complex integration of molecular and electrical signals is needed to transform a quiescent uterus into a contractile organ at the end of pregnancy. Despite the discovery of key regulators of uterine contractility, this process is still not fully understood. Transgenic mice provide an ideal model in which to study parturition. Previously, the only method to study uterine contractility in the mouse was ex vivo isometric tension recordings, which are suboptimal for several reasons. The uterus must be removed from its physiological environment, a limited time course of investigation is possible, and the mice must be sacrificed. The recent development of radiometric telemetry has allowed for longitudinal, real-time measurements of in vivo intrauterine pressure in mice. Here, the implantation of an intrauterine telemeter to measure pressure changes in the mouse uterus from mid-pregnancy until delivery is described. By comparing differences in pressures between wild type and transgenic mice, the physiological impact of a gene of interest can be elucidated. This technique should expedite the development of therapeutics used to treat myometrial disorders during pregnancy, including preterm labor.

Intrauterine Telemetry to Measure Mouse Contractile Pressure In Vivo

This manuscript provides a protocol for implanting telemeters in the mouse for the purpose of measuring intrauterine pressures during pregnancy.

A complex integration of molecular and electrical signals is needed to transform a quiescent uterus into a contractile organ at the end of pregnancy. ...

Rose Bengal Photothrombosis by Confocal Optical Imaging In Vivo: A Model of Single Vessel Stroke

In vivo imaging techniques have increased in utilization due to recent advances in imaging dyes and optical technologies, allowing for the ability to image cellular events in an intact animal. Additionally, the ability to induce physiological disease states such as stroke in vivo increases its utility. The technique described herein allows for physiological assessment of cellular responses within the CNS following a stroke and can be adapted for other pathological conditions being studied. The technique presented uses laser excitation of the photosensitive dye Rose Bengal in vivo to induce a focal ischemic event in a single blood vessel. 
The video protocol demonstrates the preparation of a thin-skulled cranial window over the somatosensory cortex in a mouse for the induction of a Rose Bengal photothrombotic event keeping injury to the underlying dura matter and brain at a minimum. Surgical preparation is initially performed under a dissecting microscope with a custom-made surgical/imaging platform, which is then transferred to a confocal microscope equipped with an inverted objective adaptor. Representative images acquired utilizing this protocol are presented as well as time-lapse sequences of stroke induction. This technique is powerful in that the same area can be imaged repeatedly on subsequent days facilitating longitudinal in vivo studies of pathological processes following stroke.

Rose Bengal Photothrombosis by Confocal Optical Imaging In Vivo:  A Model of Single Vessel Stroke

Here, we describe a semi-invasive optical microscopy approach for the induction of a Rose Bengal photothrombotic clot in the somatosensory cortex of a mouse in vivo. The technical aspects of the imaging procedure are described from induction of a photothrombotic event to application and data collection.

In vivo imaging techniques have increased in utilization due to recent advances in imaging dyes and optical technologies, allowing for the ability to ...

Glaucoma is a disease of the central nervous system affecting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). RGC axons making up the optic nerve carry visual input to the brain for visual perception. Damage to RGCs and their axons leads to vision loss and/or blindness. Although the specific cause of glaucoma is unknown, the primary risk factor for the disease is an elevated intraocular pressure. Glaucoma-inducing procedures in animal models are a valuable tool to researchers studying the mechanism of RGC death. Such information can lead to the development of effective neuroprotective treatments that could aid in the prevention of vision loss. The protocol in this paper describes a method of inducing glaucoma - like conditions in an in vivo rat model where 50 &#181;l of 2 M hypertonic saline is injected into the episcleral venous plexus. Blanching of the vessels indicates successful injection. This procedure causes loss of RGCs to simulate glaucoma. One month following injection, animals are sacrificed and eyes are removed. Next, the cornea, lens, and vitreous are removed to make an eyecup. The retina is then peeled from the back of the eye and pinned onto sylgard dishes using cactus needles. At this point, neurons in the retina can be stained for analysis. Results from this lab show that approximately 25% of RGCs are lost within one month of the procedure when compared to internal controls. This procedure allows for quantitative analysis of retinal ganglion cell death in an in vivo rat glaucoma model.

Glaucoma is characterized by damage to retinal ganglion cells. Inducing glaucoma in animal models can provide insight into the study of this disease. Here, we outline a procedure that induces loss of RGCs in an in vivo rat model and demonstrates the preparation of whole-mount retinas for analysis.

Glaucoma is a disease of the central nervous system affecting retinal ganglion cells (RGCs). RGC axons making up the optic nerve carry visual input to the ...

Depletion of Mouse Cells from Human Tumor Xenografts Significantly Improves Downstream Analysis of Target Cells

The use of in vitro cell line models for cancer research has been a useful tool. However, it has been shown that these models fail to reliably mimic patient tumors in different assays1. Human tumor xenografts represent the gold standard with respect to tumor biology, drug discovery, and metastasis research 2-4. Tumor xenografts can be derived from different types of material like tumor cell lines, tumor tissue from primary patient tumors4 or serially transplanted tumors. When propagated in vivo, xenografted tissue is infiltrated and vascularized by cells of mouse origin. Multiple factors such as the tumor entity, the origin of xenografted material, growth rate and region of transplantation influence the composition and the amount of mouse cells present in tumor xenografts. However, even when these factors are kept constant, the degree of mouse cell contamination is highly variable.
Contaminating mouse cells significantly impair downstream analyses of human tumor xenografts. As mouse fibroblasts show high plating efficacies and proliferation rates, they tend to overgrow cultures of human tumor cells, especially slowly proliferating subpopulations. Mouse cell derived DNA, mRNA, and protein components can bias downstream gene expression analysis, next-generation sequencing, as well as proteome analysis 5. To overcome these limitations, we have developed a fast and easy method to isolate untouched human tumor cells from xenografted tumor tissue. This procedure is based on the comprehensive depletion of cells of mouse origin by combining automated tissue dissociation with the benchtop tissue dissociator and magnetic cell sorting. Here, we demonstrate that human target cells can be can be obtained with purities higher than 96% within less than 20 min independent of the tumor type.

Human tumor xenografts are vascularized and infiltrated by cells of mouse origin during the growth phase in vivo. To circumvent the bias caused by these contaminating cells during downstream analysis, we developed a method allowing for comprehensive depletion of all mouse cells by magnetic cell sorting.

The use of in vitro cell line models for cancer research has been a useful tool. However, it has been shown that these models fail to reliably mimic ...

The retinal and choroidal blood flow dynamics may provide insight into the pathophysiology and sequelae of various ocular diseases, such as glaucoma, diabetic retinopathy, age-related macular degeneration (AMD) and other ocular inflammatory conditions. It may also help to monitor the therapeutic responses in the eye. The proper labeling of the blood cells, coupled with live-cell imaging of the labeled cells, allows for the investigation of the flow dynamics in the retinal and choroidal circulation. Here, we describe the standardized protocols of 1.5% indocyanine green (ICG) and 1% sodium fluorescein labeling of mice erythrocytes and leukocytes, respectively. Scanning laser ophthalmoscopy (SLO) was applied to visualize the labeled cells in the retinal circulation of C57BL/6J mice (wild type). Both methods demonstrated distinct fluorescently labeled cells in the mouse retinal circulation. These labeling methods can have wider applications in various ocular disease models.

Live-cell imaging of the labeled blood cells in ocular circulation can provide information about inflammation and ischemia in diabetic retinopathy and age-related macular degeneration. A protocol to label blood cells and image the labeled cells in the retinal circulation is described.

The retinal and choroidal blood flow dynamics may provide insight into the pathophysiology and sequelae of various ocular diseases, such as glaucoma, ...