Dr. Cruz-Orengo was supported by the University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine Start Up Funds.

All procedures of the present study are in accordance with the guidelines set by the University of California (UC), Davis Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC). Animal care at UC Davis is regulated by several independent resources and has been fully accredited by the Association for Assessment and Accreditation of Laboratory Animal Care International (AAALAC) since 1966. Porcine CNS tissues were obtained from UCD Department of Animal Sciences, Meat Sciences Laboratory. CNS tissues from rhesus macaques were ...

<ol>
	<li>Bundgaard, M., Abbott, N. J. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=All+vertebrates+started+out+with+a+glial+blood-brain+barrier+4-500+million+years+ago.">All vertebrates started out with a glial blood-brain barrier 4-500 million years ago.</a> Glia. 56, 699-708 (2008).</li><li>Daneman, R., Prat, A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+blood-brain+barrier.">The blood-brain barrier.</a> Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology. 7, a020412 (2015).</li><li>Obermeier, B., Verma, A., Ransohoff, R. M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+blood-brain+barrier.">The blood-brain barrier.</a> Handbook of Clinical Neurology. 133, 39-59 (2016).</li><li>Kealy, J., Greene, C., Campbell, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Blood-brain+barrier+regulation+in+psychiatric+disorders.">Blood-brain barrier regulation in psychiatric disorders.</a> Neuroscience Letters. , (2018).</li><li>Sweeney, M. D., Kisler, K., Montagne, A., Toga, A. W., Zlokovic, B. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+role+of+brain+vasculature+in+neurodegenerative+disorders.">The role of brain vasculature in neurodegenerative disorders.</a> Nature Neuroscience. 21, 1318-1331 (2018).</li><li>Sweeney, M. D., Zhao, Z., Montagne, A., Nelson, A. R., Zlokovic, B. V. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Blood-Brain+Barrier:+From+Physiology+to+Disease+and+Back.">Blood-Brain Barrier: From Physiology to Disease and Back.</a> Physiological Reviews. 99, 21-78 (2019).</li><li>Wilhelm, I., Nyul-Toth, A., Suciu, M., Hermenean, A., Krizbai, I. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Heterogeneity+of+the+blood-brain+barrier.">Heterogeneity of the blood-brain barrier.</a> Tissue Barriers. 4, e1143544 (2016).</li><li>O'Brown, N. M., Pfau, S. 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R., Franke, M. C., Yuan, Y., Cruz-Orengo, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Straightforward+method+for+singularized+and+region-specific+CNS+microvessels+isolation.">Straightforward method for singularized and region-specific CNS microvessels isolation.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 318, 17-33 (2019).</li><li>Smyth, L. C. D., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Markers+for+human+brain+pericytes+and+smooth+muscle+cells.">Markers for human brain pericytes and smooth muscle cells.</a> Journal of Chemical Neuroanatomy. 92, 48-60 (2018).</li><li>Granberg, T., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=In+vivo+characterization+of+cortical+and+white+matter+neuroaxonal+pathology+in+early+multiple+sclerosis.">In vivo characterization of cortical and white matter neuroaxonal pathology in early multiple sclerosis.</a> Brain. 140, 2912-2926 (2017).</li><li>Datta, G., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuroinflammation+and+its+relationship+to+changes+in+brain+volume+and+white+matter+lesions+in+multiple+sclerosis.">Neuroinflammation and its relationship to changes in brain volume and white matter lesions in multiple sclerosis.</a> Brain. 140, 2927-2938 (2017).</li><li>Tommasin, S., Gianni, C., De Giglio, L., Pantano, P. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Neuroimaging+Techniques+to+Assess+Inflammation+in+Multiple+Sclerosis.">Neuroimaging Techniques to Assess Inflammation in Multiple Sclerosis.</a> Neuroscience. 403, 4-16 (2019).</li><li>Liebner, S., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Functional+morphology+of+the+blood-brain+barrier+in+health+and+disease.">Functional morphology of the blood-brain barrier in health and disease.</a> Acta Neuropathologica. 135, 311-336 (2018).</li><li>Cornford, E., Hyman, S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Localization+of+brain+endothelial+luminal+and+abluminal+transporters+with+immunogold+electron+microscopy.">Localization of brain endothelial luminal and abluminal transporters with immunogold electron microscopy.</a> NeuroRx. 2, 27-43 (2005).</li><li>Boulay, A. C., Saubamea, B., Decleves, X., Cohen-Salmon, M. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Purification+of+Mouse+Brain+Vessels.">Purification of Mouse Brain Vessels.</a> Journal of Visualized Experiments. , 53208 (2015).</li><li>Paul, D., Cowan, A. E., Ge, S., Pachter, J. S. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Novel+3D+analysis+of+Claudin-5+reveals+significant+endothelial+heterogeneity+among+CNS+microvessels.">Novel 3D analysis of Claudin-5 reveals significant endothelial heterogeneity among CNS microvessels.</a> Microvascular Research. , (2012).</li><li>Munikoti, V. V., Hoang-Minh, L. B., Ormerod, B. K. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Enzymatic+digestion+improves+the+purity+of+harvested+cerebral+microvessels.">Enzymatic digestion improves the purity of harvested cerebral microvessels.</a> Journal of Neuroscience Methods. 207, 80-85 (2012).</li><li>Yousif, S., Marie-Claire, C., Roux, F., Scherrmann, J. M., Decleves, X. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Expression+of+drug+transporters+at+the+blood-brain+barrier+using+an+optimized+isolated+rat+brain+microvessel+strategy.">Expression of drug transporters at the blood-brain barrier using an optimized isolated rat brain microvessel strategy.</a> Brain Research. 1134, 1-11 (2007).</li><li>Bourassa, P., Tremblay, C., Schneider, J. A., Bennett, D. A., Calon, F. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Beta-amyloid+pathology+in+human+brain+microvessel+extracts+from+the+parietal+cortex:+relation+with+cerebral+amyloid+angiopathy+and+Alzheimer's+disease.">Beta-amyloid pathology in human brain microvessel extracts from the parietal cortex: relation with cerebral amyloid angiopathy and Alzheimer's disease.</a> Acta Neuropathologica. 137, 801-823 (2019).</li><li>Porte, B., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Proteomic+and+transcriptomic+study+of+brain+microvessels+in+neonatal+and+adult+mice.">Proteomic and transcriptomic study of brain microvessels in neonatal and adult mice.</a> PLoS One. 12, e0171048 (2017).</li></ol>

The BBB includes the unique properties of the brain microvasculature endothelial cells coupled by a sophisticated architecture of tight-, adherens-, &#34;peg-socket&#34;- junctions, and adhesion plaques critical for CNS homeostasis2,3,19. Endothelial cells properties are induced and maintained by pericytes and the surrounding astroglia end-foot processes2,3,<s...

Our brain is the most important organ in our body. For this reason, keeping brain homeostasis despite external factors that may trigger a deviation from normalcy is a priority. According to some scholars, about 400&#8211;500 million years ago1, vertebrate animals developed what we now know as the blood-brain barrier (BBB)2,3. This protective &#34;fence&#34; exerts the greatest influence over central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis and functions by tightly regulating the transport of ions, molecules, and cells between blood and CNS parenchyma. When the BBB is disrupted, the brain becomes susceptible to toxic exposure, infection, and inflammation. Therefore, BBB dysfunction is associated with many, if not all, neurological and neurodevelopmental disorders4,5,6.
The sophisticated function of the BBB is attributed to the unique CNS microvasculature conformed by the neurovascular unit (NVU)2,3. Highly specialized endothelial cells, pericytes, and astrocytic end-feet are the cellular components of the NVU2,3. The extracellular matrix generated by these cells is also essential to the NVU and BBB physiology2,3. Although essential cellular and molecular components of the NVU are conserved among vertebrates, heterogeneity is reported among orders and species7,8. However, technical limitations impede our ability to fully consider these differences in neurobiology, biomedical, or translational research.
Because of this, we expanded a CNS region-specific microvessel-isolation method to make it applicable to numerous species from all five vertebrate groups: fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals. The protocol is described for use on small-lissencephalic and large-gyrencephalic vertebrates, including species with translational relevance9. Additionally, we include other regions of the CNS not investigated before within this context, but relevant to neurophysiology and with tremendous clinical implications: the hypothalamus, pituitary, and white matter. Lastly, we tested the capacity of this isolation method as a reliable tool to identify changes in protein expression along the NVU and/or BBB9,10,11. As a proof-of-concept, we showed how to determine changes in VCAM-1 and JAM-B expression during EAE using the isolation method followed by immunofluorescence.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>10X PBS</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>BP39920</td>
			<td>Used for blocking and antibody diluent.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>20% PFA</td>
			<td>Electron Microscopy Sciences</td>
			<td>15713-S</td>
			<td>Used as fixative (4% PFA)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>70,000 MW Dextran</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>9004-54-0</td>
			<td>Used for MV-2 solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adson Forceps</td>
			<td>Fine Science Tools (FST)</td>
			<td>11006-12</td>
			<td>Used for removal of muscle and skin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Adson Forceps, student quality</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>91106-12</td>
			<td>Same as above but cheaper</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin (BSA)</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>A7906-100G</td>
			<td>Used for MV-3 solution, blocking and antibody diluent</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning 100 &#956;m Cell strainer</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>CLS431752-50EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning 70 &#956;m Cell strainer</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>CLS431751-50EA</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Corning Deskwork low-binding tips</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>CLS4151</td>
			<td>Same as below but cheaper.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Cultrex Poly-D-Lysine</td>
			<td>R&#38;D</td>
			<td>3439-100-01</td>
			<td>Used for slide coating</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-Goat IgG-ALEXA 555</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>A21432</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-Mouse IgG-ALEXA 488</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>A21202</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-Rabbit IgG-ALEXA 488</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>A21206</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-Rabbit IgG-ALEXA 647</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>A31573</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Donkey anti-Rat IgG-DyLight 650</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>SA5-10029</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Double-Pronged Tissue Pick</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>18067-11</td>
			<td>Used for removal of meninges and choroid plexus</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont #3c Forceps</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>11231-20</td>
			<td>Used for more delicate and/or small CNS tissue handling (like pituitary)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont #7 Forceps</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>11274-20</td>
			<td>Used for CNS tisssue dissection and handling</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Dumont #7 Forceps, student</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>91197-00</td>
			<td>Same as above but cheaper</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ep Dualfilter T.I.P.S. LoRetention Tips</td>
			<td>Eppendorf</td>
			<td>22493008</td>
			<td>Better quality than the tips above (more expensive).</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Extra Fine Graefe Forceps, serrated</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>11151-10</td>
			<td>Used for bone removal</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Fine Scissors, sharp</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>14060-09</td>
			<td>Used for removal of pig and macaque dural sac</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Glass Pestle 1.5 mL Microcentrifuge Tube Tissue Grinder Homogenizer, Pack of 10</td>
			<td>Chang Bioscience Inc. (eBay)</td>
			<td>GP1.5_10</td>
			<td>Used for small vetebrate hypothalus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-CXCL12, biotinylated</td>
			<td>PeproTech</td>
			<td>500-P87BGBT</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended dilution: 1:20.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-JAM-B</td>
			<td>R&#38;D</td>
			<td>AF1074</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody to assess neuroinflammation. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-Mouse IgG-ALEXA 488</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>A11001</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-Mouse IgG-ALEXA 555</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>A21424</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-PDGFR&#946;</td>
			<td>R&#38;D</td>
			<td>AF1042</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-Rabbit IgG-ALEXA 555</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>A21249</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-Rabbit IgG-DyLight 488</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>35552</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Goat anti-Rat IgG-DyLight 650</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>SA5-10021</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Graefe Forceps, curved tip, 1X2 teeth</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>11054-10</td>
			<td>Use for nylon filter net holding and shaking</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HBSS, 1X buffer with calcium and magnesium</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>21-022-CM</td>
			<td>Used for MV-1 solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>HEPES, 1M liquid buffer</td>
			<td>Corning</td>
			<td>25-060-CI</td>
			<td>Used for MV-1 solution</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Isolectin GS-IB4-Biotin-XX</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher Scientific (Thermo)</td>
			<td>I21414</td>
			<td>Glycoprotein isolated from legume Griffonia simplicifolia that binds D-galactosyl residues of endothelial cell glycocalysx. Used for avian and porcine CNS microvessels. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>LaGrange Scissors, serrated</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>14173-12</td>
			<td>Used for skull dissection and laminectomy (except pig and macaque)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Millicell EZ slide 8-well unit</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>PEZGS0816</td>
			<td></td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse anti-CLDN5</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>35-2500</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse anti-GGT1</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab55138</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse anti-Human CD31</td>
			<td>R&#38;D</td>
			<td>BBA7</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on primate CNS microvessels. Recommended concentration: 16.5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse anti-NFM</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>RMO-270</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Mouse anti-&#945;SMA</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>MA5-11547</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon Filter Net, roll</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>NY6000010</td>
			<td>Laser-cut to 13 mm diameter filter net discs. Used for small vetebrate hypothalus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon Filter Nets, 25 mm</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>NY2002500</td>
			<td>Used on most small vertebrates CNS tissues, except hypothalamus and pituitary. Used for macaque and pig hypothalamus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Nylon Filter Nets, 47 mm</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>NY2004700</td>
			<td>Used for macaque and pig CNS tissues, except hypothalamus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>ProLong Gold antifade reagent with DAPI</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>P36935</td>
			<td>Used to coverslip slides.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-AQP4</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>A5971</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-LSR</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>SAB2107967</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-NG2</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>AB5320</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-OSP</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab53041</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended concentration: 1 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-VE-Cadherin</td>
			<td>Abcam</td>
			<td>ab33168</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rabbit anti-ZO-1</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>61-7300</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rat anti-CD31</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>BD 550274</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody for murine CNS microvessels. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rat anti-GFAP</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>13-0300</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody on CNS microvessels from all specimens. Recommended dilution of 1:200.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Rat anti-VCAM-1</td>
			<td>Becton Dickinson</td>
			<td>BD 553329</td>
			<td>Used as primary antibody to assess neuroinflammation. Recommended concentration: 5 &#956;g/mL.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sterile Ringer&#39;s Solution, Frog</td>
			<td>Aldon Corporation</td>
			<td>IS5066</td>
			<td>Used for amfibian anesthesia</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptavidin-ALEXA 555</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>S32355</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody to label biotinylated primary antibodies. Recommended dilution of 1:500.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptavidin-ALEXA 647</td>
			<td>Thermo</td>
			<td>S32357</td>
			<td>Used as secondary antibody to label biotinylated primary antibodies. Recommended dilution of 1:500.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical Scissors, sharp</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>14002-12</td>
			<td>Used for removal of muscle and skin</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Surgical Scissors, sharp-blunt</td>
			<td>FST</td>
			<td>14001-16</td>
			<td>Used for decapitation (except pig and macaque)</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Swinnex Filter Holder, 13 mm</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>SX0001300</td>
			<td>Modified by laser-cut. Used for small vetebrate hypothalus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Swinnex Filter Holder, 25 mm</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>SX0002500</td>
			<td>Modified by laser-cut. Used on most small vertebrates CNS tissues, except hypothalamus and pituitary. Used for macaque and pig hypothalamus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Swinnex Filter Holder, 47 mm</td>
			<td>Millipore Sigma</td>
			<td>SX0004700</td>
			<td>Modified by laser-cut. Used for macaque and pig CNS tissues, except hypothalamus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Triton X-100</td>
			<td>ThermoFisher</td>
			<td>50-165-7277</td>
			<td>Used for blocking and antibody diluent.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wheaton 120 Vac Overhead Stirrer</td>
			<td>VWR (Supplier DWK Life Sciences)</td>
			<td>62400-904 (DWK #903475)</td>
			<td>Used for macaque and pig CNS tissues with 55 mL tissue grinder, except hypothalamus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wheaton Potter-Elvehjem tissue grinder with PTFE pestle, 10 mL</td>
			<td>VWR (Supplier DWK Life Sciences)</td>
			<td>14231-384 (DWK #357979)</td>
			<td>Used on most small vertebrates CNS tissues, except hypothalamus and pituitary. Used for macaque and pig hypothalamus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Wheaton Potter-Elvehjem tissue grinder with PTFE pestle, 55 mL</td>
			<td>VWR (Supplier DWK Life Sciences)</td>
			<td>14231-372 (DWK #357994)</td>
			<td>Used for macaque and pig CNS tissues, except hypothalamus and pituitary.</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

reliable isolation of central nervous system microvessels across five vertebrate groups

Isolation of microvessels from the central nervous system (CNS) is commonly performed by combining cortical tissue from multiple animals, most often rodents. This approach limits the interrogation of blood-brain barrier (BBB) properties to the cortex and does not allow for individual comparison. This project focuses on the development of an isolation method that allows for the comparison of the neurovascular unit (NVU) from multiple CNS regions: cortex, cerebellum, optic lobe, hypothalamus, pituitary, brainstem, and spinal cord. Moreover, this protocol, originally developed for murine samples, was successfully adapted for use on CNS tissues from small and large vertebrate species from which we are also able to isolate microvessels from brain hemisphere white matter. This method, when paired with immunolabeling, allows for quantitation of protein expression and statistical comparison between individuals, tissue type, or treatment. We proved this applicability by evaluating changes in protein expression during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a murine model of a neuroinflammatory disease, multiple sclerosis. Additionally, microvessels isolated by this method could be used for downstream applications like qPCR, RNA-seq, and Western blot, among others. Even though this is not the first attempt to isolate CNS microvessels without the use of ultracentrifugation or enzymatic dissociation, it is unique in its adeptness for the comparison of single individuals and multiple CNS regions. Therefore, it allows for investigation of a range of differences that may otherwise remain obscure: CNS portions (cortex, cerebellum, optic lobe, brainstem, hypothalamus, pituitary, and spinal cord), CNS tissue type (gray or white matter), individuals, experimental treatment groups, and species.

Microvessels isolated from murine CNS showed all intrinsic cellular components of the neurovascular unit2,3. Using either platelet endothelial cell adhesion molecule-1 (PECAM, also known as CD31) or isolectin IB4 (a glycoprotein that binds the endothelial cell glycocalyx) for endothelial cells, platelet derived growth factor-&#946; (PDGFR&#946;) or neuron-glial antigen 2 (NG2) for pericytes and aquaporin-4 (AQP4) for astrocytic en...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Reliable Isolation of Central Nervous System Microvessels Across Five Vertebrate Groups at JoVE.com

Reliable Isolation of Central Nervous System Microvessels Across Five Vertebrate Groups

The goal of this protocol is to isolate microvessels from multiple regions of the central nervous system of lissencephalic and gyrencephalic vertebrates.

Isolation of microvessels from the central nervous system (CNS) is commonly performed by combining cortical tissue from multiple animals, most often ...

This protocol is significant because it allows for the comparison of microvasculature between different central nervous system regions, as well as between different individuals. This microvessel isolation technique can be completed within a single day, and it eliminates the need for ultracentrifugation and enzymatic dissociation. Removing the meninges and the choroid plexus can be difficult.Be sure to work slowly and carefully to ensure the complete removal of each tissue. For CNS tissue dissection from a small lissencephalic vertebrate specimen, place the harvested brain into a 15 milliliter conical tube containing MV-1 solution on ice, and use forceps to retrieve the pituitary from the sella turcica of the skull. Place the pituitary in a 1.7 milliliter microcentrifuge tube of MV-1 solution on ice, and remove the skin and muscle to expose the vertebral column.After removing the limbs, ribcage and internal organs, use a 10 milliliter syringe equipped with an 18 gauge needle to flush the vertebral column with fresh MV-1 solution, in a caudal-to-rostral direction throughout the lumbar vertebral foramen. Then place the spinal cord in a 5 milliliter tube containing fresh MV-1 solution. Next, place the brain into a Petri dish under the dissecting microscope, and remove the meninges with double-pronged prick.Be sure to check the spinal cord to ensure that no pieces of meninges are remaining. Use the forceps to separate the hypothalamus, cerebellum, brain stem, and cortex. When necessary, use forceps and iris and spring scissors to excise the olfactory bulbs and thalamus, and use the double-pronged prick to remove all of the choroid plexus from all the brain ventricles.For CNS tissue dissection from a large gyrencephalic vertebrate specimen, use a dissecting microscope and a double-pronged prick, forceps, and iris and spring scissors to remove the meninges from each CNS tissue, taking care to remove any pieces of choroid plexus from the brain ventricles. For homogenization of the harvested CNS tissues, mince each CNS region into one to two millimeter pieces within individual Petri dishes. To homogenize CNS tissues from small vertebrate specimens, use a transfer pipette to add one milliliter of MV-1 solution to suspend the minced tissue.Then use the same transfer pipette to dispense the cortex, cerebellum, brain stem, optic lobe, and spinal cord pieces into individual 10 milliliter glass tissue grinders, and use a PTFE pestle and five milliliters of MV-1 solution to grind each set of tissues for about 10 strokes. Transfer each tissue slurry into individual 15 milliliter conical tubes on ice, and use forceps to place the hypothalamus and pituitary in 100 microliters of MV-1 solution, in individual 1.7 milliliter tubes. Then, carefully homogenize each tissue with a glass micropestle.To homogenize a large vertebrate specimen, use a beveled cut transfer pipette to transfer the minced tissue to a 55 milliliter glass tissue grinder, and attach the grinder to an overhead stirrer. Add half of the recommended volume of MV-1 solution according to the specific CNS portion being homogenized as indicated in the table, and turn on the overhead stirrer to approximately 150 rotations per minute. Carefully move the glass tube up and down for about 30 seconds before turning off the overhead stirrer to add more MV-1 solution for additional homogenization, until a homogenous slurry is obtained.Then transfer the homogenized tissue to a 50 milliliter conical tube on ice. For microvessel purification, pellet the CNS tissue homogenates by centrifugation, and discard the supernatants. For a small vertebrate specimen microvessel isolation, pipette the cortex, cerebellum, brain stem, optic lobe and spinal cord pellets, in five milliliters of fresh, ice-cold MV-2 solution per sample, about 10 times, before adding five more milliliters of ice-cold MV-2 solution to each tube.Carefully flip the tubes to mix, and re-suspend the hypothalamus and pituitary pellets in one milliliter of MV-2 solution. For large vertebrate specimen microvessel isolation, add 20 milliliters of ice-cold MV-2 solution to the cortex, cerebellum, brain stem, and spinal cord microvessel pellets, and re-suspend the pellets in a tube revolver at 40 rotations per minute for about 5 minutes. At the end of re-suspension, separate the CNS tissue lycates by centrifugation, and slowly rotate each tube to allow the supernatant to pass along the wall to carefully detach the thick and dense myelin layer on the liquid interface from the tube walls.Discard the myelin and liquid interfaces, and blot the inside wall of each tube with a spatula wrapped with a low-lint paper wipe. Then, use a twisted low-lint paper wipe to absorb excess liquid, and use low-binding tips to re-suspend each pellet in one milliliter of MV-3 solution. For microvessel elution and filtration, mix a few milliliters of fresh MV-3 solution to each CNS tissue microvessel slurry, and while mixing to avoid aggregates, strain each suspension through a Pruitt strainer into individual 50 milliliter conical tubes.Place one 20 micrometer nylon net filter onto one modified filter holder per CNS region. Transfer the filter holder onto a 50 milliliter conical tube, and wet the filter with five milliliters of ice-cold MV-3 solution, making sure that the buffer pours down the filter holder, into the conical tube. Transfer the eluted microvessels onto each 20 micrometer nylon net filter, and rinse the microvessels with five to 10 milliliters of ice-cold MV-3 solution.Use forceps to transfer each filter into individual beakers containing the ice-cold MV-3 solution, and gently shake each filter for about 30 seconds to detach the microvessels. After transferring to a 15 milliliter conical tube, collect the microvessels by centrifugation, and use a low-binding pipette to re-suspend each pellet in one milliliter of ice-cold MV-3 solution. Then, transfer microvessel suspensions from small vertebrate specimens into a 1.7 milliliter microcentrifuge tube for centrifugation for five minutes at 20, 000 times G, in four degrees celsius.For large vertebrate specimens, transfer the suspension into individual five milliliter centrifuge tubes, and add four milliliters of MV-3 solution for centrifugation for five minutes at 2, 000 times G in four degrees celsius. The intrinsic components of the neurovascular unit can be detected within microvessels, isolated as demonstrated, by immunolabeling for CD31, PDGFR-beta, and aquaporin four, including the cortical, cerebellar, pituitary, hypothalamic, brain stem, and spinal microvessels. Likewise, the expression of adherens-junction protein VE-cadherin, tight junction proteins CLDN5 and Zonula Occludens-1, tricellular junction protein angulin-1, and basal markes chemokine ligand CXCL motif 12, and gamma-glutamyltransferase-1, can be visualized.Moreover, the majority of the microvessels are devoid of the expression of alpha smooth muscle actin, indicating that this isolation protocol selectively targets small-caliber microvessels. Microvessels obtained from other small lissencephalic vertebrates, like bird, liard, frog, and fish, share some morphological features, suggesting that this method is useful for further characterization of differences in neurovascular units between species. Quantification of the changes in protein expression reveals an increase in vascular cell adhesion molecule one, and junctional adhesion molecule B along spinal cord microvessels, during the peak of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.However, vascular cell adhesion molecule one is also significantly increased in pituitary microvessels, and decreased in the hypothalamus and brainstem microvessels. In addition, changes are observed in vascular cell adhesion molecule one expression during chronic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in all CNS tissues, and in junctional adhesion molecule B expression in the hypothalamus and pituitary microvessels. Quantitative analyses, such as western blot, PCR and immunohistochemistry, can be performed following this procedure to reveal insights into gene and protein expression patterns within the blood-brain barrier.Paraformaldehyde is an acutely toxic reagent, and should always be handled under the fume hood while wearing proper PPE.

reliable-isolation-central-nervous-system-microvessels-across-five

Research

JoVE Journal

Neuroscience

8.4K ビュー.  University of California Davis. このプロトコルは、異なる中枢神経系領域間、ならびに異なる個体間の微小血管系の比較を可能にするため、重要である。このマイクロ容器の分離技術は1日で完了することができ、超遠心分離および酵素解離の必要性を排除する。髄膜および脈絡膜叢を除去することは困難であり得る。各組織の完全な除去を確実にするためにゆっくりと慎重に動作するようにして...

ビデオ: Reliable Isolation of Central Nervous System Microvessels Across Five Vertebrate Groups

The goal of this protocol is to isolate microvessels from multiple regions of the central nervous system of lissencephalic and gyrencephalic...

dissection and isolation of murine glia from multiple central nervous system regions

Dissection and Isolation of Murine Glia from Multiple Central Nervous System Regions

Here we present a protocol for in vitro isolation of multiple glial cell populations from a mouse CNS. This method allows for the segregation of regional microglia, oligodendrocyte precursor cells, and astrocytes to study the phenotypes of each in a variety of culture...

system for focal, closed-system central nervous system injury

Author Spotlight: Developing Precise and Clinically Relevant Models for Studying Secondary Degeneration in Traumatic Optic Neuropathy

This protocol describes a custom overpressure air system designed to induce closed-system central nervous system (CNS) injuries in mice, including ocular, brain, and spinal cord traumas. The goal of this protocol is to provide a framework for researchers to easily adapt and expand the system for their unique CNS trauma studies.

System for Focal, Closed-System Central Nervous System Injury

whole central and peripheral nervous system mice dissection

Whole Central and Peripheral Nervous System Mice Dissection

Here, we present a protocol to complete the dissection of central and peripheral nervous systems of mice. The dissected tissues are further analyzed in downstream applications, such as taking gross pictures or...

isolation of mononuclear cells from the central nervous system of rats with eae

Isolation of Mononuclear Cells from the Central Nervous System of Rats with EAE

In this video we demonstrate how to isolate mononuclear cells from the central nervous system of rats with experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis.

simultaneous isolation of principal central nervous system-resident cell types from adult autoimmune encephalomyelitis mice

Author Spotlight: Studying Neuroinflammatory Pathways Through Simultaneous Isolation of All Main CNS-Resident Cell Types 

To date, protocols for the simultaneous isolation of all principal central nervous system-resident cell types from the same mouse are an unmet demand. The protocol shows a procedure applicable in na&#239;ve and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mice to investigate complex cellular networks during neuroinflammation and simultaneously reduce the required mice...

Simultaneous Isolation of Principal Central Nervous System-Resident Cell Types from Adult Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis Mice

in vivo optogenetic stimulation of the rodent central nervous system

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing...

In vivo Optogenetic Stimulation of the Rodent Central Nervous System

electrophysiological recording of the central nervous system activity of third-instar drosophila melanogaster

Electrophysiological Recording of The Central Nervous System Activity of Third-Instar  Drosophila Melanogaster

This protocol describes a method to record the descending electrical activity of the Drosophila melanogaster central nervous system to enable the cost-efficient and convenient testing of pharmacological agents, genetic mutations of neural proteins, and/or the role of unexplored physiological...

Electrophysiological Recording of The Central Nervous System Activity of Third-Instar Drosophila Melanogaster

in vivo interrogation of central nervous system translatome by polyribosome fractionation

In vivo Interrogation of Central Nervous System Translatome by Polyribosome Fractionation

This protocol illustrates essential modifications of polyribosome fractionation in order to study the translatome of in vivo CNS samples. It allows global assessment of translation and transcription regulation through the isolation and comparison of total RNA to ribosome bound RNA...

In vivo Interrogation of Central Nervous System Translatome by Polyribosome Fractionation

intrathecal delivery of antisense oligonucleotides in the rat central nervous system

Intrathecal Delivery of Antisense Oligonucleotides in the Rat Central Nervous System

Here, we describe a method for delivering drugs to the rat central nervous system by implanting a catheter into the lumbar intrathecal space of the spine. We focus on the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides, though this method is suitable for delivery of other therapeutic modalities as...

extracellular recording of electrical activity in the drosophila central nervous system

The video demonstrates the extracellular recording of neuronal activity from the central nervous system (CNS) of Drosophila larvae. The transected CNS is positioned in a recording chamber, and the electrical activity from a descending nerve is recorded to establish the baseline firing frequency. A test agent is then introduced, and the change in firing frequency is recorded to determine the agent&#39;s excitatory or inhibitory...

Extracellular Recording of Electrical Activity in the Drosophila Central Nervous System

optical clearing of the mouse central nervous system using passive clarity

Optical Clearing of the Mouse Central Nervous System Using Passive CLARITY

Optical clearing techniques are revolutionizing the way tissues are visualized. In this report we describe modifications of the original Clear Lipid-exchanged Acrylamide-hybridized Rigid Imaging-compatible Tissue-hYdrogel (CLARITY) protocol that yields more consistent and less expensive...

an injury paradigm to investigate central nervous system repair in drosophila

An Injury Paradigm to Investigate Central Nervous System Repair in Drosophila

An injury paradigm using the Drosophila larval ventral nerve cord to investigate central nervous system regeneration and repair is described. Stabbing followed by laser scanning confocal microscopy in time-lapse and fixed specimens, combined with quantitative analysis with purposefully developed software and genetics, are used to investigate the molecular mechanisms of CNS regeneration and...

An Injury Paradigm to Investigate Central Nervous System Repair in Drosophila

labeling of single cells in the central nervous system of drosophila melanogaster

Labeling of Single Cells in the Central Nervous System of Drosophila melanogaster

We present a technique for labeling single neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) of Drosophila embryos, which allows the analysis of neuronal morphology by either transmitted light or confocal...

Labeling of Single Cells in the Central Nervous System of Drosophila melanogaster

scoring central nervous system inflammation, demyelination, and axon injury in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Author Spotlight: Unveiling the Pathway Linking Obesity to Autoimmune Inflammation in Multiple Sclerosis 

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) serves as an animal model of multiple sclerosis. This article describes an approach for scoring spinal cord inflammation, demyelination, and axonal injury in EAE. Additionally, a method to quantify soluble neurofilament light levels in the mice serum is presented, facilitating the assessment of axonal injury in live...

Scoring Central Nervous System Inflammation, Demyelination, and Axon Injury in Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

culturing microglia from the neonatal and adult central nervous system

Culturing Microglia from the Neonatal and Adult Central Nervous System

We outline methods for the efficient and quick isolation/culture of viable microglia from the neonatal cerebral cortex and adult spinal cord.  The dissection and plating of cortical microglia can be accomplished within 90 minutes, with the subsequent microglial harvest taking place ~ 10 days following the initial...

production of lentiviral vectors for transducing cells from the central nervous system

Production of Lentiviral Vectors for Transducing Cells from the Central Nervous System

In this protocol we describe production, purification and titration of lentiviral vectors.  We provide an example of lentiviral vector-mediated gene delivery in primary cultured neurons and astrocytes.  Our methods may also apply to other cell types in vitro and in...

direct intraventricular delivery of drugs to the rodent central nervous system

Direct Intraventricular Delivery of Drugs to the Rodent Central Nervous System

We describe a method to target drugs to the central nervous system by either implanting a catheter or performing a bolus injection into the right lateral ventricle in mice. We focus specifically on the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides. This technique is readily adaptable to other drugs and to...

flow cytometric analysis of lymphocyte infiltration in central nervous system during experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis

Flow Cytometric Analysis of Lymphocyte Infiltration in Central Nervous System during Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

This manuscript presents a protocol to induce active experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in mice. A method for the isolation and characterization of the infiltrated lymphocytes in the central nervous system (CNS) is also presented to show how lymphocytes are involved in the development of CNS autoimmune...

Eliminate background noise by adjusting the threshold level in the acquisition analysis software prior to connecting the peripheral nerve trunks. Apply slight negative pressure on the syringe to draw peripheral nerves into the suction electrode. Start the recording on the data acquisition software, and allow the baseline firing rate to equilibrate for five minutes prior to collecting baseline firing rate...

Optic Nerve Transection: A Model of Adult Neuron Apoptosis in the Central Nervous System

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are CNS neurons that output visual information from the retina to the brain, via the optic nerve. 
The optic nerve can be accessed within the orbit of the eye and completely transected (axotomized), cutting the axons of the entire RGC population. Optic nerve 
transection is a reproducible model of apoptotic neuronal cell death in the adult CNS 1-4. This model is particularly attractive because the vitreous
 chamber of the eye acts as a capsule for drug delivery to the retina, permitting experimental manipulations via intraocular injections. The diffusion of chemicals 
through the vitreous fluid ensures that they act upon the entire RGC population. Moreover, RGCs can be selectively transfected by applying short interfering RNAs 
(siRNAs), plasmids, or viral vectors to the cut end of the optic nerve 5-7 or injecting vectors into their target, the superior colliculus 8. 
This allows researchers to study apoptotic mechanisms in the desired neuronal population without confounding effects on other bystander neurons or surrounding glia. 
An additional benefit is the ease and accuracy with which cell survival can be quantified after injury. The retina is a flat, layered tissue and RGCs are localized in 
the innermost layer, the ganglion cell layer. The survival of RGCs can be tracked over time by applying a fluorescent tracer (3% Fluorogold) to the cut end of the 
optic nerve at the time of axotomy, or by injecting the tracer into the superior colliculus (RGC target) one week prior to axotomy. The tracer is retrogradely transported, labeling 
the entire RGC population. Because the ganglion cell layer is a monolayer (one cell thick), RGC densities can be quantified in flat-mounted tissue, without the need 
for stereology. Optic nerve transection leads to the apoptotic death of 90% of injured RGCs within 14 days postaxotomy 9-11. RGC apoptosis has a 
characteristic time-course whereby cell death is delayed 3-4 days postaxotomy, after which the cells rapidly degenerate. This provides a time window for 
experimental manipulations directed against pathways involved in apoptosis.

Optic Nerve transection is a widely used model of adult CNS injury. Ninety percent of retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) whose axons are completely transected (axotomy) die within 14 days after axotomy. This model is easily amenable to experimental manipulations and highly reproducible.

Retinal ganglion cells (RGCs) are CNS neurons that output visual information from the retina to the brain, via the optic nerve. 
The optic nerve can be ...

Multimodal Imaging of Stem Cell Implantation in the Central Nervous System of Mice

During the past decade, stem cell transplantation has gained increasing interest as primary or secondary therapeutic modality for a variety of diseases, both in preclinical and clinical studies. However, to date results regarding functional outcome and/or tissue regeneration following stem cell transplantation are quite diverse. Generally, a clinical benefit is observed without profound understanding of the underlying mechanism(s)1. Therefore, multiple efforts have led to the development of different molecular imaging modalities to monitor stem cell grafting with the ultimate aim to accurately evaluate survival, fate and physiology of grafted stem cells and/or their micro-environment. Changes observed in one or more parameters determined by molecular imaging might be related to the observed clinical effect. In this context, our studies focus on the combined use of bioluminescence imaging (BLI), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and histological analysis to evaluate stem cell grafting.
BLI is commonly used to non-invasively perform cell tracking and monitor cell survival in time following transplantation2-7, based on a biochemical reaction where cells expressing the Luciferase-reporter gene are able to emit light following interaction with its substrate (e.g. D-luciferin)8, 9. MRI on the other hand is a non-invasive technique which is clinically applicable10 and can be used to precisely locate cellular grafts with very high resolution11-15, although its sensitivity highly depends on the contrast generated after cell labeling with an MRI contrast agent. Finally, post-mortem histological analysis is the method of choice to validate research results obtained with non-invasive techniques with highest resolution and sensitivity. Moreover end-point histological analysis allows us to perform detailed phenotypic analysis of grafted cells and/or the surrounding tissue, based on the use of fluorescent reporter proteins and/or direct cell labeling with specific antibodies.
In summary, we here visually demonstrate the complementarities of BLI, MRI and histology to unravel different stem cell- and/or environment-associated characteristics following stem cell grafting in the CNS of mice. As an example, bone marrow-derived stromal cells, genetically engineered to express the enhanced Green Fluorescent Protein (eGFP) and firefly Luciferase (fLuc), and labeled with blue fluorescent micron-sized iron oxide particles (MPIOs), will be grafted in the CNS of immune-competent mice and outcome will be monitored by BLI, MRI and histology (Figure 1).

This article describes an optimized sequence of events for multimodal imaging of cellular grafts in rodent brain using: (i) in vivo bioluminescence and magnetic resonance imaging, and (ii) post mortem histological analysis. Combining these imaging modalities on a single animal allows cellular graft evaluation with high resolution, sensitivity and specificity.

During the past decade, stem cell transplantation has gained increasing interest as primary or secondary therapeutic modality for a variety of diseases, ...

Efficient gene delivery in the central nervous system (CNS) is important in studying gene functions, modeling neurological diseases and developing therapeutic approaches. Lentiviral vectors are attractive tools in transduction of neurons and other cell types in CNS as they transduce both dividing and non-dividing cells, support sustained expression of transgenes, and have relatively large packaging capacity and low toxicity 1-3. Lentiviral vectors have been successfully used in transducing many neural cell types in vitro 4-6 and in animals 7-10.
Great efforts have been made to develop lentiviral vectors with improved biosafety and efficiency for gene delivery. The current third generation replication-defective and self-inactivating (SIN) lentiviral vectors are depicted in Figure 1. The required elements for vector packaging are split into four plasmids. In the lentiviral transfer plasmid, the U3 region in the 5' long terminal repeat (LTR) is replaced with a strong promoter from another virus. This modification allows the transcription of the vector sequence independent of HIV-1 Tat protein that is normally required for HIV gene expression 11. The packaging signal (&Psi;) is essential for encapsidation and the Rev-responsive element (RRE) is required for producing high titer vectors. The central polypurine tract (cPPT) is important for nuclear import of the vector DNA, a feature required for transducing non-dividing cells 12. In the 3' LTR, the cis-regulatory sequences are completely removed from the U3 region. This deletion is copied to 5' LTR after reverse transcription, resulting in transcriptional inactivation of both LTRs. Plasmid pMDLg/pRRE contains HIV-1 gag/pol genes, which provide structural proteins and reverse transcriptase. pRSV-Rev encodes Rev which binds to the RRE for efficient RNA export from the nucleus. pCMV-G encodes the vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSV-G) that replaces HIV-1 Env. VSV-G expands the tropism of the vectors and allows concentration via ultracentrifugation 13. All the genes encoding the accessory proteins, including Vif, Vpr, Vpu, and Nef are excluded in the packaging system. The production and manipulation of lentiviral vectors should be carried out according to NIH guidelines for research involving recombinant DNA (<a href="http://oba.od.nih.gov/oba/rac/Guidelines/NIH_Guidelines.pdf" target="_blank">http://oba.od.nih.gov/oba/rac/Guidelines/NIH_Guidelines.pdf</a>). An approval from individual Institutional Biological and Chemical Safety Committee may be required before using lentiviral vectors. Lentiviral vectors are commonly produced by cotransfection of 293T cells with lentiviral transfer plasmid and the helper plasmids encoding the proteins required for vector packaging. Many lentiviral transfer plasmids and helper plasmids can be obtained from Addgene, a non-profit plasmid repository (<a href="http://www.addgene.org/" target="_blank">http://www.addgene.org/</a>). Some stable packaging cell lines have been developed, but these systems provide less flexibility and their packaging efficiency generally declines over time 14, 15. Commercially available transfection kits may support high efficiency of transfection 16, but they can be very expensive for large scale vector preparations. Calcium phosphate precipitation methods provide highly efficient transfection of 293T cells and thus provide a reliable and cost effective approach for lentiviral vector production.
In this protocol, we produce lentiviral vectors by cotransfection of 293T cells with four plasmids based on the calcium phosphate precipitation principle, followed by purification and concentration with ultracentrifugation through a 20% sucrose cushion. The vector titers are determined by fluorescence- activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis or by real time qPCR. The production and titration of lentiviral vectors in this protocol can be finished with 9 days. We provide an example of transducing these vectors into murine neocortical cultures containing both neurons and astrocytes. We demonstrate that lentiviral vectors support high efficiency of transduction and cell type-specific gene expression in primary cultured cells from CNS.

In this protocol we describe production, purification and titration of lentiviral vectors. We provide an example of lentiviral vector-mediated gene delivery in primary cultured neurons and astrocytes. Our methods may also apply to other cell types in vitro and in vivo.

Efficient gene delivery in the central nervous system (CNS) is important in studying gene functions, modeling neurological diseases and developing ...

In this article we describe how to individually label neurons in the embryonic CNS of Drosophila melanogaster by juxtacellular injection of the lipophilic fluorescent membrane marker DiI. This method allows the visualization of neuronal cell morphology in great detail. It is possible to label any cell in the CNS: cell bodies of target neurons are visualized under DIC optics or by expression of a fluorescent genetic marker such as GFP. After labeling, the DiI can be transformed into a permanent brown stain by photoconversion to allow visualization of cell morphology with transmitted light and DIC optics. Alternatively, the DiI-labeled cells can be observed directly with confocal microscopy, enabling genetically introduced fluorescent reporter proteins to be colocalised. The technique can be used in any animal, irrespective of genotype, making it possible to analyze mutant phenotypes at single cell resolution.

We present a technique for labeling single neurons in the central nervous system (CNS) of Drosophila embryos, which allows the analysis of neuronal morphology by either transmitted light or confocal microscopy.

In this  article we describe how to individually label neurons in the embryonic CNS of Drosophila melanogaster by juxtacellular injection of the ...

An experimental method has been developed to investigate the cellular responses to central nervous system (CNS) injury using the fruit-fly Drosophila. Understanding repair and regeneration in animals is a key question in biology. The damaged human CNS does not regenerate, and understanding how to promote the regeneration is one of main goals of medical neuroscience. The powerful genetic toolkit of Drosophila can be used to tackle the problem of CNS regeneration.
A lesion to the CNS ventral nerve cord (VNC, equivalent to the vertebrate spinal cord) is applied manually with a tungsten needle. The VNC can subsequently be filmed in time-lapse using laser scanning confocal microscopy for up to 24 hr to follow the development of the lesion over time. Alternatively, it can be cultured, then fixed and stained using immunofluorescence to visualize neuron and glial cells with confocal microscopy. Using appropriate markers, changes in cell morphology and cell state as a result of injury can be visualized. With ImageJ and purposely developed plug-ins, quantitative and statistical analyses can be carried out to measure changes in wound size over time and the effects of injury in cell proliferation and cell death. These methods allow the analysis of large sample sizes. They can be combined with the powerful genetics of Drosophila to investigate the molecular mechanisms underlying CNS regeneration and repair.

An injury paradigm using the Drosophila larval ventral nerve cord to investigate central nervous system regeneration and repair is described. Stabbing followed by laser scanning confocal microscopy in time-lapse and fixed specimens, combined with quantitative analysis with purposefully developed software and genetics, are used to investigate the molecular mechanisms of CNS regeneration and repair.

An experimental method has been developed to investigate the cellular responses to central nervous system (CNS) injury using the fruit-fly Drosophila. ...

Due to an inability to cross the blood brain barrier, certain drugs need to be directly delivered into the central nervous system (CNS). Our lab focuses specifically on antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs), though the techniques shown in the video here can also be used to deliver a plethora of other drugs to the CNS. Antisense oligonucleotides (ASOs) have the capability to knockdown sequence-specific targets 1 as well as shift isoform ratios of specific genes 2. To achieve widespread gene knockdown or splicing in the CNS of mice, the ASOs can be delivered into the brain using two separate routes of administration, both of which we demonstrate in the video.
The first uses Alzet osmotic pumps, connected to a catheter that is surgically implanted into the lateral ventricle. This allows the ASOs to be continuously infused into the CNS for a designated period of time. The second involves a single bolus injection of a high concentration of ASO into the right lateral ventricle. Both methods use the mouse cerebral ventricular system to deliver the ASO to the entire brain and spinal cord, though depending on the needs of the study, one method may be preferred over the other.

We describe a method to target drugs to the central nervous system by either implanting a catheter or performing a bolus injection into the right lateral ventricle in mice. We focus specifically on the delivery of antisense oligonucleotides. This technique is readily adaptable to other drugs and to rats.

Due to an inability to cross the blood brain barrier, certain drugs need to be directly delivered into the central nervous system (CNS). Our lab focuses ...

Multiple processes are involved in gene expression including transcription, translation and stability of mRNAs and proteins. Each of these steps are tightly regulated, affecting the final dynamics of protein abundance. Various regulatory mechanisms exist at the translation step, rendering mRNA levels alone an unreliable indicator of gene expression. In addition, local regulation of mRNA translation has been particularly implicated in neuronal functions, shifting &#39;translatomics&#39; to the focus of attention in neurobiology. The presented method can be used to bridge transcriptomics and proteomics.
Here we describe essential modifications to the technique of polyribosome fractionation, which interrogates the translatome based on the association of actively translated mRNAs to multiple ribosomes and their differential sedimentation in sucrose gradients. Traditionally, working with in vivo samples, particularly of the central nervous system (CNS), has proven challenging due to the restricted amounts of material and the presence of fatty tissue components. In order to address this, the described protocol is specifically optimized for use with minimal amount of CNS material, as demonstrated by the use of single mouse spinal cord and brain. Briefly, CNS tissues are extracted and translating ribosomes are immobilized on mRNAs with cycloheximide. Myelin flotation is then performed to remove lipid rich components. Fractionation is performed on a sucrose gradient where mRNAs are separated according to their ribosomal loading. Isolated fractions are suitable for a range of downstream assays, including new genome wide assay technologies.

This protocol illustrates essential modifications of polyribosome fractionation in order to study the translatome of in vivo CNS samples. It allows global assessment of translation and transcription regulation through the isolation and comparison of total RNA to ribosome bound RNA fractions.

Multiple processes are involved in gene expression including transcription, translation and stability of mRNAs and proteins. Each of these steps are ...

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution has been a long sought tool for neuroscientists in the systems-level search for the neural circuitry governing complex behavioral states. Optogenetics is a cutting-edge tool that is revolutionizing the field of neuroscience and represents one of the first systematic approaches to enable causal testing regarding the relation between neural signaling events and behavior. By combining optical and genetic approaches, neural signaling can be bi-directionally controlled through expression of light-sensitive ion channels (opsins) in mammalian cells. The current protocol describes delivery of specific wavelengths of light to opsin-expressing cells in deep brain structures of awake, freely-moving rodents for neural circuit modulation. Theoretical principles of light transmission as an experimental consideration are discussed in the context of performing in vivo optogenetic stimulation. The protocol details the design and construction of both simple and complex laser configurations and describes tethering strategies to permit simultaneous stimulation of multiple animals for high-throughput behavioral testing.

Optogenetics has become a powerful tool for use in behavioral neuroscience experiments. This protocol offers a step-by-step guide to the design and set-up of laser systems, and provides a full protocol for carrying out multiple and simultaneous in vivo optogenetic stimulations compatible with most rodent behavioral testing paradigms.

The ability to probe defined neural circuits in awake, freely-moving animals with cell-type specificity, spatial precision, and high temporal resolution ...

Functional Evaluation of Biological Neurotoxins in Networked Cultures of Stem Cell-derived Central Nervous System Neurons

Therapeutic and mechanistic studies of the presynaptically targeted clostridial neurotoxins (CNTs) have been limited by the need for a scalable, cell-based model that produces functioning synapses and undergoes physiological responses to intoxication. Here we describe a simple and robust method to efficiently differentiate murine embryonic stem cells (ESCs) into defined lineages of synaptically active, networked neurons. Following an 8 day differentiation protocol, mouse embryonic stem cell-derived neurons (ESNs) rapidly express and compartmentalize neurotypic proteins, form neuronal morphologies and develop intrinsic electrical responses. By 18 days after differentiation (DIV 18), ESNs exhibit active glutamatergic and &#947;-aminobutyric acid (GABA)ergic synapses and emergent network behaviors characterized by an excitatory:inhibitory balance. To determine whether intoxication with CNTs functionally antagonizes synaptic neurotransmission, thereby replicating the in vivo pathophysiology that is responsible for clinical manifestations of botulism or tetanus, whole-cell patch clamp electrophysiology was used to quantify spontaneous miniature excitatory post-synaptic currents (mEPSCs) in ESNs exposed to tetanus neurotoxin (TeNT) or botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) serotypes /A-/G. In all cases, ESNs exhibited near-complete loss of synaptic activity within 20 hr. Intoxicated neurons remained viable, as demonstrated by unchanged resting membrane potentials and intrinsic electrical responses. To further characterize the sensitivity of this approach, dose-dependent effects of intoxication on synaptic activity were measured 20 hr after addition of BoNT/A. Intoxication with 0.005 pM BoNT/A resulted in a significant decrement in mEPSCs, with a median inhibitory concentration (IC50) of 0.013 pM. Comparisons of median doses indicate that functional measurements of synaptic inhibition are faster, more specific and more sensitive than SNARE cleavage assays or the mouse lethality assay. These data validate the use of synaptically coupled, stem cell-derived neurons for the highly specific and sensitive detection of CNTs.

A custom protocol is described to differentiate mouse ES cells into defined populations of highly pure neurons exhibiting functioning synapses and emergent network behavior. Electrophysiological analysis demonstrates the loss of synaptic transmission following exposure to botulinum neurotoxin serotypes /A-/G and tetanus neurotoxin.

Therapeutic and mechanistic studies of the presynaptically targeted clostridial neurotoxins (CNTs) have been limited by the need for a scalable, ...

Traditionally, tissue visualization has required that the tissue of interest be serially sectioned and imaged, subjecting each tissue section to unique non-linear deformations, dramatically hampering one's ability to evaluate cellular morphology, distribution and connectivity in the central nervous system (CNS). However, optical clearing techniques are changing the way tissues are visualized. These approaches permit one to probe deeply into intact organ preparations, providing tremendous insight into the structural organization of tissues in health and disease. Techniques such as Clear Lipid-exchanged Acrylamide-hybridized Rigid Imaging-compatible Tissue-hYdrogel (CLARITY) achieve this goal by providing a matrix that binds important biomolecules while permitting light-scattering lipids to freely diffuse out. Lipid removal, followed by refractive index matching, renders the tissue transparent and readily imaged in 3 dimensions (3D). Nevertheless, the electrophoretic tissue clearing (ETC) used in the original CLARITY protocol can be challenging to implement successfully and the use of a proprietary refraction index matching solution makes it expensive to use the technique routinely. This report demonstrates the implementation of a simple and inexpensive optical clearing protocol that combines passive CLARITY for improved tissue integrity and 2,2&#8242;-thiodiethanol (TDE), a previously described refractive index matching solution.

Optical clearing techniques are revolutionizing the way tissues are visualized. In this report we describe modifications of the original Clear Lipid-exchanged Acrylamide-hybridized Rigid Imaging-compatible Tissue-hYdrogel (CLARITY) protocol that yields more consistent and less expensive results.

Traditionally, tissue visualization has required that the tissue of interest be serially sectioned and imaged, subjecting each tissue section to unique ...