Name: molecular spring constant analysis by biomembrane force probe spectroscopy
Uploaded: 2021-11-20T13:00:00
Description: Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Molecular Spring Constant Analysis by Biomembrane Force Probe Spectroscopy at JoVE.com

We thank Guillaume Troadec for helpful discussion, Zihao Wang for hardware consultation, and Sydney Manufacturing Hub, Gregg Suaning and Simon Ringer for support of our lab startup. This work was supported by Australian Research Council Discovery Project (DP200101970 - L.A.J.), NSW Cardiovascular Capacity Building Program (Early-Mid Career Researcher Grant - L.A.J.), Sydney Research Accelerator prize (SOAR - L.A.J.), Ramaciotti Foundations Health Investment Grant (2020HIG76 - L.A.J.), National Health and Medical Research Council Ideas Grant (APP2003904 - L.A.J.), and The University of Sydney Faculty of Engineering Startup Fund and Major Equipment Scheme (L.A.J.). Lining Arnold Ju is an Australian Research Council DECRA fellow (DE190100609).

1. Obtain Analyzable DFS Events
<ol>
	<li>Start the experiment in the software (e.g., LabVIEW VI) for the BFP control and parameter setting (Figure S1A).</li>
	<li>Observe the repetitive probe bead-target bead/cell touches in the software for BFP Monitor (Figure S1B).</li>
	<li>Test and achieve the adhesion frequency &#8804; 20% within the first 50 touches by tuning the impingement force and contact time, by which it ensures that &#8805; 89% of DFS adhesion event are mediated by single...

<ol>
	<li>Chen, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Fluorescence+Biomembrane+Force+Probe:+Concurrent+Quantitation+of+Receptor-ligand+Kinetics+and+Binding-induced+Intracellular+Signaling+on+a+Single+Cell.">Fluorescence Biomembrane Force Probe: Concurrent Quantitation of Receptor-ligand Kinetics and Binding-induced Intracellular Signaling on a Single Cell.</a> The Journal of Visualized Experiments. (102), e52975 (2015).</li><li>Su, Q. P., Ju, L. A. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Biophysical+nanotools+for+single-molecule+dynamics.">Biophysical nanotools for single-molecule dynamics.</a> Biophysics Reviews. 10 (5), 1349-1357 (2018).</li><li>Ju, L. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+Force+Spectroscopy+Analysis+on+the+Redox+States+of+Protein+Disulphide+Bonds.">Dynamic Force Spectroscopy Analysis on the Redox States of Protein Disulphide Bonds.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1967, 115-131 (2019).</li><li>An, C., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Ultra-stable+Biomembrane+Force+Probe+for+Accurately+Determining+Slow+Dissociation+Kinetics+of+PD-1+Blockade+Antibodies+on+Single+Living+Cells.">Ultra-stable Biomembrane Force Probe for Accurately Determining Slow Dissociation Kinetics of PD-1 Blockade Antibodies on Single Living Cells.</a> Nano Letters. 20 (7), 5133-5140 (2020).</li><li>Chen, Y., Ju, L., Rushdi, M., Ge, C., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Receptor-mediated+cell+mechanosensing.">Receptor-mediated cell mechanosensing.</a> Molecular Biology of the Cell. 28 (23), 3134-3155 (2017).</li><li>Ju, L., Chen, Y., Rushdi, M. N., Chen, W., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Two-Dimensional+Analysis+of+Cross-Junctional+Molecular+Interaction+by+Force+Probes.">Two-Dimensional Analysis of Cross-Junctional Molecular Interaction by Force Probes.</a> Methods in Molecular Biology. 1584, 231-258 (2017).</li><li>Evans, E., Ritchie, K., Merkel, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sensitive+force+technique+to+probe+molecular+adhesion+and+structural+linkages+at+biological+interfaces.">Sensitive force technique to probe molecular adhesion and structural linkages at biological interfaces.</a> Biophysical Journal. 68 (6), 2580-2587 (1995).</li><li>Ju, L., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Benchmarks+of+Biomembrane+Force+Probe+Spring+Constant+Models.">Benchmarks of Biomembrane Force Probe Spring Constant Models.</a> Biophysical Journal. 113 (12), 2842-2845 (2017).</li><li>Evans, E., Ritchie, K., Merkel, R. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Sensitive+Force+Technique+to+Probe+Molecular+Adhesion+and+Structural+Linkages+at+Biological+Interfaces.">Sensitive Force Technique to Probe Molecular Adhesion and Structural Linkages at Biological Interfaces.</a> Biophysical Journal. 68, 2580 (1995).</li><li>Fiore, V. F., Ju, L., Chen, Y., Zhu, C., Barker, T. H. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Dynamic+catch+of+a+Thy-1-alpha5beta1+syndecan-4+trimolecular+complex.">Dynamic catch of a Thy-1-alpha5beta1+syndecan-4 trimolecular complex.</a> Nature Communications. 5, 4886 (2014).</li><li>Passam, F., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Mechano-redox+control+of+integrin+de-adhesion.">Mechano-redox control of integrin de-adhesion.</a> Elife. 7, (2018).</li><li>Chen, Y., et al. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=An+integrin+alphaIIbbeta3+intermediate+affinity+state+mediates+biomechanical+platelet+aggregation.">An integrin alphaIIbbeta3 intermediate affinity state mediates biomechanical platelet aggregation.</a> Nature Materials. 18 (7), 760-769 (2019).</li><li>Chen, Y., Lee, H., Tong, H., Schwartz, M., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Force+regulated+conformational+change+of+integrin+&#945;V&#946;3.">Force regulated conformational change of integrin &#945;V&#946;3.</a> Matrix Biology. 60, 70-85 (2017).</li><li>Liu, B., Chen, W., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Molecular+force+spectroscopy+on+cells.">Molecular force spectroscopy on cells.</a> Annual Review of Physical Chemistry. 66, 427-451 (2015).</li><li>Piper, J. W., Swerlick, R. A., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Determining+force+dependence+of+two-dimensional+receptor-ligand+binding+affinity+by+centrifugation.">Determining force dependence of two-dimensional receptor-ligand binding affinity by centrifugation.</a> Biophysical Journal. 74 (1), 492-513 (1998).</li><li>Ju, L., Dong, J. -. f., Cruz, M. A., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=The+N-terminal+flanking+region+of+the+A1+domain+regulates+the+force-dependent+binding+of+von+Willebrand+factor+to+platelet+glycoprotein+Ib&#945;.">The N-terminal flanking region of the A1 domain regulates the force-dependent binding of von Willebrand factor to platelet glycoprotein Ib&#945;.</a> Journal of Biological Chemistry. 288 (45), 32289-32301 (2013).</li><li>Ju, L., Chen, Y., Xue, L., Du, X., Zhu, C. <a target="_blank" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=PubMed&cmd=Search&doptcmdl=Citation&defaultField=Title+Word&term=Cooperative+unfolding+of+distinctive+mechanoreceptor+domains+transduces+force+into+signals.">Cooperative unfolding of distinctive mechanoreceptor domains transduces force into signals.</a> Elife. 5, 15447 (2016).</li></ol>

In summary, we have provided a detailed data analysis protocol for preprocessing the DFS raw data and deriving molecular spring constants in the BFP Bead-Bead and Bead-Cell analysis modes. Biomechanical models and equations required for determining molecular and cellular spring constants are presented. Albeit different integrins are studied, the kmol measured by the Bead-Bead mode and the Bead-Cell mode possesses significant range differences (Figure 3A vs. <strong class=...

As a live-cell DFS technique, BFP engineers a human red blood cell (RBC; Figure 1) into an ultrasensitive and tunable force transducer with a compatible spring constant range at 0.1-3 pN/nm1,2,3. To probe ligand-receptor interaction, BFP enables DFS measurements at ~1 pN (10-12 N), ~3 nm (10-9 m), and ~0.5 ms (10-3 s) in force, spatial, and temporal resolution4,5. Its experimental configuration consists of two opposing micropipettes, namely the Probe and the target. The Probe micropipette aspirates a RBC and a bead is glued at its apex via a biotin-streptavidin interaction. The bead is coated with the ligand of interest (Figure 1A). The Target micropipette aspirates either a cell or a bead bearing the receptor of interest, corresponding to the Bead-Cell (Figure 1B) and Bead-Bead (Figure 1C) modes, respectively5.
BFP construction, assembly and the DFS experimental protocols were described in detail previously1,6. Briefly, a BFP touch cycle consists of 5 stages: Approach, Impinge, Contact, Retract and Dissociate (Figure 1D). The horizontal RBC apex position is denoted as &#916;xRBC. At the beginning, the unstressed (zero-force) RBC deformation &#916;xRBC is 0 (Table 1). The Target is then driven by a piezotranslator to impinge on and retract from the Probe bead (Figure 1D). The RBC probe is first compressed by the Target with negative RBC deformation &#916;xRBC&#160;&#60; 0. In a Bond event, the Retract stage transitions from a compressive to a tensile phase with positive RBC deformation &#916;xRBC&#160;&#62; 0 (Figure 2C and D). According to Hooke&#39;s law, the BFP bearing force is able to be measured as F = kRBC&#160;&#215;&#160;&#916;xRBC, where kRBC (Table 1) is the RBC spring constant of the BFP. Upon bond rupture and the completion of one touch cycle, the probe bead returns to zero-force position with &#916;xRBC&#160;= 0 (Figure 1D).
To determine the kRBC, we measure and record the radii of the probe micropipette inner orifice (Rp), the RBC (R0) and the circular contact area (Rc) between the RBC and the probe bead (Figure 1A). Then kRBC is calculated according to the Evan&#39;s model (Eq. 1)7,8 using a LabVIEW program that acts as a virtual instrument (VI) to operate the BFP (Figure S1A)8,9.
<img alt="Equation 1" src="/files/ftp_upload/62490/62490eq01.jpg" /> (Eq. 1)
With a BFP established and DFS raw data obtained, hereby we present how to analyze the spring constant of ligand-receptor pair or cells. The DFS raw data on the interaction of the glycosylated protein Thy-1 and K562 cell bearing integrin &#945;5&#946;1 (Thy-1-&#945;5&#946;1; Figures 3A and 3B)10 and that of the fibrinogen and bead coated integrin &#945;IIb&#946;3 (FGN-&#945;IIb&#946;3; Figure 3C)11,12 have been used to demonstrate the Bead-Cell and Bead-Bead analysis modes, respectively.
BFP Experimental Preparation 
For details of BFP experimental preparation and instrumentation, please refer to the previously published protocols3. In brief, human RBC has been biotinylated using the Biotin-PEG3500-NHS in the carbon/bicarbonate buffer. Proteins of interest have been covalently coupled to the borosilicate glass beads using MAL-PEG3500-NHS in the phosphate buffer. To attach to the biotinylated RBC, the probe bead is also coated with streptavidin (SA) using the MAL-SA. Please see the Table of Materials and Table 2.
To assemble the BFP (Figure 1, left), the third micropipette termed &#39;Helper&#39; will be used to deliver the probe bead and glue it to the RBC&#39;s apex1,3. The covalent interaction between the SA coated probe bead and biotinylated RBC is much stronger than the ligand-receptor bond of interest. Thus, the Dissociate stage can be interpreted as the ligand-receptor bond rupture rather than the detachment of Probe bead from the RBC.

<table border="1" fo:keep-together.within-page="1" fo:keep-with-next.within-page="always">
	<tbody>
		<tr>
			<td>3-Mercaptopropyltrimethoxysilane (MPTMS)</td>
			<td>Uct, Specialties, llc</td>
			<td>4420-74-0</td>
			<td>Glass bead functionalization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Anhy. Sodium Phosphate Dibasic (Na2HPO4)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7907</td>
			<td>Phosphate buffer preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BFP data acquisition VI</td>
			<td>LabVIEW</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BFP control and parameter setting</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>BFP data analysis VI</td>
			<td>LabVIEW</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BFP raw data analysis</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Biotin-PEG3500-NHS</td>
			<td>JenKem</td>
			<td>A5026-1</td>
			<td>RBC biotinylation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Borosilicate Glass beads</td>
			<td>Distrilab Particle Technology, Netherlands</td>
			<td>9002</td>
			<td>Glass bead functionalization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Bovine serum albumin</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>A0336</td>
			<td>Ligand functionalization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Camera VI</td>
			<td>LabVIEW</td>
			<td></td>
			<td>BFP monitoring</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>D-glucose</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>G7021</td>
			<td>Tyrode&#8217;s buffer preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Hepes</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>H3375</td>
			<td>Tyrode&#8217;s buffer preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>MAL-PEG3500-NHS</td>
			<td>JenKem</td>
			<td>A5002-1</td>
			<td>Glass bead functionalization</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Potassium Chloride (KCl)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>P9541</td>
			<td>Tyrode&#8217;s buffer preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S5761</td>
			<td>Carbonate/bicarbonate buffer preparation; Tyrode&#8217;s buffer preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S2127</td>
			<td>Carbonate/bicarbonate buffer preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Chloride (NaCl)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S7653</td>
			<td>Tyrode&#8217;s buffer preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Sodium Phosphate Monobasic Monohydrate (NaH2PO4&#8226;H2O)</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S9638</td>
			<td>Phosphate buffer preparation</td>
		</tr>
		<tr>
			<td>Streptavidin-Maleimide</td>
			<td>Sigma-Aldrich</td>
			<td>S9415</td>
			<td>Glass bead functionalization</td>
		</tr>
	</tbody>
</table>

molecular spring constant analysis by biomembrane force probe spectroscopy

A biomembrane force probe (BFP) has recently emerged as a native-cell-surface or in situ dynamic force spectroscopy (DFS) nanotool that can measure single-molecular binding kinetics, assess mechanical properties of ligand-receptor interactions, visualize protein dynamic conformational changes and more excitingly elucidate receptor mediated cell mechanosensing mechanisms. More recently, BFP has been used to measure the spring constant of molecular bonds. This protocol describes the step-by-step procedure to perform molecular spring constant DFS analysis. Specifically, two BFP operation modes are discussed, namely the Bead-Cell and Bead-Bead modes. This protocol focuses on deriving spring constants of the molecular bond and cell from DFS raw data.

In this work, we have demonstrated the protocol of the BFP spring constant analysis. For the Bead-Cell analysis mode, we analyzed the kmol&#160;of the molecular bond between the glycosylated protein Thy-1 coated on the Probe bead and the integrin &#945;5&#946;1 expressed on the Target K562 cell (Thy-1-integrin &#945;5&#946;1; Figure 3A)10. The kcell is also derived from the Bead-Cell m...

Watch this Scientific Journal Video about Molecular Spring Constant Analysis by Biomembrane Force Probe Spectroscopy at JoVE.com

Molecular Spring Constant Analysis by Biomembrane Force Probe Spectroscopy

A biomembrane force probe (BFP) is an in situ dynamic force spectroscopy (DFS) technique. BFP can be used to measure the spring constant of molecular interactions on living cells. This protocol presents spring constant analysis for molecular bonds detected by BFP.

A biomembrane force probe (BFP) has recently emerged as a native-cell-surface or in situ dynamic force spectroscopy (DFS) nanotool that can measure ...

This video describes step-by-step procedures on using Biomembrane Force Probe, or BFP to measure molecular spring constant. In force probe, BFP has recently emerged in the native cell surface or in SITU Dynamic Force Spectroscopy analysis. The main aim of this technique is to measure single molecule binding genetics.This data analysis procedure is a simple but powerful message and provide mechanical information, specifically the dynamic force and inflammation of the cell membrane expressing molecules. During the BFP experiment cycle, the probe microbiome bet with the red blood cell and probate, the target cell and the ligand receptor molecular bonding between the probe and the target can be considered as a series connected brain system. Based on Hooke's law, the reciprocal of the total spring constant of a series connected spring system is equal to the sum of the inverse spring constant of each single component, as the equation shows.The spring constant of red blood cell is calculated based on events motion, which is dependent to the radial of the probe micropipette in the orifice. The red blood cell, the circular contact area between the red blood cell and the probate and the micro-pipette aspirating pression. The BFP road data is obtained by a homemade left view virtual instrument, which controls the movement of the target micro-pipette by a PAs Translator.A full PFP touch cycle consists of five stages.Approach.Impinge.Contact. Retract and dissociate. In the beginning, does stress the Robusto APICS position is denoted as X equals 0 in black deshine.The target is then driven by a piece or translator to impinge on and compress the robusto to cause negative probate movement. You note it as X smaller than zero in red dash line. In the retract stage, the red busto apex move from the X smaller than zero position back to the X equal to zero position referred to as the compressive phase.If a bond is formed between the ligand receptor molecule complex, the red blood cell would further different to other positive direction. This X greater than zero period is referred to as the tensile phase of the retract stage. The retract stage is the most critical part to determine the spring constant of the molecule of bonding.Collect force versus time road data using the BSP data acquisition platform. Each experiments usually record 50 to 200 touch cycles, Open the PFP data analysis software. Click on the yellow folder icon and select the corresponding row data file by double clicking on them.We're on the program. Then click on the up and down arrow buttons to switch between events. Using the outlier exclusion criteria to screen out invalid events.Select the exporting data type that's forced to time format and choose the appropriate state range of time. Click on the export plot data button. The exported data is saved as text file in default.This text file contains two columns of data. It's the first column representing the time daddies and the second column representing the corresponding force at each time point. Plot the force versus time curve using spreadsheets software to obtain the forced versus displacement curve.Multiply the time value of each data point by the Willow Steel PSO movement. Zero the first data point by subtracting the smallest displacement value from each data point. This horizontal transformation does not affect the subsequent spring constant calculation.In the force versus displacement curve, two distinct actor group was different if the new force slope can be identified. Each representing the compressive phase and the 10 style phase. Fit a regression line to each data group.The line with steeper slope represents the total spring constant at a compressor phase denoted as K1.And the line that was smallest top represents the line at this 10 style phase denoted as K2.As I've mentioned, the total spring constant is the reciprocal of the son of the series spring constant of each component. During the compressive phase of the beat to cell mode, the molecular bonding is not stretched, therefore the molecular bonding spring constant is not taken into consideration. The spring constant of the target cell is described as the equation displayed where K1 represents the total spring constant during the compressor phase.In the 10 style phase of the beat to sell mode, the total spring constant is the sun of the uverse spring constant of the red blood cell molecular bond. And the target cell, use the equation displayed to calculate the moleculer bonding spring constant, which K2 represents the total spring constant. You read the 10 stop phase.In the beat to beat mode, since B deformation is negligible, the term which describes the inverse of the target cell spring constant approach zero, therefore the total spring constant in the compressor phase is equivalent to the red blood cell spring constant showing as the following equation. In the tensile phase, the spring constant of the molecular bonding can be calculated by subtracting the effect of the red blood cell showing as the following equation. Collect spring constants of the side-wind integrating attitude B, Beta 3 complex, the K562 cell and the Febrifugine integrating attitude B Beta three complex, calculate the mean and standard deviation of the derived spring constants at pick a Newton or nanometers scale.Now you should have a better understanding of what are the requirements for measuring and spring constant out of the VFD data. The differences between the beat to cell mode and the beat to beat mode should be noticed. Different molecule presenting service will have different defenses to the measure of spring constant.In conclusion, this step-by-step procedure describes how to perform molecular spring constant analysis using BFP. We foresee future efforts will be made to automate and integrate the BFP data acquisition and DFS analysis into one computer rest program. Making the entire BFP operation data analysis more user friendly and high throughout.

Research

JoVE Journal

Bioengineering

Thermodynamics of Membrane Protein Folding Measured by Fluorescence Spectroscopy

Membrane protein folding is an emerging topic with both fundamental and health-related significance.  The abundance of membrane proteins in cells ...

Bacterial Immobilization for Imaging by Atomic Force Microscopy

AFM is a high-resolution (nm scale) imaging tool that mechanically probes a surface.  It has the ability to image cells and biomolecules, in a liquid ...

Stretching Short Sequences of DNA with Constant Force Axial Optical Tweezers

Single-molecule techniques for stretching DNA of contour lengths  less than a kilobase are fraught with experimental difficulties. However, many ...

Investigating Receptor-ligand Systems of the Cellulosome with AFM-based Single-molecule Force Spectroscopy

Cellulosomes are discrete multienzyme complexes used by a subset of anaerobic bacteria and fungi to digest lignocellulosic substrates. Assembly of the ...

A Microfluidic Technique to Probe Cell Deformability

Here we detail the design, fabrication, and use of a microfluidic device to evaluate the deformability of a large number of individual cells in an ...

Formation of Biomembrane Microarrays with a Squeegee-based Assembly Method

Lipid bilayer membranes form the plasma membranes of cells and define the boundaries of subcellular organelles. In nature, these membranes are ...

Surface Potential Measurement of Bacteria Using Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy

Surface potential is a commonly overlooked physical characteristic that plays a dominant role in the adhesion of microorganisms to substrate surfaces. ...

Measurement of Maximum Isometric Force Generated by Permeabilized Skeletal Muscle Fibers

Analysis of the contractile properties of chemically skinned, or permeabilized, skeletal muscle fibers offers a powerful means by which to assess muscle ...

Atomic Force Microscopy Imaging and Force Spectroscopy of Supported Lipid Bilayers

Atomic force microscopy (AFM) is a versatile, high-resolution imaging technique that allows visualization of biological membranes. It has sufficient ...

Fluorescence Biomembrane Force Probe: Concurrent Quantitation of Receptor-ligand Kinetics and Binding-induced Intracellular Signaling on a Single Cell

Membrane receptor-ligand interactions mediate many cellular functions. Binding kinetics and downstream signaling triggered by these molecular interactions ...